Chapter XCI: Book III: Part IV (1)

I. Henry W. Longfellow: _The Writings of ... with Bibliographical and Critical Notes_ (11 vols., Boston, 1886 [Vols. I-VI, _Poetical Works_; VII-VIII, _Prose Works_; IX-XI, _Dante_]).

See Samuel Longfellow, _Life of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ (3 vols., Boston and New York, 1891). T. W. Higginson, _Henry Wadsworth Longfellow_ (in _American Men of Letters Series_, Boston and New York, 1902).

II. Nathaniel Hawthorne: _Works_ (12 vols., Boston, 1871-76; Fireside Edition, 12 vols., Boston, 1879; Riverside Edition, 12 vols., Boston, 1883; Standard Library Edition, 15 vols., Boston, 1891 [contains _Nathaniel Hawthorne and his Wife_, by Julian Hawthorne]; New Wayside Edition, 13 vols., Boston, 1902).

The best-known life is Julian Hawthorne, _Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Wife_ (2 vols., Boston, 1885). Henry James, _Nathaniel Hawthorne_ (in _English Men of Letters Series_, London, 1879; New York, 1885, 1887). See also W. C. Brownell, _American Prose Masters_ (New York, 1909). John Erskine, _Great American Novelists_ (New York, 1910). Carl Van Doren, _The American Novel_ (New York, 1921); Stuart P. Sherman, _Americans_ (New York, 1923).

III. Oliver Wendell Holmes: _Works_ (Riverside Edition, 13 vols., Boston, 1891, additional volume, 1892; Autocrat Edition, 13 vols., Boston and New York, 1904).

See George B. Ives _A Bibliography of Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (Boston and New York, 1907). John T. Morse, _Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes_ (2 vols., Boston and New York, 1896).--Lewis W. Townsend, _Oliver Wendell Holmes. Centenary Biography_ (London, 1909).

James Russell Lowell: _Works_ (Riverside Edition, 13 vols., Boston and New York, 1902 [contains Scudder’s _Life_]; Elmwood Edition, 16 vols., Boston, 1904 [four volumes of letters]). _Anti-Slavery Papers_ (2 vols., Boston and New York, 1902). _Letters of James Russell Lowell_ (edited by Charles Eliot Norton, 2 vols., New York, 1893; 3 vols., Boston, 1904). _Early Prose Writings of ..._ (2 vols., New York, 1903).

G. W. Cooke, _A Bibliography of James Russell Lowell_ (Boston and New York, 1906). H. E. Scudder, _James Russell Lowell: A Biography_ (2 vols., Boston, 1901). Ferris Greenslet, _James Russell Lowell: A Biography_ (2 vols., Boston, 1901). Ferris Greenslet, _James Russell Lowell: His Life and Work_ (Boston, 1905). See also C. Hartley Grattan, “Lowell” (_The American Mercury_, Vol. II, p. 69): Harry Hayden Clark, _Lowell’s Criticism of Romantic Literature_ (“Publications of the Modern Language Association,” March, 1926); W. D. Howells, _Literary Friends and Acquaintances_ (New York, 1902); Henry James, _Essays in London and Elsewhere_ (New York, 1893); J. J. Reilly, _James Russell Lowell as a Critic_ (New York, 1915); and John M. Robertson, _Lowell as a Critic_ (_North American Review_, February, 1919).

Index [Volume Two]

_Abolitionists, The_, 333, 337

_Abraham Davenport_, 370

_Account of Col. Crockett’s Tour to the North and Down East_, 173,
174, 176

Adams, John, 13, 15, 17, 22, 78, 82, 95, 119, 187, 198, 226, 231,
282, 283, 305, 306, 316, 325, 393, 456

----, John Quincy, 242, 249, 276, 365

----, Samuel, 292, 380, 423

Addison, Joseph, 31, 35, 199, 453

_Additional Speeches_, 297 n, 300, 316, 415, 420, 421 n, 422, 423

_Adventures of Captain Bonneville_, 209, 211

_Aeneid_, 32

Agassiz, Louis, 458

_Agriculture of England, The_, 304

Alcott, Bronson, 342, 348, 349, 394, 402, 426

_Alcuin, A Dialogue_, 189

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 469

_Alexander H. Stephens, Life of_, 83, 86, 89, 91

Alexis, Grand Duke, 458

_American Democrat, The_, 226, 227

_American Liberty_, 287

_American Mercury, The_, 466 n

_American Note-Books_, 447, 448, 449

_American Notes_, 441

_American Novel, The_, 133

_American Political Ideas_, 94, 334 n

_American Scholar, The_, 390

Ames, Fisher, ii, 19, 21, 36, 109, 113, 116, 119, 198, 241, 276,
279-288, 291, 293, 296, 297, 315, 317, 329

----, Dr. Nathaniel, 279, 280

_Anarchiad, The_, 24

Anne, Queen, 452

Anthony, Katharine, 427, 432

_Anti-Apis_, 464 n

Anti-Rent Novels, 231, 233

_Apology and Defense_, 309 n

_Arbitrament of National Disputes, The_, 121 n

Aristotle, 307

Arnold, Matthew, 265, 472

_Arthur Mervyn_, 190

Astor, John Jacob, 195, 201, 203, 208, 211, 231

_Astoria_, 209, 211

Ashe, Thomas, 215

_Augustus Baldwin Longstreet_, 169 n, 170

_Authorship of David Crockett’s Autobiography, The_, 177 n

_Autobiography of Davy Crockett_, 166

_Autobiography of Joseph Story_, 300

_Backwoodsman, The_, 215

Bacon, Lord, 31, 307

Baldwin, Joseph G., 133, 162, 166

Bancroft, George, 437-439

_Bank of the United States, The_, 309 n

Barlow, Joel, 188

Bartol, C. A., 384

_Basis of the Senate, The_, 306, 307, 310, 315

Bassett, John, 148, 149

Baxter, Richard, 371

Beard, Professor Charles A., 13 n, 15, 18-19

_Beauchampe_, 130

Beecher, Elizabeth, 342 n

----, Henry Ward, 238, 344, 351, 399

----, Lyman, 357, 371, 375, 376

Benjamin, Parke, 238

Bennett, James Gordon, 102 n, 356

Bentham, Jeremy, 166

Benton, Thomas H., 14, 55, 151, 246, 309

Berkeley, Bishop, 380

Beveridge, Albert J., 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 316 n

_Bibliolâtres_, 464 n

Biddle, Nicholas, 55

_Biglow Papers, The_, 368, 464, 464 n

Bird, Robert Montgomery, 135, 162, 166, 190-192, 220, 235

Birney, James G., 246, 333, 351, 359, 365

Blackstone, 31, 35, 47, 113, 117, 120, 168, 197, 302, 313

_Blithedale Romance, The_, 442, 448

Blücher, Marshal, 94

Boone, Daniel, 138, 139, 162

_Border Beagles_, 128

_Boston Kidnapping, The_, 423

Bourlamaqui, 117

Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 236

Bradbury, John, 215

Brevoort, Henry, 205

Briant, Lemuel, 325, 326

Bright, John, 241

Brisbane, Albert, ii, 101, 108, 200, 208, 242, 251, 350, 448

_British Spy, The_, 31, 33, 41

_Broker of Bogota, The_, 191

Brown, Charles Brockden, 188-190

----, John, 155, 159, 360, 364, 399, 402, 412, 458

Brownson, Orestes, ii, 108

Bryant, William Cullen, 201, 208, 238-246, 247, 257, 258, 366, 458

Buckminster, Rev. Joseph Stevens, 113

Bunyan, John, 366

Burgess, John W., 94

Burke, Edmund, 12, 15, 31, 94, 305, 311, 366, 392, 467

Burns, Anthony, 359, 360, 411, 423

----, Robert, 366

Burr, Aaron, 197

Bushnell, Rev. Horace, 356

Byrd, Col. William, 8

Byron, Lord, 111, 116, 200, 216

Cabell, James Branch, 259, 260

Cabot, George, 296

_Caleb Williams_, 190

Calhoun, John C., 4, 36, 37, 38, 39, 41, 42, 61, 66, 67, 68, 69-82,
83, 89, 91, 93, 102, 109, 115, 120, 123, 126, 136, 137, 144,
150, 152, 153, 168, 170, 299, 311, 312, 357, 399, 467, 468, 473

