Chapter CLXV (1)

Read the _Declamations_[695] and _Various Discourses_ of Himerius the sophist.[696] Two of the former are deliberative, and three forensic, all with introductions. Of the deliberative speeches the first is supposed to be delivered by Hyperides in support of Demosthenes, the second by Demosthenes, on behalf of Aeschines. Of the other three, the first is in the form of an attack on Epicurus, who is supposed to be on trial for impiety; the second is written against a rich man who had exhausted the substance of a poor man by his abominable actions, and introduces the poor man pleading his cause; in the third Themistocles declaims against the king of Persia, who had made many promises in the hope of ending the war.[697]

These speeches, more than the others, are written in such a manner as to show what can be done by excellence of style and brilliancy and vigour of ideas. The author often heaps up periods,[698] in imitation of Demosthenes, in a variety of forms; although he specially affects an elevated style, he cleverly modifies his language by introducing other forms. His diction, at least in the matter of phraseology and the meaning and the force of words, is by no means wanting in perspicuity. The frequent breaking up of words sounds strange to the ear but is not disagreeable, although it renders the sense less intelligible to the ordinary reader. Another reason for the author’s general clearness of style is that he uses expressions that make for distinctness. As I have said, he uses heaped-up periods in argumentation[699] and at other times, but by illuminating them by vigorous[700] figures of speech he clears his language of any obscurity that might arise from them. He makes frequent and clever use of hyperbaton[701] and other figures of speech, although not to the same extent as of periods. He is vehement and earnestly vigorous where needed. Such he shows himself in the speeches mentioned.

Next to these speeches comes the _Polemarchicus_, a eulogy of those who fell in battle fighting for freedom against the Persians, and also in praise of war; the _Areopagiticus_, claiming citizenship for his son Rufinus, not a fictitious declamation; a monody on the death of the same son; on the marriage of his friend Severus, also obviously not fictitious, with an introduction; _Diogenes_ or _Propempticus_,[702] a send-off speech, also furnished with an introduction, and written in the form of a dialogue; _Syntacterius_, a farewell speech to his friends on starting for Corinth; a _Propempterius_ to Flavian, on his promotion to the consulship of Asia; to a new student named Piso; another Diogenes or _Propempticus_; an impromptu[703] on a dispute which arose in the school; on the arrival of some Cyprians; on his first hearer from Cappadocia; a show-speech,[704] which he at first refused to deliver when asked, in which the thesis “Beautiful things are rare” is discussed; on Musonius, proconsul of Greece; on the new pupil Severus, who came on the scene during the scuffle;[705] a short address;[706] on count Ursacius; on another Severus; on Scylacius, proconsul of Greece; on some new pupils, Ephesians and Mysians and citizens of Leon;[707] on companions from his fatherland; on count Athenaeus; on the Roman Privatus, tutor of the son of Ampelius the proconsul; on his return from Corinth; on Phoebus the son of Alexander the proconsul; on count Arcadius a physician. Hortatory speech to his pupils just arrived and a _propemptic_ to Flavian; on the marriage of Panathenaeus; two short addresses; a discourse[708] when leaving Philippi in obedience to a summons from the emperor Julian; an oration delivered in Constantinople on the city itself, the emperor Julian, and the rites of Mithras; a discourse on the prefect Sallust, with an argument; on the proconsul Flavian; on his friend’s birthday; short address on his friend’s recovery; on intriguers; on Basil the proconsul (two); on Hermogenes, Plocianus, Ampelius, Praetextatus, proconsuls of Greece, and their companions; on his departure to the emperor Julian; speech delivered in Nicomedia at the exhortation of Pompeianus the prefect; a speech on the new students; on a new student; on his companion Zeno; on Aphobinus, a new student; on one who entered the school in consequence of an oracle of Poseidon; on those who had arrived from Ionia; on the Ionian strangers; an extempore oration to his hearers; a speech in honour of a friend in Constantinople; a discussion with his pupils after his return from his country; an extempore oration on his (poor) lecture-room; rebuke of those who listened indifferently to speeches; an extempore speech on some who attended his lectures and were inclined to be restive; on Cytianus and his companions who behaved in a disorderly manner when he was speaking extempore; exhortation on the necessity of endeavouring to secure variety in discourse; discussion after the healing of his wound;[709] a speech after his return from Corinth; on the stylus (pencil) and his pupils; on Amyclae, a city of the Lacedaemonians, which, in obedience to a dream, he visited to offer prayer to the God; that lectures should not be delivered in public; speech on the necessity of taking exercise; another speech delivered at Corinth.[710]

I think that these are all the orations of Himerius, nearly seventy in number, which you patiently and laboriously read while I was present. In all of them, while preserving the same type of diction and the same kind of style, he uses heaped-up periods and figures of speech in such a manner that a feeling of satiety is prevented by their cleverness and the way in which they are adapted. So far as I know, I am of opinion that no one has ever used figures of speech so admirably or pleasantly. His writings are full of all kinds of historical and mythical examples, either for purposes of demonstration, or for drawing parallels, or for affording pleasure, or for the embellishment of the subjects discussed, by which he guides aright and diversifies his language, and by which his exordia, epilogues, and arguments are constructed. He also often gives a preliminary outline of the matter and manner of the discussion. But while such is the character of his orations, it is obvious that he held impious views on religion and imitates the dogs who yelp against us in secret. He flourished in the time of Constantius and the most impious Julian, and was head of the rhetorical school at Athens.

FOOTNOTES:

[6] For the life and works of Photius _see_ Introduction to vol. vi.

[7] The genuineness of this title is disputed.

[8] To the caliph of Bagdad; according to others, to Persia, or one of the Eastern emirs (Bury).

[9] πρεσβεία cannot mean “senate,” as Schott renders it (senatus), but is probably “the body constituting the embassy,” a number of others nominated for the mission, to whom Photius was _persona grata_, and who expressed a wish that he should accompany them. This explanation is due to the kindness of Professor J. B. Bury.

[10] The text is corrupt.

[11] These sections are usually alluded to as _Codices_ (manuscripts). _Codices_ were originally wooden tablets (_caudex_, _codex_, a block or slab of wood) coated with wax and divided into “leaves,” which, when wood was superseded by parchment or other writing materials, developed into the book, as contrasted with the roll-form (_volumen_) of MSS.

[12] Nothing further is known of his life or writings.

[13] The famous ecclesiastical historian, Eusebius bishop of Caesarea (_c._ 260-340), who assumed as his surname the name of his intimate friend, literary adviser and assistant, Pamphilus, presbyter of Caesarea, and martyr (309).

[14] xvii.

[15] Bishop of Antioch (_c._ 70-107).

[16] These mystical treatises, ascribed to “Dionysius the Areopagite,” were at one time supposed to be the work of the Dionysius mentioned in the _Acts_, who was subsequently identified by some with St. Denis, the first bishop of Paris and the patron saint of France. But it is now generally agreed that they were written about the end of the fifth century, when the writings of the neo-Platonist Proclus exercised great influence, and that the name is an assumed one.

[17] This treatise, probably written by a Greek-speaking Syrian monk, who flourished about 425, is hardly an introduction to the study of the Scriptures in the modern sense. It is rather an aid to the correct understanding of the language of the Bible, dealing with questions of meaning, style, composition and metaphors, and concluding with some rules of interpretation (_see_ edition, with translation and commentary, by F. Goessling, Berlin, 1887).

[18] Nothing further is known of him.

[19] The Homerites (Himyarites) of the Yemen.

[20] The name points to the family being of Semitic origin, although he was probably a convert to Christianity.

[21] Al-Mundir, chief of the Saracens of Hira.

[22] Modern _Axum_, now the capital of the Abyssinian province of Tigré. It contains numerous antiquities and inscriptions, and is still regarded as a holy city. Christianity was introduced into Aethiopia as early as the fourth century (_see_ J. T. Bent, _The Sacred City of the Ethiopians_, 1893).

[23] Further particulars of the mission are given in the _Chronicle_ of John Malalas, and in Gibbon, ch. xli.

[24] The form of the word is doubtful.

[25] Mountainous districts in Anterior Asia and the land of the Saracens.

[26] A seaport town, generally identified with modern Thulla or Zula in Annesley Bay on the W. shore of the Red Sea.

[27] Town in Aethiopia.

[28] The Pygmies.

[29] Theodore (_c._ 350-428), bishop of Mopsuestia (394) in Cilicia, born at Antioch, the greatest exegete of the Antiochean school. He also wrote polemical, dogmatic, and liturgical treatises.

[30] Eunomius (d. 393) of Cappadocia, bishop of Cyzicus, deprived of his episcopate for Arianism.

[31] St. Basil the Great (330-379), bishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia (370). He is most important as the strenuous upholder of orthodoxy and as the introducer of definite rules and forms of ecclesiastical life, which have maintained themselves to the present day.

[32] Probably the friend of St. Jerome and translator of his works.

[33] Ἀσύνδετος, lit., “without conjunctions.”

[34] (332-396). Bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia (372), younger brother of Basil the Great, called Father of the Fathers.

[35] The special meaning of an “enthymeme” is a rhetorical or imperfect syllogism, drawn from probable premises. But here and elsewhere in Photius it seems to mean simply “arguments.”

[36] Surnamed Adamantius (184-253), born at Alexandria, died at Tyre. This treatise supplied the chief arguments for the charge of heresy that was brought against him. He was also called Chalcenterus (“brazen-bowelled”) from his passion for work. His numerous works comprise Homilies, and the famous treatise _Against Celsus_. Fragments of his _Hexapla_ (a recension of the Old Testament) have been preserved.

[37] Only ten are extant.

[38] Both these works are lost.

[39] Also spelt Apolinaris, Apollinaris, or Apollinarius, flourished about 175. His gentile name was Claudius.

[40] In Lesser Phrygia.

[41] The well-known author of the _Meditations_, commonly known as Marcus Aurelius.

[42] Of Nicaea (325).

[43] Of Cyzicus, flourished about 475. Nothing more is known of him than what he states in the work itself, which is still extant.

[44] Of Ephesus (431).

[45] Archbishop of Alexandria (412-444).

[46] Patriarch of Constantinople (428-431), deprived of his office by the council of Ephesus on account of his heresy.

[47] Of Chalcedon (451).

[48] Bishop of Alexandria (444-451).

[49] Founder of the sect of the Monophysites (380-456).

[50] Bishop of Constantinople (447-449).

[51] Bishop of Dorylaeum (mod. _Eski Shehr_) in Phrygia (400-451).

[52] Bishop of Cyrrhus (Cyrus) near the Euphrates, two days’ journey from Antioch, theologian and ecclesiastical historian (_c._ 393-458).

[53] Bishop of Edessa (_c._ 435-457).

[54] Of Constantinople (553).

[55] The writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia; of Theodoret in defence of Nestorius; the letter of Ibas to the Persian Maris.

[56] Founder of the exegetical school of Antioch, bishop of Tarsus (378-394).

[57] A Monophysite Syrian monk.

[58] Anthimus, patriarch of Constantinople (535, deposed 536), translated from the episcopate of Trapezus through the influence of the empress Theodora.

[59] Of Constantinople (680).

[60] Patriarch of Constantinople (610-638).

[61] Bishop of Phasis, afterwards patriarch of Alexandria (630-641).

[62] Friend and successor of Sergius as patriarch of Constantinople (638-641).

[63] Pope (625-638).

[64] Monothelite presbyter and monk.

[65] The second council of Nicaea (787).

[66] Of Alexandria, theologian, grammarian, and philosopher, flourished in the first half of the sixth century. His chief work (of which considerable fragments remain), called _The Arbitrator_, was an attempt to reconcile Monophysitism and Tritheism. Photius (Cod. LV, LXXV) mentions two other theological treatises. _On the Resurrection_ is lost. Some fragments of notes on Aristotle are preserved. He was called Philoponus from his great industry; his opponents changed this into Mataioponus (vainly industrious).

[67] A fifth-century monk, of whom nothing is known.

[68] Bishop of Tarsus (_c._ 600).

[69] A Cilician bishop in the second half of the sixth century.

[70] Deacon of Alexandria (sixth century), leader of the _Agnoetae_ (a Monophysitic sect), who held that the human soul of Christ resembled that of man in all things, even in his “ignorance” or limited knowledge.

[71] John III Scholasticus (the lawyer), bishop of Constantinople (565-577). He was the author of a _Nomocanon_, a digest of canonical law.

[72] Justin II (emperor 565-578).

[73] Paul the Black, “Jacobite” patriarch of Antioch (_c._ 550-578).

[74] “Jacobite” bishop of Cyprus.

[75] They partly accepted, and partly rejected, the decisions of the council of Chalcedon.

[76] Monophysite patriarch of Antioch (512-519).

[77] John the Golden-mouthed (347-407), bishop of Constantinople.

[78] Neo-Platonist and bishop of Ptolemaïs in Cyrenaica (378-431). The speech _On the Kingdom_ was delivered at Constantinople before the emperor Arcadius.