Calvin, John, 215, 272, 273, 321, 340, 416, 457

_Camillus_, 285-286

Campbell, Thomas, 200

_Capture of Fugitive Slaves near Washington, On the_, 464 n

Carey, Matthew, 185-186

Carlyle, Thomas, 47, 101, 111, 381, 389, 393, 406, 412

Carpenter, G. R., 351, 367

Caruthers, Dr. William Alexander, 28, 41-46, 377

Cass, Lewis, 246

_Cathedral, The_, 266

Catullus, 453

_Cavaliers of Virginia, The_, 41, 45

Chadwick, John White, 330, 338

_Chainbearer, The_, 232, 234, 236

_Chambered Nautilus, The_, 453

Channing, William Ellery, 188, 252, 300, 314, 317, 319, 325, 326,
327, 328-338, 339, 342, 357, 361, 371, 390, 393, 420, 435, 443,
454, 456

----, William Ellery (Younger), 401

----, William Henry, 108, 228, 241, 347, 348, 428, 429

Chapman, Mrs., 351

_Chardon Street Convention, The_, 345

_Charlemont_, 130

Charles I, King, 372

“_Charming Creature” as a Wife, The_, 172

Chase, L. B., 102

Chaucer, 47

_Chicora and Other Poems_, 103

Child, Francis, 465

----, Lydia Maria, 351

Choate, Rufus, 152, 329, 367, 368, 397, 398, 421, 423

_Chronicle, The_, 206

Churchill, Charles, 452

_Civil Disobedience_, 409, 410, 411

_Civil Liberty and Self-Government_, 95

_Clarel_, 265, 266-267

Clark, George Rogers, 138

Clarke, J. F., 429, 430

Clay, Henry, 4, 34, 37, 46, 48, 67, 69, 71, 122, 138, 139, 142-144,
145, 150, 152, 153, 209, 218, 242, 243, 249, 296, 298, 309,
333, 353, 365, 366, 397, 399

Clayton, Augustus S., 176

Cleon, 398

Cliffton, William, 188

_Climbing the Natural Bridge_, 46

Clinton, De Witt, 201

Clough, Arthur Hugh, 265

Cobbett, William, 185, 186

Cobden, Richard, 241

Coke, Sir Edward, 15, 47, 117

_Col. Crockett’s Exploits and Adventures in Texas_, 173, 178 n

Coleridge, Samuel T., 58, 381, 389

Collins, Wilkie, 458

_Columbus_, 464 n

_Commentaries on American Law_, 199

_Commentaries on the Constitution_, 301-303, 311, 312

Commons, John R., 250, 252, 253, 254

Comte, Auguste, 30

Condillac, Etienne de, 382

Condorcet, Marquis de, 10, 11, 293

_Congressional Debates_, 175

Congreve, William, 54

_Connecticut_, 202

_Constitutional History of Greece, The_, 116

_Constitutional View of the War between the States_, 9, 56, 83, 88,
89, 90 n, 91, 302

_Constitution not a Compact between Sovereign States, The_, 311

_Construction Construed and Constitutions Vindicated_, 299

Conway, Moncure D., 90

Cooke, Jay, 474

----, John Esten, ii, 28

Cooper, James Fenimore, 37, 131, 133, 135, 141, 183, 193, 196, 204,
207, 208, 216, 220, 222-237, 238, 257, 266, 457

----, James Fenimore (grandson), 207 n, 229

----, Judge William, 194, 224, 225

----, Dr., 72

_Correspondence of James Fenimore Cooper_, 207 n, 229

Cotton, Rev. John, 118

_Country, The_, 103

_Courier and Enquirer, The_, 253

Cousin, Victor, 381

Coverley, Sir Roger de, 52

Cowper, William, 188, 264

Crafts, William, 112-114

_Crater, The_, 226

Crawford, W. H., 168

_Cream of the Jest, The_, 259

Crèvecœur, Hector St. John de, 215

_Croaker Papers_, 200

Crockett, Davy, 45, 138, 147, 162, 165, 172-179, 192, 366

Cromwell, Oliver, 213, 464

Cruse, Peter Hoffman, 48

Cujacius, 117

Curtis, George William, 238

Cushing, Caleb, 362, 365

_Daniel Webster_, 297 n

Dante, 440, 466

Darwin, Charles, 419, 455

Davis, Jefferson, 4, 62, 65-66, 70, 86, 146, 299, 468

_Debating Society, The_, 172

_Declaration of Whig Principles and Purposes_, 310

_Decline of Aristocracy in New York Politics_, 199, 224, 244

_Democracy_, 467 n

_Democracy, Pacific and Constructive_, 244

Dennie, Joseph, 187

De Quincey, Thomas, 258

Dew, Professor, 102

_Dial, The_, 348

Dickens, Charles, 47, 127, 141, 441

Dickinson, John, 186

_Discourses on Government_, 354

_Disquisition on Government, A_, 75 n, 77, 79, 299

_Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan, The_, 214

_Divina Commedia_, 440

_Divinity School Address_, 337, 390

_Domnei_, 260

_Don Quixote_, 31

Douglas, Stephen A., 153, 397, 398

Drake, Joseph Rodman, 200

_Dred, A Tale of the Great Dismal Swamp_, 377

_Dred Scott_, 157

Dryden, John, 31, 104, 289

Dumas, Alexandre, 216

_Dutchman’s Fireside, The_, 220

Dwight, Theodore, 278

----, Timothy, 71, 188, 240, 324, 340, 371

_Early Spanish Ballads_, 116

_Ecclesiastes_, 264

_Echo, The_, 24

_Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy, The_, 13 n, 15, 19

Edward I, King, 260

Edwards, Jonathan, 71, 321, 323, 324, 372, 373, 379, 399, 445

Eliot, Rev. John, 201, 343

_Elliot’s Debates_, 83

Elliott, S. K., 102

_Elsie Venner_, 454, 459

_Emancipation of Labor, The_, 256

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 108, 226, 230, 258, 264, 266, 304, 314, 316,
317, 319, 337, 344, 349, 373, 379, 380, 383, 384, 385, 386-399,
401, 409, 412, 420, 426, 429, 431, 433, 439, 447, 449, 451,
455, 462, 474

_Encyclopedia Americana_, 94

_English Serfdom and American Slavery_, 102

_English Thought in the Eighteenth Century_, 461

_Epipsychidion_, 259

_Epistle of Robert Hogbin, Esq._, 201

_Essays_ (Emerson), 387, 390

_Essay on Politics_, 393, 394, 396, 397

_Essay on Slavery and Abolitionism, with Reference to the Duty of
American Females_, 342 n

_Essay on Thoreau_, 346 n

Evans, George Henry, 254

_Evening Post, The_, 102 n, 239, 242 n, 244, 245

Everett, Edward, 109, 159, 317, 319, 320, 329, 397, 399, 423, 437,
458, 460

_Examination of the Late Proceedings in Congress Respecting ... the
Secretary of the Treasury, An_, 15

_Exclusion of Slavery from the Territories, On the_, 312-313

“Falkland,” 287

_Fanny_, 202

_Federal Orrery, The_, 294

_Federalist, The_, 24, 196, 286, 302, 303

Felton, Professor, 367

Fenn, William W., 324 n, 327

Fenno, John, 186, 206

_Ferdinand and Isabella_, 434

Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 382, 430

Fielding, Henry, 128

_Fight, The_, 172

Fillmore, President Millard, 47

Filmer, Sir Robert, 215

Fink, Mike, 138, 192

_First Settlement of England, The_, 306, 307-308

Flint, Rev. Timothy, 51, 140, 141, 162-163, 211

_Flush Times of Alabama and Mississippi_, 133, 162, 166

Follen, Professor Charles, 94, 441

_Forayers, The_, 132, 134

Forrest, Edwin, 191

Fourier, François Charles Marie, 30, 244, 251, 348, 349, 431

Fox, Dixon Ryan, 199, 224, 244

_Francis Berrian, or the Mexican Patriot_, 163

Franklin, Benjamin, 11, 185, 225, 228, 308

_Frederick Douglass_, 431

Freiligrath, Ferdinand, 439

Freneau, Philip, 186, 196

Frothingham, Octavius B., 348, 379, 380, 384

_Fugitive Slave Law, The_, 315

Fuller (Ossoli), Margaret, 314, 349, 426-434, 436, 439, 448

----, Timothy, 427

Gage, General, 459

Gaines, Francis Pendleton, 102 n

Galloway, Joseph, 186

_Gander Pulling, The_, 172

Gansevoort, Maria, 259, 260, 261

----, Major-General Peter, 260

Garland, Hamlin, 213

Garrison, William Lloyd, 256, 314, 319, 332, 341, 343, 351, 352-361,
365, 366, 411, 415, 416, 420, 431, 448, 458

Genêt, Citizen, 292

_Genius of Universal Emancipation, The_, 353

_George Balcombe_, 162

George, Henry, 467

_George Mason, the Young Backwoodsman; or “Don’t Give up the Ship_,”
163

_Georgia Historical Quarterly, The_, 177 n

_Georgia Scenes_, 51, 162, 166, 168, 169, 172, 178 n

_Georgia Theatrics_, 172, 178 n

_Gladiator, The_, 191

Gladstone, W. E., 472

_Glance Behind the Curtain, A_, 464, 464 n

_Godey’s Lady’s Book_, 187

Godkin, Edwin Lawrence, 257, 468, 471

Godwin, Parke, 200, 243, 244

----, William, 11, 22, 33, 188, 189, 190, 242, 331, 335, 336, 409

Goethe, 389, 430, 433

Gournay, Vincent de, 11

_Governor Clinton’s Speech_, 201 n

Grant, General U. S., 48

Grattan, C. Hartley, 466 n

Gray, Edward, 48

----, Elizabeth, 48

----, Thomas, 31, 188

Grayson, William J., 103-108, 110, 111, 256

Greeley, Horace, 101, 107, 108, 200, 208, 238, 242, 244, 247-258,
352, 399, 432, 458

Green, Duff, 36

Greene, General, 132

_Greenfield Hill_, 340

Grimké, Angelina, 342 n, 432

---- Sisters, 343, 351

Grotius, 117, 306

_Gulliver’s Travels_, 262

_Guy Rivers_, 130

Hale, Edward Everett, 462 n

Hall, Captain Basil, 215

----, James, 51, 140 n, 162, 164, 172, 211

Halleck, Fitz-Greene, 200, 238

Hamilton, Alexander, 13, 14, 16, 20, 21, 24, 36, 48, 89, 93, 94, 95,
138, 143, 148, 156, 196, 197, 198, 206, 227, 245, 285, 291,
297, 305, 309, 316, 473

Hammond, Governor, 102

_Harbinger, The_, 244

Harper, Chancellor, 102

_Harpe’s Head_, 164, 165, 172

Harrington, James, 5, 305, 306, 307

_Harrison Gray Otis_, 341 n

Hartford Wits, The, 24, 188

_Harvard Graduates_, 467

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 259, 265, 442-450

Hayes, President Rutherford B., 472

Hayne, Paul Hamilton, 126

----, Robert Young, 310, 330

Hedge, Frederick Henry, 430

Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 318

Heine, Heinrich, 439

Helper, Hinton R., 133

Henry, Patrick, 33, 34

Hergesheimer, Joseph, 445

_Herman Melville, Mariner and Mystic_, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265

Hervey, James, 31

Higginson, Thomas Wentworth, 314, 344 n, 351, 414

Hildreth, Richard, 438

_Hints toward Reforms_, 250 n, 252 n, 257

_Hireling and the Slave, The_, 103, 104, 108

_History of the American Drama, A_, 191

_History of the Congregational Churches in the United States_, 324 n,
325 n

_History of the United States_, 437-438

Hoar, Judge, 402

Hobbes, Thomas, 78

Hoffman, Charles Fenno, 163

----, Josiah Ogden, 206

----, Matilda, 206

Holmes, Abiel, 454

----, Oliver Wendell, 260, 319, 320, 451-459, 460

_Home as Found_, 141, 229, 230, 233

_Homeward Bound_, 233

Hone, Philip, 245

_Hopes and Fears for Art_, 407

Hopkins, Samuel, 329, 340, 373, 375-376

Hopkinson, Francis, 186

Horace, 453

_Horace Greeley_, 254 n

_Horace Greeley and the Working-Class Origins of the Republican
Party_, 250, 252, 253, 254

_Horseshoe Robinson_, 41, 51, 53

_Horse Swap, The_, 172

_House of the Seven Gables, The_, 446

Howells, William Dean, 466

Huger, Alfred, 103

Hughes, Thomas, 469

Hume, David, 385

Hunt, Gaillard, 71, 72 n, 80

Hutchinson, Governor Thomas, 276

_Ichabod_, 315

_Illinois Monthly Magazine, The_, 164

_Independent in Politics, The_, 471 n, 469

_Industrial Worker, The_, 141

_Inquiry into the Nature of the Constitution of the United States,
An_, 299

_Inquiry into the Principles and Policy of the Government of the
United States, An_, 15

_Inquiry into the Principles and Tendencies of Certain Public
Measures, An_, 15

_Introductory Remarks_, 326, 333-334, 336

_Introduction to the Old Testament_, 417

_Invention of Letters, The_, 291

Irving, Pierre M., 205

----, Washington, 29, 47, 49, 50, 51, 54, 172, 183, 195, 200,
203-212, 213, 218, 238, 471

----, William, 213

Jackson, Andrew, 4, 8, 26, 29, 34, 36, 37, 55, 63, 90, 122, 139,
145-152, 154, 156, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 198, 207, 241, 242,
243, 249, 298, 309, 353

----, Stonewall, 65, 70

Jacobi, Friedrich Heinrich, 345, 382

_Jacobiniad, The_, 294

_James Russell Lowell_, 465

_James Russell Lowell and his Friends_, 462 n

_Java Head_, 445

Jay, John, 196, 198, 224, 225, 227

Jefferson, Thomas, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 21, 22, 26, 33, 38, 61,
62, 66, 69, 70, 71, 77, 84, 88, 89, 90, 111, 119, 120, 142,
146, 148, 150, 151, 153, 158, 159, 206, 228, 239, 240, 241,
243, 251, 252, 272, 277, 278, 284, 287, 288, 300, 301, 302,
335, 366, 383, 390, 394, 396, 421, 430, 462, 468, 473