[79] Also called _Egyptian Discourses_, a sort of historical romance, in which there are allusions to the history of the time, disguised as the mythical stories of Osiris and Typhon.

[80] Perhaps “massive” might express the idea of ὄγκος.

[81] Or “shrewd.”

[82] 385-412.

[83] Socrates of Constantinople (_c._ 380-439), originally a lawyer.

[84] Emperor 408-450.

[85] The Greek γραμματικός is equivalent to “a literary man” generally, with special reference to the study of poetry. The same idea appears in γραμματική (grammar). Ammonius and Helladius had fled for refuge to Constantinople, where they taught Socrates.

[86] About 536-600. He was an advocate (Scholasticus).

[87] That is, it covers the period from 431 to 593.

[88] He was born near Gaza in Palestine, and afterwards settled in Constantinople (_c._ 400-450).

[89] It originally covered the period from 324 to 439, but the history of 425-439 is wanting.

[90] _See_ Cod. XVII.

[91] The first council of Constantinople (381).

[92] Of Mopsuestia (_see_ Cod. IV.).

[93] (296-373). Patriarch of Alexandria, the father of orthodoxy and the chief opponent of Arianism.

[94] He was accused of cowardice by the Arians for taking refuge in the desert.

[95] Contemporary of Josephus, by whom his character and works are violently attacked. He was condemned to death by Vespasian, but his life was spared by Agrippa. He also wrote a history of the Jewish war.

[96] The Greek phrase is βασιλέων τῶν ἐν τοῖς στέμμασι, usually translated “crowned kings,” but στέμμα more probably here means a genealogical tree.

[97] Agrippa II, before whom St. Paul made his defence. The statement that he died in the third year of Trajan’s reign (100) is objected to on the ground that Josephus’ _Autobiography_, which gives an account of Justus, was published immediately after the _Antiquities_ (in the reign of Domitian).

[98] Julius Africanus (_c._ 170-240), Christian historical writer, was born at Jerusalem (not in Africa) and subsequently lived at Emmaus-Nicopolis in Palestine. He was the author of a _Chronicle_, a history of the world from the Creation to 221; _Cesti_ (embroidered girdles), a collection of notes on all kinds of subjects; a letter to Aristides on the genealogies of Jesus in Matthew and Luke; and a letter to Origen to show that the _History of Susannah_ in the Apocrypha is a later addition from a Greek original. The last has been preserved in full, of the three first only fragments. According to his system of chronology, called the Alexandrian era, there were 5499 years between the Creation and the birth of Christ, which he antedated by three years.

[99] The correct number is twenty-four.

[100] Emperor 217-218. An extract in Georgius Syncellus, however, shows that the _Chronicle_ really went down a little later.

[101] “Where didst thou see them?” “Under a mastic tree (σχῖνος).” “The angel of God shall cleave (σχίσει) thy soul to-day.” “Under a holm-tree (πρῖνος).” “The angel of God shall saw thee in two (πρίσει).”

[102] Nothing is known of him.

[103] Philip of Side in Pamphylia (fifth century). He was a presbyter in Constantinople, and a friend of John Chrysostom.

[104] It originally contained thirty-six books and nearly one thousand volumes.

[105] They were both presbyters.

[106] Cosmas Indicopleustes (“the Indian navigator”), an Alexandrian merchant, who flourished in the sixth century. He visited Arabia and East Africa, but it is doubtful whether he deserves the title of “Indian navigator.” The title by which the work is usually known is _Christian Topography_; as its object was to introduce a new system of physical geography in harmony with the teaching of Christianity, a physico-astronomical interpretation of the Scriptures, Photius gives it the subtitle of _Interpretation of the Octateuch_. Fabricius (_Bib. Gr._, iv. 230) takes it to mean simply “a treatise in eight books,” regarding the four other books as a later addition, or it may refer to the “eight books” of Ptolemy’s geographical work. Photius says he flourished under “Justin,” but as he does not state which Justin, perhaps “Justinian” (527-565) should be read. He certainly may have been born under Justin I (518-527) and died under Justin II (565-578).

[107] Before the earth was regarded as spherical, its surface was supposed to “slope” (κλίνω) from S. to N., and this slope was called κλίμα. Later, the word was used for belts or zones of its surface, and then for the temperature of those zones. According to Cosmas, the two “climates” were between the latitudes of Alexandria and Rhodes, and Rhodes and Constantinople (about 635 miles).

[108] Isaiah xxxviii.

[109] There seems no reason to identify this with the treatise of Περὶ πολιτικῆς καταστάσεως of Peter Patricius (sixth century), Byzantine historian. There is no clue to the author.

[110] Master of requests, a sort of lord-in-waiting; also a Church dignitary, an intermediary between the civil and ecclesiastical authorities.

[111] _See_ Cod. IV.

[112] Hierocles of Caria, Roman proconsul, a violent anti-Christian, lived in the time of Diocletian (emperor 284-305). The work referred to is _Truth-loving Words to the Christians_, in which Apollonius of Tyana is placed above Christ.

[113] Of Tyana in Cappadocia (_c._ 4 B.C.-A.D. 97), magician and wonder-worker.

[114] Of Borissus in Cappadocia, born _c._ 368, died after 425. The history covered the period from 300 to 425. He supported the extreme Arianism of Eunomius. A considerable number of extracts (also from Photius) have been published as a separate work.

[115] Aëtius of Antioch, founder of an extreme Arian sect, died at Constantinople (367). He was exiled by Constantius, but recalled by Julian the Apostate.

[116] Patriarch of Constantinople (_d._ 342), supporter of Arianism and a bitter opponent of Athanasius.

[117] Bishop of the Church of Aethiopia (358). He was born in the island of Diu (India), but in early youth was taken as a hostage to Constantinople, where he became a Christian (Arian).

[118] Surnamed the One-Eyed, succeeded Eusebius (whose pupil and biographer he was) as bishop of Caesarea in 340 and died in 365.

[119] Gregory of Nazianzus (329-389), bishop of Constantinople.

[120] Presbyter of Aegae in Cilicia, flourished in the latter half of the fifth century. In Cod. LV. Photius calls him a Nestorian, but it is suggested that this is a mistake for Eutychian.

[121] Surnamed the Fuller, patriarch of Antioch (471-488).

[122] 431.

[123] 449.

[124] (_c._ 500). Presbyter of Antioch, afterwards bishop of Irenopolis in Cilicia (_see_ Cod. CVII.).

[125] 468-483.

[126] Patriarch of Constantinople (471-489).

[127] The “Stammerer,” Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria (482).

[128] The work therefore covers the period from 450-527.