_Jefferson Davis, A Memoir by his Wife_, 146

_Jeffersonian Democracy in New England_, 255 n

Jeremiah, 282

_Jeremy Bentham and the Utilitarians_, 116

_John Bull in America_, 214

_John G. Whittier_, 367

_John Greenleaf Whittier_, 351

Johnson, Andrew, 468

----, Dr. Samuel, 35, 109

_Jonathan Wild_, 128

_Journal_ (Thoreau), 411 n

_Journals_ (Emerson), 317, 344, 349, 386, 387, 391, 392, 393 n, 395,
398, 399, 409

_Justice and Expediency_, 362, 377

Juvenal, 453

Kane, Elisha Kent, 50

Kant, Emmanuel, 343, 382, 430

_Katherine Walton_, 128 n

Keats, John, 111, 453

Kennedy, John Pendleton, ii, 28, 37, 41, 46-56, 160, 172, 177, 203,
377

----, William Sloane, 367

Kent, Chancellor James, 117, 196, 197-199

----, William, 198

_Kentuckian in New York, The_, 41, 45, 46, 377

King, Charles, 245

----, Rufus, 196

Kirkland, President, 280, 281, 284-285

Kirkpatrick, John Ervin, 140, 141

Kneeland, Abner, 463, 469

“Knickerbocker” _History_, 212

_Knickerbocker Magazine, The_, 46, 163

_Knights of the Horse-Shoe, The_, 45

Knox, General, 291

_Koningsmarke_, 216, 218, 219

Lamar, L. Q. C., 62

----, President, 170

_Landing at Plymouth, The_, 3 n

Landor, Walter Savage, 389

_Last Days of John Brown, The_, 412

_Last Leaf, The_, 260

_Last of the Mohicans, The_, 235

_Law of God and the Statutes of Men, The_, 421 n

_Leaves of Grass_, 466

_Leaves from Margaret Smith’s Journal of Massachusetts Bay_, 363

_Leben Jesu_, 417

_Lectures on Constitutional Law_, 299

Lee, General Robert E., 29, 65

Legaré, Hugh Swinton, ii, 96, 103, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114-124,
168, 169, 438

_Legends of the West_, 164

Leggett, William, 200, 208, 243, 244, 245

Leonard, Daniel, 276

_Letter to A. C. Henry_ (Lincoln), 155

_Letter to the Members of the Twenty-Eighth Congregational Society of
Boston_, 417 n, 418, 419, 420

_Letters of James Russell Lowell_, 437 n, 461, 462 n, 463, 466, 467,
469, 470, 471

_Letter of Mr. Paul Ambrose on the Great Rebellion in the United
States_, 56

_Letters from the South_, 198, 216 n, 217

_Letters on Slavery_, 102

Lewis, Matthew Gregory (“Monk”), 220

_Liberator, The_, 341, 353, 359

_Life and Adventures of Arthur Clenning, The_, 163

_Life and Correspondence of Theodore Parker, The_, 347-348, 414, 417 n

_Life and Letters of Joseph Story, The_, 301

_Life and Letters of Oliver Wendell Holmes, The_, 453

_Life and Letters of Washington Irving, The_, 205, 206, 207, 209, 210

_Life of Andrew Jackson_, 148, 149

_Life of William Lloyd Garrison_, 256 n, 332 n, 342 n, 344, 344 n,
353-354, 356, 358, 359-360, 365, 368

_Life of James Louis Petigru_, 103, 104, 111

_Life of John P. Kennedy_, 48

_Life of John Marshall_, 22, 24

_Life of Martin Van Buren_, 173, 174, 176, 177

_Life of Milton_, 466

_Life of Henry David Thoreau_, 314

_Life of Washington_, 211

_Life of Whitman_, 367

_Life Without and Life Within_, 430 n, 431

_Literary History of America, A_, 416 n, 427

Lieber, Francis, 93-98

Lincoln, Abraham, 4, 66, 152-160, 242, 420 n, 422, 473

_Literary History of Philadelphia_, 185

_Literature of the Middle Western Frontier, The_, 164

Livingston, Chancellor, 227

Locke, John, 197, 198, 199, 228, 282, 287, 305, 380, 381, 382, 420

Longfellow, Henry W., 319, 320, 439-441, 453, 465

Longstreet, Augustus Baldwin, 51, 162, 166-172, 176, 178

_Lord Byron’s Character and Writings_, 116

Loring, Commissioner Edward G., 360, 368, 411, 423

_Lost Occasion, The_, 367

Lovejoy, Elijah P., 246, 333

Lowell, Rev. Charles, 402, 463

----, Francis Cabot, 462

----, James Russell, 266, 314, 315, 351, 368, 436, 440, 460-472, 474

----, John, 461, 462

_Lucius Junius Brutus_, 284, 285

Lundy, Benjamin, 353

_Lyrical and other Poems_, 114

McDuffie, Governor George, 62, 81, 136, 168, 170

Madison, James, 6, 71, 196, 288, 305

_Magnalia Christi Americana_, 371

_Man the Reformer_, 396, 397

Mann, Horace, 399

_Manual of American Literature, A_, 438 n

Marcy, Governor William M., 244

_Mardi_, 260, 261, 262, 263

_Margaret Fuller, A Psychological Biography_, 427 n, 432

Marshall, John, 8, 20-27, 47, 94, 138, 197, 245, 300, 301, 302, 316,
473

_Martin Chuzzlewit_, 141

Martineau, Harriet, 351

Marx, Karl, 251, 467

Mason, Col. George, 277

_Massachusetts to Virginia_, 368

Masson, David, 466

Mather, Cotton, 202, 371, 391, 414, 428, 447

May, Samuel J., 351

Mayhew, Jonathan, 325, 326, 462

Mazzini, 428, 433

_Mellichampe_, 129

Melvill, Sir Richard, 260

Melville, Allan, 260, 261

----, Herman, ii, 58, 131, 183, 238, 258-267, 445, 449

----, Major Thomas, 260

_Memoirs and Letters of James Kent_, 198

_Memoirs of Margaret Fuller Ossoli_, 429, 430, 431, 434

_Menander to Philenia_, 288

Merriam, Charles A., 72 n, 94, 334 n

Metternich, Prince, 94

_Militia Company Drill, The_, 72

Mill, James, 428

----, John Stuart, 104, 472

Milton, John, 109, 366

_Minister’s Wooing, The_, 374

_Minutes and Debates of the Constitutional Convention_, 72

Mirabeau, Marquis de, 10, 293

_Moby Dick_, 131, 261, 262, 263

Modestinus, 117

_Monikins, The_, 227, 228, 229

Monroe, James, 71

Montesquieu, Charles, 73, 75, 76, 94, 306, 392, 393

Moore, Tom, 30, 111, 114, 185, 187, 200

_Moral Bully, The_, 453, 454

Morison, S. E., 341 n

Morley, John, 472

Morris, Gouverneur, 194, 196, 230, 280

----, Robert, 8, 21, 183, 195

----, William, 396, 406, 407, 408, 472

Morse, Jedidiah, 321

----, John T., 453

----, S. F. B., 50

Morton, Mrs. Sarah Wentworth, 288

Motley, John Lothrop, 83, 438

Mott, Lucretia, 35, 428

Napoleon, 240

_Narrative of the Life of David Crockett of the State of Tennessee_,
172, 174, 175