[129] The Six Days’ Work of the Creation.

[130] There were three sophists of this name belonging to a Lemnian family: (1) who lived in the second century; (2) son of (1), who lived first at Athens, then at Rome and in the time of Philip the Arab (244-249); (3) nephew of (1), who lived in the time of Caracalla and Elagabalus. The _Life of Apollonius_ is by (2), Flavius Philostratus, who wrote it at the desire of the empress Julia Domna, wife of Septimius Severus (died 217).

[131] The surname _Tyrius_ is probably due to a confusion of Τύριος with Στειριεύς (of the Athenian deme Stiria), or Photius has wrongly identified him with the lexicographer Philostratus of Tyre (Cod. CL.).

[132] The naked ones, the Gymnosophists.

[133] The Epicurean maxim, Λάθε βιώσας, εἰ δὲ μή, Λάθε ἀποθανών.

[134] Or, “those possessed of large means.”

[135] 570-526 B.C.

[136] A sort of hobgoblin or ghoul, supposed to devour human beings.

[137] Of Lycia. Perhaps the Cynic who lived in Lucian’s time.

[138] Cynic philosopher of Sunium, who taught at Rome under the emperors Gaius, Nero, and Vespasian. He is said to have met Apollonius in Athens, but considering that his philosophical views were opposed to those of Apollonius, the account of the intimacy is probably untrue. Demetrius had to leave Rome because of the freedom with which he attacked the emperor and the authorities.

[139] Of Nineveh, pupil and companion of Apollonius, the reputed author of the life which formed the basis of Philostratus’s romance. He is said to have handed over the MS. to the empress Julia Domna, who ordered Philostratus to edit it.

[140] Nothing is known of him.

[141] Variously ascribed to Theodoret, Athanasius, and Eutherius, bishop of Tyana.

[142] Unless γραφικώτερον means simply “more picturesquely,” “more vigorously.”

[143] Οἰκονομία in the Greek.

[144] It is in the form of a dialogue between a representative of orthodoxy (Theodoret) and a representative of Monophysitism, compared to a beggar who gathers scraps of all kinds from earlier heretical writings.

[145] The well-known historian (37-98), “the Greek Livy.” The _Wars_ was originally written in Hebrew, and then translated into Greek. His other extant works are: _Jewish Antiquities_, _Autobiography_, a polemical treatise _Against Apion_.

[146] In Galilee.

[147] A Judaean stronghold (mod. _Sebbeh_).

[148] The Zealots and Sicarii (assassins) constituted the fanatical anti-Roman Jewish war party, whose desire was to drive out the Romans and all who favoured them. They did not shrink from murder, and carried small daggers (sicae) to stab those whom they considered the enemies of their country.

[149] The author is most probably Hippolytus of Rome, born in the middle of the second century, died soon after 235.

[150] Platonic philosopher, flourished in the first or second century A.D.

[151] Lived at the beginning of the third century A.D.

[152] Others ascribe this also to Hippolytus. It is a question whether it is identical with _The Little Labyrinth_ mentioned by Theodoret.

[153] The founder of the sect was Montanus of Phrygia (latter half of the second century). He was a priest of Cybele, subsequently converted to Christianity and a teacher at Rome. According to his followers, he was the Paraclete or Holy Spirit promised by Christ. Amongst other things they distinguished two classes of sins, those unto death and those not unto death; denied the validity of second marriages; did not baptize in the name of the Trinity, but in memory of Christ’s death for mankind; despised the old prophets as possessed by evil spirits; and favoured a highly ascetic life. “All the ascetic, rigorous, and chiliastic elements of the Church combined in Montanism.”

[154] 189-202.

[155] 202-217.

[156] Second and third century, Adoptianist, Monarchian or anti-Trinitarian. His views were subsequently developed by Paul of Samosata (flourished 260-272). This work is probably identical with _The Labyrinth_.

[157] Possibly the author of a treatise _Ridicule of the Heathen Philosophers_, but the time at which he lived is disputed.

[158] Flourished _c._ 600.

[159] Nothing is known of him. It is suggested that he may have been the Hesychius who accused Eunomius of heresy.

[160] In Pamphylia (383).

[161] Both names mean “those who pray,” the first being Syriac, the second Greek. They believed that perpetual prayer and asceticism would procure inspiration from the Holy Spirit.

[162] From Adelphius, one of the first leaders of the sect.

[163] In Mesopotamia.

[164] Of Melitene in Lesser Armenia.

[165] Bishop of Perga.

[166] 431.

[167] A Messalian leader, almost as important as Adelphius. His followers were called Lampetians.

[168] On the borders of Egypt and Palestine.

[169] 412 or 411.

[170] If _Faustus_ be taken with Honorius, it will be an epithet corresponding to Felix; others render “in the great church of Faustus.”

[171] _c._ 370-440. According to some, he was a Hibernian; according to others, a Welsh monk named Morgan (“sea-born” = Pelagius). He resided in Rome, Africa, and Palestine, where he is said to have died. The Pelagians rejected the doctrine of original sin, but believed in the Trinity and the personality of Christ.

[172] Coelestius, a native of Ireland, pupil of Pelagius, younger and more vigorous than his master. It is to him that the influence of Pelagianism was chiefly due. Some authorities make him an Italian.

[173] There were two holy women of this name: the elder (350-410), and the younger (383-439). The latter is here referred to. She was born at Rome, but early in life retired to Hippo in Africa, where she became acquainted with St. Augustine, and afterwards to Jerusalem, where she embraced the monastic life and died.

[174] Patriarch of Constantinople (434-447).

[175] Bekker states that this paragraph is an addition by a later hand.

[176] Leo the “Great,” pope 440-461.

[177] 422-432.

[178] St. Jerome.

[179] Supposed to have been a Roman, to whom Jerome wrote from Palestine, in reply to his request for advice concerning Pelagianism.

[180] Archbishop of Alexandria (412-444).

[181] 385-412.

[182] 402-417.

[183] At Diospolis, the ancient Lydda (415).

[184] Or rather Heros, bishop of Arles.

[185] Bishop of Aix.

[186] Bishop of Altinum (mod. _Altino_) near Venice.

[187] Prosper of Aquitaine (403-463). He was the author of two or three valuable _Chronicles_ and a number of theological works.

[188] 431.

[189] Afterwards bishop of Nola.

[190] 492-496.

[191] Bishop of Eclana, near Beneventum, a Pelagian leader (fifth century).

[192] 451.

[193] If this is not somewhat ungrammatically for τὸν ἄνθρωπον, the sense may be general, “to a man,” _i.e._ a person would not feel injured if the point on which he laid most stress were conceded.

[194] Cod. XLI. But he is obviously a Eutychian, not a Nestorian, unless the mistake is in Cod. XLI., some other John being really the author.

[195] Magus (_see_ Acts viii.).

[196] Count of the domestics (captain of the palace guards), consul 453.

[197] Of Alexandria, lived at Rome during the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius (between 98-161). Of the twenty-four books of the _Roman History_, which Photius had before him, only eleven (besides the Preface) are completely preserved; the others are entirely lost, or only fragments.

[198] Usually known as Tullus Hostilius.

[199] Usually known as Tarquinius Superbus.

[200] The most important were the three following: 343-341; 326-304, in which the disaster of the Caudine Forks befell the Romans; 298-290, in which the Samnites suffered a decisive defeat at Sentinum (295).

[201] Attempts to identify these people have proved unsatisfactory. The name is variously derived from _ab origine_, the primeval inhabitants, children of the soil = Gk. αὐτόχθονες; from _aberrare_, the nomads; or from βορείγενοι, mountain-dwellers.

[202] By the god Mars.

[203] Remus.

[204] One MS. has an enlarged paragraph: “for, detesting their unknown father, they rather prided themselves on descent from Aeneas.”

[205] The Greek word οἰκιστής (oekist) denotes the founder of a colony and head of a band of colonists.

[206] Probably of Egypt. Others render: “He was thought worthy of the management of the affairs of the emperors.”

[207] Flavius Arrianus, flourished during the latter half of the second century A.D., and died before 180. He was born at Nicomedia in Bithynia, studied philosophy under Epictetus and distinguished himself as a soldier. He was appointed governor of Cappadocia in 136, and consul in 146. He spent the rest of his life in his native city, where he held the lifelong office of priest of Demeter and Korē. In addition to the works here mentioned, he was the author of: _A Voyage round the Euxine_, a treatise on _Tactics_, the _Order of Battle against the Alani_ (defeated by him while governor of Cappadocia), on the _Chase_, and an account of _India_, perhaps a continuation of the _Anabasis_ (the account of Alexander’s campaigns), so named after the _Anabasis_ of his model Xenophon.

[208] Of which the _Order of Battle against the Alani_, referred to above, is a section.

[209] _Rebellantibus_ in the Latin versions of Schott and Müller (_Frag. Hist. Gr._ iii. 586). But can καταστραφέντων mean this? The more natural rendering would seem to be: “which had long been under the yoke of Macedonia, the Persians having been subdued at the same time,” _i.e._ by the Seleucids.

[210] Antiochus II (king 261-246 B.C.).

[211] Of Hierapolis in Phrygia (_c._ A.D. 60-140), Stoic philosopher.

[212] The synod (403) “at the Oak,” an estate near Chalcedon, on the opposite side of the Bosporus to Constantinople, belonging to the imperial prefect Rufinus. _See_ Hefele, _Conziliengeschichte_ (Eng. tr.).

[213] Αὐτοπαραχρήτους. Another reading is αὐτοπαρακλήτους, “self-invited.”

[214] _See_ CXXII.

[215] Monastic officials, who had each ten monks under their control. The name was also given to the _Copiatae_ or _Fossarii_ (grave-diggers, undertakers), who had to bury the poor for nothing.

[216] Μαφόριον, a covering for the head, cowl, hood, especially for females. As used by monks, it may possibly be identical with the scapular. Another reading is ὠμοφόριον, shoulder-cape (the Latin _pallium_).

[217] Chrysostom advised the communicants to eat a lozenge (or little cake) to avoid spitting out any of the sacrament.

[218] The word omitted is ἐκπιγγάτους, the meaning of which the translator has been unable to discover. Ducange explains it by _Conciliabulum_ as specially used of the synod of the Oak.

[219] Of Halicarnassus (_c._ 484-424 B.C.), the so-called “father of history.” His history, in nine books, each named after one of the Muses, gives an account of the Persian wars from the reign of Cyrus down to the battle of Mycale in the reign of Xerxes, a period of 126 years. It also contains digressions on the early history and manners and customs of different Peoples. It is curious that Photius has not devoted more attention to him.

[220] _See_ LXX.

[221] To an assembly of the Greeks at Olympia.

[222] Attic orator (_c._ 390-314 B.C.), rival of Demosthenes. He had a varied career as secretary, third-rate actor, orator, and statesman. At first an opponent of Philip of Macedon, he was induced by bribery to favour his cause. After his unsuccessful attack on Ctesiphon for proposing to bestow a crown on Demosthenes for his public services, he retired, first to Ephesus, then to Rhodes, and lastly to Samos, where he died. The three speeches have come down to us; the letters are lost.

[223] Caecilius Calactinus (from Kalē Aktē in Sicily), Greek rhetorician, flourished at Rome in the time of Augustus. He wrote a number of rhetorical, grammatical, and historical works, the chief being _On the Character of the Ten_ (Attic) _Orators_, but none of them has come down to us.

[224] To Philip of Macedon.

[225] As secretary. Eubulus was a distinguished financier, and a bitter opponent of Demosthenes.

[226] The text is corrupt here. The sense required is given in the translation.

[227] According to his own account, he was of good family.

[228] The only Antalcidas appears to be the author of the humiliating peace with Persia (387 B.C.), who is not famous as a rhetorician or teacher. Suidas says that Aeschines was a pupil of Alcidamas of Elaea (in Aeolis in Asia Minor), a pupil of Gorgias.

[229] The word πλάσματα perhaps refers here to the “moulded form” of style, not, as above, to imaginary, fictitious speeches.

[230] Of Miletus. He lived in the time of the emperor Hadrian.

[231] Pupil of Socrates. He spent some time at the court of Dionysius the Younger of Syracuse, and then settled in Athens and wrote speeches for the law-courts. He also composed a number of Socratic dialogues, of which seven were supposed to be genuine. The three that pass under his name and some letters are certainly not by him.

[232] Flourished in the fourth century B.C. Both works mentioned by Photius are entirely lost.

[233] Should be Maximian (Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus).

[234] Should also be Maximian (Galerius Valerius Maximianus).

[235] Galerius.

[236] Valerius.

[237] Should be Maxentius.

[238] Valerius Maximinus called Daza or Daia, emperor 311-314.