_Narrative of the Surprizing Works of God_, 445

Nathan, James, 428

_Nation, The_, 468, 470

_National Philanthropist, The_, 342

_Nature_, 390, 447

_Nature and Progress of Liberty_, 291

_Nebraska Question, The_, 420, 421-422, 424

Nemours, Du Pont de, 3, 10, 243

Nevins, Allan, 102 n, 242 n, 244, 245

_New England Chattels_, 102

_New Views of the Constitution of the United States_, 299

_New York Herald, The_, 102 n, 356-357

_Nick of the Woods, or the Jibbenainosay_, 135, 191, 192, 235

Niebuhr, Barthold Georg, 94

Nightingale, Florence, 107

_North American Review, The_, 111, 442

Norton, Andrews, 329, 454

----, Charles Eliot, 441, 460, 465, 470

Novalis, 430

Noyes, John Humphrey, 343-346, 355, 359

Oberholtzer, Ellis Paxson, 185

_Oceana, The_, 306, 307

_Old Cambridge_, 341 n

_Old-Town Folks_, 372, 373, 374

_One-Hoss Shay, The_, 453, 454

_Orations and Addresses_, 201

_Origin of Species, The_, 419

_Origin, History and Influence of Roman Legislation, The_, 116

_Ossian_, 31, 111, 186

Ossoli, Count, 428

Otis, Harrison Gray, 279, 353

----, James, 325

Owen, Robert, 30, 242, 349

Page, J. W., 102

----, Thomas Nelson, 28

Paine, Robert Treat, 113, 279, 288-295, 317, 329, 436, 452

----, Thomas, 11, 12, 22, 88, 96, 284, 288, 342, 356, 366

Papinian, 117

Parker, Theodore, 108, 115, 124, 171, 256, 297 n, 300, 311, 314,
315, 316 n, 319, 327, 329, 338, 342, 347, 351, 373, 398, 399,
414-425, 426, 430, 433, 439, 455, 456, 458

Parkinson, Richard, 215

Parkman, Francis, 438-439, 458

_Parson Turell’s Legacy_, 453

_Partisan, The_, 53, 134

_Partisan Leader, The_, 35, 36, 37

Pascal, 264

_Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia_, 7, 8

_Patrick Henry, Sketches of the Life and Character of_, 31-33

Paulding, James Kirke, 162, 163, 183, 190, 198, 200, 207, 212-221, 238

Peabody, Elizabeth, 443

----, Sophia, 443, 449

Peaslee, Mary, 364

Pendleton, L. B., 83, 86, 87, 91

----, Nancy, 47

_Perfectionist, The_, 343

Perry, Commodore, 50

Petigru, James Louis, 103, 110, 123, 168

Phillips, Wendell, 108, 256, 314, 333, 351, 420, 436, 458

_Phocion_, 287

Pickering, Timothy, 187, 296

Pierpont, John, 365

_Pierre, or the Ambiguities_, 261, 263, 264

Pike, Albert, 162

_Pilgrim’s Progress_, 129

Pinckney, General Charles Cotesworth, 110

Pindar, 402

_Pioneer, The_, 464 n

_Pioneers, The_, 216, 220, 224

Pitt, William, 170, 282

Plato, 252, 259, 264, 318, 381, 427

_Plea for Captain John Brown, A_, 413

Poe, Edgar Allan, 57-59, 127

_Poet of the Breakfast Table, The_, 455, 457, 458

_Poganuc People_, 372, 374

_Political Ethics_, 95

_Political Justice_, 331, 335, 336, 409-410

_Political Science Quarterly, The_, 250

Pope, Alexander, 31, 104, 114, 289, 290, 452, 466

_Port Folio, The_, 187

_Prairie, The_, 232

Prescott, W. H., 367, 438

_Present Age, The_, 395

_Present Crisis, The_, 464, 464 n

Prince, H. L., 154

_Professor at the Breakfast Table, The_, 455, 456

_Progress and Poverty_, 467

_Prometheus_, 463, 464, 464 n

_Prometheus Bound_, 402

_Pro-Slavery Argument_, 102

_Pro-Slavery Propaganda in American Fiction in the Fifties_, 102

_Prose Sketches and Poems_, 162

Pufendorf, Baron von, 117

_Puritan and his Daughter, The_, 215, 216

Quesnay, François, 3, 10, 11

Quincy, Edmund, 314, 343, 345, 331, 359, 436

----, Josiah, 276, 279, 329, 343, 368, 460, 462

Quinn, Arthur Hobson, 191 n

_Quodlibet_, 37, 51, 55, 56, 177

Rabelais, 262, 265

_Raciad, The_, 114

Radcliffe, Mrs. Ann, 111

Raleigh, Sir Walter, 307

Randolph, John of Roanoke, 8, 9, 26, 30, 31, 35, 57

Ranke, Leopold von, 437

_Rawle on the Constitution_, 299

_Rebellion, The_, 468 n

_Recollections of a Busy Life_, 249

_Recollections of the Last Ten Years, Passed in Occasional Residences
and Journeyings in the Valley of the Mississippi_, 163

_Recorder, The_, 201 n

_Red Book, The_, 48, 51

_Redskins, The_, 226 n, 229, 230, 231, 236

Reed, Amy Louise, 446, 448

_Religious History of New England: King’s Chapel Lectures_, 324 n, 327

_Rhymed Lesson, A_, 452 n

Ricardo, David, 241

_Richard Hurdis_, 128, 130

Richter, Jean Paul, 430

_Rights of Man, The_, 12

_Rights of Woman_, 331

Ripley, Dr. Ezra, 199, 402

----, George, 101, 108, 242, 347, 348, 349, 350

----, Sophia, 349

_Rise of the Dutch Republic, The_, 438

Rittenhouse, David, 185

_Rob of the Bowl_, 51, 53, 54

Robespierre, 398

_Robinson Crusoe_, 163

Robinson, William A., 255 n

Rogers, Dr., 199

_Romance of American History_, 140 n, 166

Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 11, 22, 242, 261, 264, 284, 318, 331, 345,
366, 390, 402, 413, 420, 430, 433, 434, 466

_Ruling Passion, The_, 290

Rusk, Ralph Leslie, 164, 165

Ruskin, John, 101, 406, 407

_Saint’s Rest_, 371

_Salmagundi_, 200, 206, 213

Sampson, Abbot, 101

Sanborn, F. B., 314

Sand, Georges, 429

Sargent, John O., 453

_Satanstoe_, 235

Schlegel, August Wilhelm von, 58

Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 382

Scollay, Priscilla, 260

Scott, Sir Walter, 28, 30, 47, 111, 120, 129, 171, 200, 216, 220, 371

_Scout, The_, 133

Scudder, H. E., 465

Sedgwick, Catherine M., 241

----, Henry M., 241

----, Theodore, Jr., 241

_Self-Portraiture in the Work of Nathaniel Hawthorne_, 446, 448

_Seventh of March Speech, The_, 313, 314, 367, 368

Sewall, Jonathan, 351

----, Joseph, 276

----, Samuel, 364, 446

Seward, William Henry, 107

Shakespeare, 47, 129, 130

Shaw, Elizabeth, 259

Shays, Daniel, 276, 282, 284, 297, 340

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 111, 259, 381, 453

_Shooting Match, The_, 172

_Shoshonee Valley, The_, 163

Sibley, J. L., 467

Sidney, Algernon, 354, 420

“Sidney, Edward William,” 36

Simms, William Gilmore, ii, 37, 39, 47, 53, 54, 102, 110, 112,
125-136, 169, 190, 232, 474

_Sketches and Eccentricities of Col. David Crockett of West
Tennessee_, 173, 175, 176, 177