[239] Of Caesarea in Palestine, died some time after 562. In addition to the eight books of _The Wars_ he was the author of a description of _The Buildings_ erected by Justinian, and of an _Anecdota_ or _Chronique Scandaleuse_ attacking the private life of Justinian and his notorious wife Theodora. The genuineness of the last has been disputed. In style Procopius is an imitator of Herodotus and Thucydides. The title “rhetorician” given him by Photius better suits Procopius of Gaza, a Christian teacher of rhetoric (465-528). For the history of the period, _see_ Gibbon, ch. 40; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_; T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_; G. Rawlinson, _The Seventh Oriental Monarchy_.

[240] Also Kobad or Kavadh.

[241] Also Balash. According to some, he was the brother, according to others the uncle of Cabades. Authorities differ as to whether he died a natural death; if so, Procopius and others have confused him with Cabades’s brother Zamasp.

[242] The Sea of Azov.

[243] On condition of a sum of money being paid to him.

[244] He was afraid that, as Justin had no natural son, an adopted son might claim to be his heir and successor.

[245] Or Mebodes.

[246] Some take this to be a proper name, others the title of the commander-in-chief of the Persian army.

[247] 11,000 pounds of gold, about £500,000.

[248] A Persian title.

[249] The Nika sedition (532).

[250] Or Molatzes.

[251] Apamea was supposed to be the possessor of a fragment of the true cross.

[252] Usually known as Abgar(us), probably a title. The Abgar here referred to ruled from 4 B.C. to A.D. 50, with an interval during which he was deposed. It is said that he wrote a letter to Christ begging Him to cure him of a disease. Christ promised to send one of His disciples after His ascension, and Thaddeus was sent by Thomas, by whom Abgar was cured.

[253] Or Gunazes.

[254] He had established a monopoly of corn and salt.

[255] There are several variants of this name.

[256] Nothing is known of the author. His history treated of the events of 566-581, containing the reigns of Justin II and Tiberius II. It would seem, from what Photius says, that he gave an account of certain happenings in the reign of Justinian, and also continued the history somewhat later in a supplement to the ten books into the reign of Maurice. The fragment here given is important for the account of the introduction of silkworm breeding into Constantinople during the reign of Justinian, and for the first mention of the Turks (_see_ Gibbon, ch. 45; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_; G. Rawlinson, _The Seventh Oriental Monarchy_). This Theophanes is not to be confused with Theophanes the Isaurian (758-818), whose extant chronicle begins with the accession of Diocletian (277) and goes down to 811 (end of the reign of Michael I Rhangabe).

[257] China.

[258] The “long-lived.”

[259] Apparently here a proper name, not a title.

[260] Probably the same as the Dilimnitae.

[261] Theophylactus Simocatta. The _Histories_ or _Oecumenical History_ contains the reign of the emperor Maurice (582-604), and is the oldest and best authority for the period. The complete work is extant. Simocatta was also the author of a treatise on certain problems of natural history and their solution, and of a collection of rhetorical exercises in the form of letters on various subjects. As Photius says, his style is extremely far-fetched. He has been described as a representative of Byzantine euphuism. For the history _see_ Gibbon, ch. 45, 46; J. B. Bury, _Later Roman Empire_; G. Rawlinson, _The Seventh Oriental Monarchy_.

[262] The name given to the princes of the Avars and other Turkish tribes.

[263] Or Bucolabra.

[264] The holy ointment or oil which trickled from the bones of the martyr, ceased to flow when the basin into which it dripped was exchanged for another one by the bishop of Heraclea.

[265] Paulinus was crucified and his son’s head cut off.

[266] More probably a Persian title, not a proper name.

[267] Others take the word to mean the image. Elifredas (or Ilifredas) = Wilfrid.

[268] The province of Africa.

[269] The Moors.

[270] Bahram or Varahran.

[271] Major-domo of the imperial palace.

[272] Also Zadesprates.

[273] A celebrated martyr of the Eastern Church who suffered at Sergiopolis or Rasaphe in Syria at the beginning of the fourth century. He and another martyr named Bacchus were considered the patron saints of Syria.

[274] Singidon or Singidunum, modern Belgrade.

[275] Leader of the Slovenes, who were under the sway of the Avars.

[276] One of Priscus’s generals.

[277] He was a physician.

[278] 582-595. Of humble origin, he was distinguished for his piety and asceticism, but was a man of cruel disposition. His assumption of the title of “ecumenical patriarch” led to trouble with Pelagius II and Gregory I, bishops of Rome. Four extant works are attributed to him.

[279] Name given to the princes or chiefs of the Slovenes and other tribes.

[280] Also Guduis or Gudwin.

[281] Of Byzantium.

[282] Geographer and historian, grammarian and philosopher, flourished during the reign of Ptolemy Philometor (181-146), but was still living after 131. He wrote on the history of Europe and Asia, and the geography of the Red Sea. Fragments of the history are preserved, and Photius gives excerpts from the geography in Cod. CCL.

[283] He purposely mutilated his hand.

[284] Deme (δῆμος, people) was the name by which the circus factions were known, their leaders being called demarchs.

[285] Prefect of the city, who built the church by order of Theodosius II, emperor 408-450.

[286] The Field of Mars near Constantinople. Some authorities place it at Blachernae, others on the Propontis (Sea of Marmora).

[287] 806-815. He began his career as a civilian, and although a layman, was chosen patriarch. His conciliatory disposition brought upon him the hatred of the extremists. During the campaign of Leo against image-worship, he energetically defended the orthodox view. He was finally deposed and banished. In addition to the historical epitome of events from 602-769 here referred to, he was the author of tables of Universal History from Adam to the death of Nicephorus (829), much used by the Byzantines, and of three _Antirrhetici_, written against the iconoclasts.

[288] The work is lost. The name Confessor and the epithets applied to the acts of Copronymus show that Sergius was an opponent of the iconoclasts and a champion of orthodoxy. He is perhaps the Sergius exiled by Leo III.

[289] Michael II Balbus, the Stammerer (820-829).

[290] “Man of Dung,” Constantine V (741-775). An inflexible opponent of image-worship, he was violently assailed by the orthodox, but was in reality a most capable ruler.

[291] Flourished in the reign of Hadrian (117-138). Some fragments have been preserved in Eusebius and some of the Byzantine chroniclers (_e.g._ John Malalas, Syncellus).

[292] The mythical founder and foundress of Nineveh.

[293] Lived during the reign of Justinian. He was the author of a History of the World down to the death of Anastasius (518), of which part relating to the early history of Constantinople is preserved; of works on Justin and the beginning of the reign of Justinian; of an _Onomatologos_ (list) of famous literary persons, a general history of ancient literature. _Illustrius_ is a designation of rank.

[294] The reading is uncertain here.

[295] 508-505 B.C.

[296] 52-49 B.C.

[297] Byzantium was made the capital of the empire by Constantine, and its name changed to Constantinopolis in A.D. 330.