_Skipper Ireson’s Ride_, 370

_Slavery_, 333, 335

_Slavery in Massachusetts_, 412

_Social Destiny of Mankind, The_, 251

Socrates, 427

Solomon, 264, 265

_Song, The_, 172

_Songs of Labor_, 370

Sotheran, Charles, 254 n

_South Atlantic Quarterly, The_, 102 n

_Southern Plantation, The_, 102 n

_Southern Quarterly Review, The_, 39

_Southern Review, The_, 112, 114

Smith, Adam, vii, 3, 121, 241, 242, 243, 308, 400

----, Gerrit, 351, 359, 365

Smollett, Tobias, 128

_Snowbound_, 370

Sparks, Rev. Jared, 330, 367, 437

_Spectator, The_, 31

_Speech on the Compromise Measures_, 313

_Speech at New Haven_, 154

_Speech at Springfield_, 157, 159

_Speech in Wall Street_, 309 n

Spinoza, 264

_Spirit of the Sub-Treasury_, 122

Spotswood, Governor Alexander, 7, 45

Staël, Madame de, 381

Stansbury, Joseph, 186

Stanton, Theodore, 438 n

_State Rights Sentinel, The_, 171

Stedman, Edmund Clarence, 200, 238

Stephen, Leslie, 461, 469

Stephens, Alexander H., 39, 56, 62, 64, 65, 69, 82-93, 94, 167, 302,
473

Sterne, Lawrence, 31, 33, 35

Stiles, Rev. Ezra, 199

Stoddard, Richard Henry, 200, 238

Story, Joseph, 83, 88, 93, 117, 197, 260, 297, 300-303, 304, 311

----, W. W., 301

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 107, 314, 371-378, 428

_Stranger in America, The_, 95

Strauss, David Friedrich, 417

Stuart, Moses, 367

_Studies in Psychology_, 446

_Sullivan’s Island_, 114

Sumner, Charles, 106, 351

_Swallow Barn_, 28, 41, 50, 51, 52, 172, 377

Swift, Jonathan, 228, 453

Swinburne, Algernon Charles, 436, 466

Swinton, Mary, 115

Taine, Hippolyte, 466

Tandy, Jeannette Reid, 102

Tappan, Arthur, 351

----, Lewis, 351, 362

_Tariff, The_, 308 n

Taylor, John of Caroline, ii, 14-19, 20, 21, 29, 61, 90, 122, 123,
150, 153, 170, 217, 277, 299, 336

----, Zachary, 71

_Tempora Mutantur_, 470

_Tent on the Beach, The_, 369

Thackeray, William Makepeace, 47, 54

_Thanatopsis_, 239

_Thirty Years’ View_, 14, 151

_Thomas Carlyle and his Works_, 413

Thoreau, Henry David, 156, 258, 264, 266, 314, 319, 367, 389, 394,
400-413, 426, 433, 440, 449, 451, 458, 460

Thornton, W. T., 241

Ticknor, George, 116, 367, 437

_Timothy Flint, Pioneer, Missionary, Author, Editor_, 140, 141

Toombs, Robert, 39, 62, 86, 91

Tocqueville, Alexis de, vi

_Tour of the Prairies, A_, 211

_Transcendentalism in New England_, 348, 379, 380, 381

_Transcendentalist, The_, 384, 385

_Transient and Permanent in Christianity, On the_, 338

_Treatise on True Virtue, A_, 372

Trent, Professor William Peterfield, 39, 131

_Tribune, The_, 248, 249, 250, 251, 253, 254, 255

_Tristram Shandy_, 31, 47

Trollope, Mrs., 215

Tucker, Henry St. George, 299

----, Nathaniel Beverley, ii, 35-40, 41, 42, 47, 57, 119

Tuckerman, Henry T., 48, 238

Turner, J. M. W., 407

----, Nat, 355

Twain, Mark, 159, 172, 259, 366

Tweed, “Boss,” 471

Tyler, President John, 8, 116

_Typee_, 261

Ulpian, 117

_Uncle Robin in his Cabin in Virginia and Tom without one in Boston_,
102

_Uncle Tom’s Cabin_, 102, 376, 377, 441

_Unitarian Christianity most Favorable to Piety_, 330-331

Van Buren, Martin, 36, 55, 197, 203, 207, 217, 246

Vanderbilt, Commodore, 231, 474

Van Doren, Carl, 133

Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 194, 195, 231

Vattel, Emrich von, 117

_Virginians, The_, 54

Voet, 117

Voltaire, 382

_Vote Yourself a Farm_, 254

Waddell, Dr. Moses, 168

Wade, John Donald, 169, 170, 177 n

_Walden_, 400, 403, 405, 406, 407, 408, 413

Walker, Nathaniel, 327

----, Williston, 324, 324 n

Ware, Norman, 141

Washington, George, 7-8, 21, 48, 159, 194, 211, 265, 291, 292, 300,
301, 356, 437

_Waverley Novels_, 216

Weaver, Raymond, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 265

_Webster Address_, 424

Webster, Daniel, 37, 67, 69, 88, 90, 94, 116, 122, 144, 159, 177, 207
n, 227, 242, 246, 252, 278, 298, 299, 300, 301, 304-316, 317,
330, 335, 359, 367, 368, 387, 397, 398, 399, 412, 424, 458

Weed, Thurlow, 197

_Week, The_, 404, 406

Weems, “Parson,” 437

Weiss, John, 347, 412, 417 n, 422 n

Weld, Isaac, 215

Welles, Gideon, 64

Wendell, Barrett, 416 n, 427

Wertenbaker, Thomas J., 7, 8

_Western Monthly Magazine, The_, 164

_Western Souvenir, The; A Christmas and New Year’s Gift for 1829_, 164

_Westward Ho!_, 162, 163, 217, 220

Wette, Wilhelm Martin de, 417

Wharton, Edith, 435

_White Jacket_, 262

White, Maria, 351, 463, 465

Whitman, Walt, 127, 183, 222, 244, 264, 265, 366, 367

Whittier, John G., 244, 314, 315, 319, 351, 352, 359, 361-370, 377

----, Robert, 364

_Wieland_, 190

_Wilderness and the War-Path, The_, 165

Willard, President, 292

William IV, King, 452

_William Ellery Channing_, 330, 338

_William Gilmore Simms, Life of_, 39

Williams, Roger, 97, 327, 345, 379, 399

Willing, Mrs., 207 n

Willis, Nathaniel Parker, 200, 202, 238

Wilson, Henry, 469

_Windsor Forest_, 114

Winthrop, John, 124

----, Robert C., 47, 49

Wirt, William, 29, 30-35, 47, 48, 49, 56, 169

Wollstonecraft, Mary, 188, 189, 242, 331, 430, 432

_Woman in the Nineteenth Century_, 432

_Woodcraft_, 131, 134

Woods, Leonard, 367

Woolsey, Theodore, 94

Wordsworth, William, 111, 381, 389, 453, 466

_Working Man’s Advocate, The_, 254

_World’s Fair, The_, 470

Wright, Fannie, 242, 244, 428

----, Henry C., 343, 358

_Wyandotté_, 235

Wythe, George, 25, 29, 142, 143

Yates, Robert, 72

_Yemassee, The_, 134, 135

Young, Edward, 31, 111, 254

The Beginnings of Critical Realism in America [Volume Three]

Vernon Louis Parrington

The sudden death of Professor Vernon Louis Parrington in England, June 16, 1929, cut tragically short his labors on the last volume of _Main Currents in American Thought_. Of this third volume approximately the first half had been completed, which, together with the outline of the work and some scattered essays in sections otherwise undeveloped, constitutes all that the author left. Unfinished it is, yet no completion by another can be justified. That anyone could duplicate his felicity of style, so unobtrusively individual, so sensitively adjusted to the freighted thought, is hardly to be hoped for; and more important, that another scholar could accurately reproduce his interpretation is an assumption not to be warranted. The decision to publish the author’s incomplete work is a tribute to his brilliance.

Nevertheless it is possible to know Professor Parrington’s chief intentions, particularly when one understands, as his associates did, his principles for organizing materials and his standards of value. Students as well as associates first of all noticed beneath the richness and complexity of his thought a constancy of purpose as clear as the treatment of mass in a Gothic cathedral. Indeed it was through a delight in architecture pursued as a hobby for many years that Parrington expressed this desire for a unity, balanced, harmonious, and properly proportioned.

This architectonic feeling, abundantly illustrated in his writing habits, was carried over not only into his classroom procedure and conversation, but also into his varied interests. Painting as well as architecture had long intrigued him. Though few people knew it, he wrote poetry distinguished for restraint in expression and clarity of form; while in conversation he persistently sought the appropriate phrase, spiced it with wit, salted it with homely realism; for no gentleman of the eighteenth century was more conscious of the charms of good discourse.

Professor Parrington’s classroom procedure had a reputation that attracted students not much interested in literature and which appealed to all ranges of intellect. The source of that popularity was the personality of the teacher, together with his gift for presenting ideas and evoking a response. By means of a Socratic cross-examination Parrington made the student discover his intellectual deficiencies; while the class, to its astonishment and delight, found the quest for truth both elusive and exciting. Surprise and satisfied expectation kept the easily bored from sinking into apathy, for there was no telling from day to day just what Professor Parrington was going to do. He paired every occasion with a fitting response; yet this flexibility did not degenerate into an aimless drifting, since he persistently simplified his main objectives and concentrated the material to be studied, while expressing its meaning through a significant symbol or a telling phrase. His classes in the eighteenth century, for example, were given the concept of harmony, balance, and proportion. They found it in architecture, they saw it in dress, they heard it in conversation, they watched it work out in the heroic couplet, they pursued it in Addison, Pope, and Swift; in short, they analyzed the whole social structure of the age and discovered it everywhere. A germinal idea, Parrington liked to call it, while he held it before the class like a many-faceted crystal, slowly turning it around and around so the student could see every face. As a result no student who had taken the course ever forgot the significance of this architectonic trilogy.

In writing habits there was a similar all-encompassing purpose. He habitually began with his thesis--a phrase, a sentence, or a revealing figure. This was examined and stripped of its implications as one would peel an onion layer by layer. So imperious was the habit of this procedure that his ability to write would be blocked until he had in mind a perfectly crystallized concept expressible at the maximum in one sentence. An example of this occurred shortly before he left on his trip to England. He had been working on the period that Mark Twain had labeled the “Gilded Age,” but found the title inadequate to his idea, and, as a result, his writing did not get on. Another day some weeks later there was an obvious satisfaction expressed in his bearing and an exceptionally pronounced twinkle in his eye. “I have found the phrase,” he said; “I will call it The Great Barbecue.” Similarly, the three volumes of this work began in a single paragraph which by progressive unfoldings he expanded to its present scope.

After having made a provisional outline, with each section condensed into a single sentence, he began writing, completing a unit here or there as circumstance and mood directed. When it was completed the process of readjustment began. Each portion was inspected for its length, which had to be fitted to its relative importance; an emphasis here was shifted to balance an emphasis there; the mood of one part was altered to make it harmonize with the mood of its neighbor. As many as twelve times he rewrote a single section in this complex and delicate effort for harmonious adjustment. Finally, he made from this his finished outline.

Knowing Professor Parrington’s methods one can now understand the problem he faced and the solution he found when bent on the task of writing a history of American literature. Although he was by nature partial to the claims of aesthetics, yet it was obvious to him that such an approach was foredoomed to failure. All too few of the American writers would deserve treatment on any aesthetic test, while many who were undeniably significant could not possibly be left out even though inferior artistically. Moreover, one only had to look at the numerous attempts already made to see the failure of the belletristic interpretation. What were these histories of American literature? Sprawling lists of names arranged in a fashion that gave little save conventionalized data and some dubious evaluations. Already there was a widespread demand for a new interpretation growing out of these past failures.

Professor Parrington found the first step to a solution when he remembered the day he opened Taine’s _Histoire de la littérature anglaise_. It had come as a new and inspiring discovery to find a method that envisaged the literature of a people as the inevitable outgrowth of their racial peculiarities, environment, and epoch. It is true that the claim set up by Paine, that his method was scientific and could account for every phenomenon, proved to be unfounded; but nevertheless his work was epoch-making; it gave a unity and a significance never before attained, and this was what attracted Parrington. Nothing less unifying than Paine’s method was thinkable.

A second source of inspiration came from a close friend and colleague, J. Allen Smith, another pioneer figure, who applied to the abstract theorizings of political science the economic realities that underlie and determine them. The method was so fruitful of results that it quickly spread to a group of American political scientists, from whose findings much of Parrington’s significant work received its first flattering confirmation. Under such a stimulus Parrington was quick to realize the fruitfulness of economic determinism when applied even to literature.

A third idea completed the synthesis. When he envisaged American literature as American thought, the trammel of the belletristic was broken and he was free to reëvaluate American writers, to follow the trail of their work wherever it led; for at last he had found a method true to facts, yet one which would satisfy his insatiable demand for a significant unity, balanced, harmonious, and properly proportioned. The economic forces imprint their mark upon political, social, and religious institutions; literature expresses the result in its thought content.

But a technique, though vitally necessary, is not the end of the story. There still remains, even for the most impartial scholar, the final and, be it admitted, inescapable evaluation. Parrington was too honest with himself to dodge the issue; he made his choice and abided the result. In the foreword to the first volume he made his confession: “The point of view from which I have endeavored to evaluate the materials is liberal rather than conservative, Jeffersonian rather than Federalistic; and very likely in my search I have found what I went forth to find, as others have discovered what they were seeking. Unfortunately the _mens aequa et clara_ is the rarest of attributes, and dead partisanships have a disconcerting way of coming to life again in the pages of their historians. That the vigorous passions and prejudices of the time I have dealt with may have found an echo in my judgments is, perhaps, to be expected; whether they have distorted my interpretation and vitiated my analysis is not for me to determine.”