[298] A period of 15 years, instituted by Constantine the Great in 313 for fiscal purposes, afterwards adopted as a convenient method of chronology generally. To find the year of the indiction, add 3 to any date of our era, divide by 15, and the remainder is the indiction, or if there is no remainder, the indiction is 15.

[299] Of Agyrium in Sicily, flourished in the time of Augustus, and certainly lived till after 21 B.C. His _Historical Library_ in forty books was a history of the world down to Caesar’s Gallic wars. Only books 1-5 and 11-20 are extant. The chief value of the work consists in the employment of authorities whose works are now lost, the preservation of old tradition, and especially of chronological material.

[300] Cassius Dio Cocceianus (_c._ 155-230), born at Nicaea in Bithynia, senator and holder of various offices under Commodus and succeeding emperors, being twice consul. In 229 he retired into private life. His history of Rome in eighty books, starting from the mythical period, goes down to the reign of Alexander Severus (229). Of these eighty books 37-60 have come down almost complete, 36-80 exist in an eleventh-century abridgment by the monk John Xiphilinus. In the tenth century excerpts were made from it by order of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, and Zonaras (twelfth century) made an abridgment of books 1-20. His point of view is that of a loyal imperial official, who does not understand, and has little sympathy with, earlier political struggles. His superstition is pronounced.

[301] _Iliad_, xi. 164.

[302] Reading ἄκαιρος for εὔκαιρος.

[303] Of Cnidus on the coast of Caria in Asia Minor. He was for seventeen years (401-384) court physician to Artaxerxes Mnemon, whom he treated for a wound received at the battle of Cunaxa. He accuses Herodotus of being a liar, but often lays himself open to the same charge. It should be remarked that in writing his _Persica_ Ctesias had the opportunity of consulting the Persian archives and natives, whereas in regard to the _Indica_ he had no such advantages. He was also the author of an account of the Persian imperial revenues, and of some books of travel and geographical works.

[304] More commonly _Artaxerxes_.

[305] For the historical events _see_ G. Rawlinson, _Five Great Monarchies_, iii (1871), and for an estimate of Ctesias as an historian his translation of Herodotus, i. 71.

[306] Ecbatana.

[307] “Vaults” is used to express the sense generally, not as a translation of the various readings: κρίσκρανα, explained as “house of refuge”; κιόκρανα, “epistyle”; κιονόκρανα “capitals” of columns in the form of “rams’” heads.

[308] Peltasts, light-armed troops, who carried the small shield called _pelta_.

[309] Variously called Smerdis, Mergis, Merdis.

[310] This seems a possible meaning of θριαμβεύσας, combined with the idea of a personal triumph.

[311] Herodotus gives the names as: Intaphernes, Otanes, Gobryas, Hydarnes, Megabyzus, Aspathines, Darius.

[312] Herodotus, iii. 85.

[313] On the tomb of Darius, _see_ Rawlinson, _Five Great Monarchies_, iii. 320.

[314] A penteconter was a ship carrying fifty oars.

[315] The Danube.

[316] Zeus as the god of crossing. The “altar” was probably a column set up to commemorate his passage.

[317] Belus or Bel. For the story _see_ Aelian, _Var. Hist._, xiii. 3.

[318] The 9000 full citizens of Sparta, who formed a kind of nobility.

[319] The free inhabitants of the towns (except Sparta) who enjoyed civil but not political liberty.

[320] Apparently to hinder the construction of the embankment.

[321] The criminal was exposed to the heat of the sun in two boat-like troughs closely fitted together with head, arms, and legs hanging out until he died eaten by insects (_see_ Plutarch, _Life of Artaxerxes_, 16).

[322] Referring to the efforts of Megabyzus and Amytis on behalf of the Greek prisoners.

[323] Reading Ἀρτοξέρξης, not Ξέρξης.

[324] Κατέλαβε. Others render “when it (_i.e._ death) overtook him,” when the son also died.

[325] A Persian title, perhaps identical with Azarapates, a sort of gentleman-usher of the court.

[326] Κίταρις, the citaris, cidaris, or tiara.

[327] Valerius Maximus (ix. 2. ext. 6) thus describes this punishment. “He (Ochus) filled an enclosure surrounded by high walls with ashes; a beam projected over it, on which he placed his victims, having first given them plenty to eat and drink; then, overcome by sleep, they fell from it into the treacherous heap below.”

[328] In modern Persian the sun is _Khur_, in Zend _Hware_.

[329] Ionic form of Mithradates.

[330] The excessive brevity of Photius’s abstract makes it uncertain what the allusion is, and how Hellanicus and Herodotus are convicted of falsehood. Perhaps there is a reference to the statement of Herodotus that Croesus was burnt on the funeral pile.

[331] The expedition forms the subject of Xenophon’s _Anabasis_.

[332] In Cyprus. The orator Isocrates composed a panegyric on this Evagoras.

[333] The punctuation and meaning are obscure.

[334] _See_ translation by J. W. McCrindle with Introduction and Notes (1882), to which the present translator desires to acknowledge his obligations; H. H. Wilson, “Notes on the Indica of Ctesias” (Ashmolean Society Transactions, i-xi. 1838).

[335] A stade is about an English furlong.

[336] Supposed to be the hydrophane (also called _oculus mundi_, eye of the world), a kind of opal which absorbs water on immersion and exhibits a changing play of colours.

[337] Rather read μακρῶν (large) for μικρῶν (small).

[338] The text is corrupt here.

[339] The magnet may be referred to.

[340] Persian _mardikhora_.

[341] It is not clear whether Sardo is merely a proper name or means the “mountain of the _sardo_” (a precious stone).

[342] During an eruption, two brothers, Amphinomus and Anapus of Catana, carried off their parents on their shoulders, and were untouched by the lava. The spot where this took place was afterwards called “the land of the pious.”

[343] The name means “a fist long.”

[344] Persian _aver-khosh_ (“bringing good”).

[345] Persian _shiftehkhor_ (“agreeable to eat”).

[346] The Hyparchus.

[347] The cochineal insect is meant.

[348] Perhaps the rhinoceros, although the description is not altogether suitable.

[349] About five pints.

[350] The jackal or hyena.

[351] This passage is probably not by Ctesias.

[352] Heliodorus of Emesa in Syria, belonging to a family of the priests of the Sun, flourished in the third century A.D. This view is supported by the mention of the Blemmyes (first prominent in 250), traces of neo-Pythagorean influence, and the stress laid on Sun-worship. The ecclesiastical historian Socrates wrongly identifies him with a bishop of Tricca in the reign of Theodosius, the latter probably confused with Theodosius the father of the author of the _Aethiopica_. The standard work on the Greek romance-writers is E. Rohde, _Der griechische Roman_ (1914); see also _Blackwood’s Magazine_, xliv. (1892). The whole work is preserved, and it would be difficult to understand the complicated plot from Photius’s abstract.

[353] Some taking the side of Trachinus, others that of Pelorus, the second in command.

[354] The name of a robber “shepherd-people” inhabiting the N.W. part of the Nile delta in the neighbourhood of Alexandria.

[355] Or Thermuthis.

[356] A young Athenian who had been detained by the brigands.

[357] To which she had been carried off.

[358] Thinking it was Chariclea.

[359] Her husband, Oroöndates, being absent on a military expedition.

[360] Which she wore on her finger (_see_ Ctesias, _Indica_, p. 111).

[361] An Indian sect of philosophers who lived an extremely ascetic life. Their doctrine was a kind of Pantheism, and they believed in the transmigration of souls. By mortifying the body they hoped to purify their souls. They wore no clothing, hence their name (_gymnos_, naked, _sophistes_, wise man). Their influence in the oriental (and even in the Greek world) was great, and Alexander the Great, during his campaigns, endeavoured to persuade them to join his suite.

[362] Called _Euphrades_ (“beautiful speaker”), neo-Platonist and sophist (_c._ 317-390), born in Paphlagonia, then resident at Constantinople, where he entered the service of the state, finally becoming prefect of the city. One of his special duties was to deliver official orations greeting the emperors, under six of whom he lived. In addition to the orations here referred to, he was a prolific writer on philosophical subjects. When quite a young man, he gained considerable reputation as the author of a commentary on Aristotle. He was on friendly terms with famous literary men, orators and philosophers, Christian as well as heathen, and Gregory of Nazianzus calls him “the king of arguments.” Of the thirty-six speeches mentioned by Photius, we possess thirty-four (one only in a Latin translation), and some of his work on Aristotle.

[363] “State-paper-like” (T. Hodgkin).

[364] Probably Lesbonax of Mytilene, the author of three extant declamations. It is uncertain when he lived, probably in the first century A.D.

[365] _See_ Cod. XXI.

[366] _See_ p. 89, note [298].

[367] Cod. XLVII.

[368] 27-100. He is the Agrippa before whom St. Paul was brought.

[369] Grandson of Herod the Great. He is notorious for his persecution of the Christians (44). He is said to have died of a terrible disease (Acts xii. 23).

[370] Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria 175-164. He was a determined advocate of eradicating Judaism and of the hellenization of the people.

[371] 64-65.

[372] Caligula, emperor 37-41.

[373] According to Josephus, his name was Banus.

[374] _See_ Cod. LXXXII.

[375] Of Sardes (_c._ 345-420), educated at Athens, and spent the rest of his life in his native town as a physician and rhetorician. His “historical memoirs” deal with events from 270 to 414. He was also the author of some extant _Lives of the Sophists_. He was a bitter enemy of Christianity, and a devoted adherent of neo-Platonism. In the “second edition” of the _Chronicle_ much that was offensive to Christianity was omitted.

[376] 404-405.

[377] Μεθόδοις. Another reading is περιόδοις, “periods.”

[378] Of Philadelphia in Syria. According to Suidas, the _History_ began with the reign of Constantine the Great, according to Photius with the seventeenth year of Leo’s reign (473), being a continuation of that of Priscus. It ended with the murder of the West Roman emperor Nepos (480). For the history of the period, _see_ Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, ch. 36; Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, i. 227 (1889).

[379] Or Valamir.

[380] Against Zeno.

[381] Nothing more is known of his life than what Photius tells us. For the period of history (457-491) _see_ Gibbon and Bury referred to in note [378] on Cod. LXXVIII.

[382] Ermenaric.

[383] Tracheotis, a district of Asia Minor between Cilicia and Pisidia.

[384] Zeno.

[385] Harmatius, _magister militum_, nephew of Basiliscus, a young man of fashion.

[386] Peter, surnamed the Fuller, patriarch of Antioch 471-488, a Monophysite.

[387] Or, “by denunciations,” “extortion.”

[388] The word φιλότιμος is generally used in a bad sense, but not apparently here.

[389] Odovacar, king of the Heruli, who conquered Rome in 476, thus bringing about the so-called fall of the Western empire.

[390] Of Panopolis (Chemmis) in Upper Egypt, professor of grammar (philology) at the University of Athens. He was said to have written an _Isaurica_ and a treatise on etymology. He was a neo-Platonist and bitter opponent of Christianity.

[391] In the castle of Papirius in Isauria. It was betrayed by Illus’s sister-in-law.

[392] A native of Egyptian Thebes, and ambassador in 412 to the Hun prince Donatus. He was a heathen. The _History_, dedicated to Theodosius II, contained an account of events from 407 to 425. It is an important contemporary guide, and its loss, except for Photius’s abstract, is much to be regretted. On the period _see_ Gibbon, _Decline and Fall_, chs. 30-32; Bury, _Later Roman Empire_, i.; Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, bk. i. pt. 2; E. A. Freeman, _Western Europe in the Fifth Century_, 1904.

[393] The name is said to have originally meant a body of soldiers who accepted any one’s “bread” in return for attendance upon him. They would thus have formed a kind of bodyguard (Ducange). One of the “themes” or military divisions of the empire was also called the Bucellarian.

[394] Especially the Goths. They were nominally tributaries, but the tribute was often diminished or remitted altogether. Gradually, they came to be looked upon as a frontier defence force and received pay (Hodgkin, _The Visigothic Invasion_, i. 311-315).

[395] The most important officer of the civil administration. He united in his person most of the chief secretaryships with the duties of private secretary to the emperor.

[396] Another suggested derivation is _bucula_, the part of a helmet that covers the mouth and cheeks.

[397] Boulogne.

[398] This title was bestowed on the brothers, sisters, and children of the emperor, the official hierarchy by which he was surrounded being _nobiles_.

[399] Or Jovius.

[400] The praetorian prefects were the most important personages next to the emperor.

[401] Under the empire hardly any of the old exclusive patrician families survived; Constantine re-introduced the name not as that of an order with hereditary privileges, but as a personal honour and dignity.

[402] Commander of both infantry and cavalry.

[403] Chief of the secretaries.

[404] _Praepositus cubiculi sacri_, president or superintendent of the sacred bedchamber, the grand chamberlain.

[405] Reggio.

[406] Modern Calabria.

[407] The _domestici_ were the household troops, the imperial bodyguard.