Professor Parrington’s _Main Currents in American Thought_ has, then, for its subject the adventures of American liberalism. To anyone alive to the issue an adventurous story it is, as becomes more apparent when the author’s own liberalism is completely understood. Those sections where his sympathies are kindled, where he stamps his seal of enthusiastic admiration, provide the clue which his treatment of Roger Williams, Benjamin Franklin, Tom Paine, Jefferson, Emerson, Thoreau, Channing, and Theodore Parker assuredly verifies. All of his latent enthusiasms burst into bloom until, as in his essay on Roger Williams, nothing less than the cadence and passion of the Song of Solomon would express it. “Running through his writings is a recurrent echo of the Hebrew love-song that Puritan thought suffused with glowing mysticism: ‘I am my beloved’s and my beloved is mine: he feedeth among the lilies.... I will arise now, and go about the city in the streets, and in the broad ways I will seek him whom my soul loveth.’ But when he went into the broad ways of Carolinian England, seeking the rose of Sharon and the lily of the valley, he discovered only abominations. The lover was tempted by false kisses; the Golden Image was set up in the high places, and the voice of authority commanded to bow down to it. And so as a Christian mystic Roger Williams became a Separatist, and set his mind upon the new world where the lover might dwell with his bride.”[477]

The liberalism of Parrington had this great virtue, which all too many creeds lack: it was built on an obligation first to examine and understand all points of view before exercising the right to condemn them. Although he disliked the personalities and groaned at the dreary pages of men like Cotton Mather, yet he was not satisfied until he got at their marrow. And again there was an abiding sense of the humane in Parrington before which all abstractions, generalizations, and logical systems had to pass in review. He feared above all, as did the sensitive Jefferson, the cancer of power. “Man,” he used to say, “has never proved himself worthy of an unrestrained control of his fellows, nor has any special group of men ever been dominant without injustice to others.” Combined with this love of freedom was an urbanity and a sense of personal integrity not subject to the interference of outside forces in convention or mob--an integrity which so impressed everyone having contact with the man, that he has been often called an aristocrat. Parrington would not have objected to the label, nor have seen it as contradictory to the principles of liberalism, since in his opinion only liberalism expressing itself in a democratic society provides for the free exercise of personal rights. Elevating oneself by riding on the shoulders of others, a common device of the pseudo-aristocrat, was to him but a vulgar gymnastic performance.

When he described Jefferson “with his aristocratic head set on a plebeian frame”[478] he was unconsciously describing himself, for there was a deep love of the soil in Parrington. One saw it, surprisingly, in his hands. They were thick and sturdy, blunted at the ends as if from too much delving into the black loam of his flower garden, where roses, peonies, and crocuses were cherished companions, and the delight of his leisure hours. He secretly suspected the apartment dweller as any true farmer would; and though there was a twinkle in his eye when he called New York a Babylon or spoke of its corrupting influence on scholar and artist, yet there was a meaning implied more serious than the jest.

It was Parrington’s hope to vindicate this liberalism “stemming,” as he said, “from the fruitful loins of the eighteenth century.” As he diagnosed it, that era had two creative currents of thought: a hopeful, vigorous liberalism, together with a sturdy realism which did not balk at men’s selfishness or deny the economic basis of social forces. Unfortunately the nineteenth-century liberal attended only to hopes and neglected the realism, while the swelling forces of industrialism accepted the economic realities but cynically brutalized them. Failure was the inevitable result; the liberals despair while Babbitt, regnant, infests the country with his blustering agents. In the unfinished section of this last volume it was Parrington’s purpose to show this parlous state of twentieth-century America, to discern the hopeful gleam in the darkness, and to uncover the hidden forces working for a more stable and just society. Parrington’s point of view then, was that of a staunch and kindly liberalism, the motif in the three volumes, the theme never absent from a page of the whole composition. It is a liberalism not to be found in any program yet formulated by political party or economic sect; it is rather a generous idealism that can envisage a future richer in values, more humane in distribution of favors than any known past. Wise to the ways of man, such a liberalism refuses confinement in the strait-jacket of any set formula, yet escapes the emasculation awaiting mere enthusiasm; for it can separate foes from friends and recognize the point where compromise means surrender.

If my analysis thus far is to any purpose it will suggest what these main objectives that Parrington never completed were to have been. The unfinished Book Two was to chronicle three parties of revolt against the plutocracy born of the Gilded Age. Of these rebellions the first was engendered on the Middle Border, where the farmers, beset by hard times, struck out against the source of their ills. As the agrarians diagnosed the situation, these economic maladjustments were brought on by a currency manipulated for the benefit of creditors, and further enhanced by capitalistic control of the political machine. One of the last of Parrington’s completed units deals with the economic phase of the revolt; the next section was to record the farmer’s effort to democratize the government. Through pressure of third-party movements the farmers tried to inject such reforms as the initiative and referendum, the recall, the direct primary, and the income tax; until, seduced by Bryan’s oratory, they joined with the Democrats in an attack upon the intrenchments of capitalism. As Parrington saw it, these agrarian descendants of Jefferson, lacking the intellectual leadership which the South had contributed in earlier days, at a tactical disadvantage, and already a minority economic group, were fated to lose their last great uprising.

Also out of the valley of the Mississippi came a literature of the Middle Border. Such writers as Edward Eggleston and E. W. Howe had already initiated a realism that revealed the drabness of frontier life and suggested its smoldering discontent, although the pastoral note fathered by the genial and romantic James Whitcomb Riley did not lack its prose children. Notably did Meredith Nicholson, William Allen White, and Booth Tarkington[479] portray the village neighborliness, its wholesomeness, its spirit of democracy, until they cast such a fog of sentiment over the scene as to blur all the realities. But the true spirit of Populism is represented in the impassioned work of Hamlin Garland, whose “admirable realism and passionate democracy” Parrington depicts in a chapter that he completed.

The second chorus of dissent came from the very citadels of plutocracy, for the wage-earners, unable to escape slavery by flight to an unshackled frontier that no longer existed, were brought to bay. The doctrine of class war, which had been ignored since the eighteenth century, was revived by the German socialists and given an added plausibility by the employers’ unscrupulous use of injunction, black list, and lockout. T. V. Powderly, who found a solution to the labor problem in syndicalism, organized the Knights of Labor. Although this union had a promising inception, it was soon wrecked, while the craft unionism recommended by Samuel Gompers forged to the front because of its middle-class ideology and spirit of compromise. On the other hand the left wing of the labor cause embraced various brands of socialism. The tragic flare-up of the Haymarket riot, which resulted in a “red” scare and persecution of the humane Governor Altgeld, served Parrington as a dramatic illustration of the obloquy that descended upon the leaders of socialism, Daniel De Leon, Eugene V. Debs, and Victor Berger. Needless to say, Parrington had planned a vindication of them horn of his desire to see more justice in the world.

There were echoes of this proletarian strife manifested in the world of letters. Certain writers following Edward Bellamy joined the quest for a socialistic Utopia. Parrington had completed his passage on Bellamy, but of the party formed to agitate for principles advanced in _Looking Backward_ and of the other writers of Utopian novels, such as Tourgée, he left no treatment. A second set of writers were grouped together by reason of their common concern over the darkening future of American civilization. Edwin Markham, his humanitarian sympathies aroused, penned an indictment of wage exploitation in his “The Man with the Hoe” that caused no little concern in its day and spurred defenders of the existing economic system to offer liberal prizes for an equally convincing reply. The emergence of naturalism, seen in Stephen Crane[480] and Frank Norris,[480] was also a response to the darkening social outlook. Parrington defined naturalism as “a pessimistic realism that sets man in a mechanical world.” He traced this pessimistic determinism to the machine industrialism so overwhelming in its power as to impress man with his own impotence, to the centralization of wealth, which causes a caste regimentation of society, and finally to the great city, which reduces the inhabitant to an infinitesimal unit of a vast beehive. Other writers, equally oppressed by this state of affairs, concentrated on the phenomena of the city. It was here that Parrington intended to discuss Henry B. Fuller, Harold Frederic, Robert Grant, and Edith Wharton.[481]

The third party of revolt was a hesitant one--the South, still convalescing from the Civil War and further weakened by divisions in its counsels. Though burdened by parochial creeds, weakened by lack of intellectual leadership, the agrarian South, largely plebeian, joined the Middle Border in its uprising. The middle-class South, represented by Henry W. Grady, proposed a surrender to the Yankee principle of industrial exploitation, while the remnant of the old aristocracy resisted the new and clung to the traditions of the past. Thomas Nelson Page, Joel Chandler Harris, Mary Murfree, and George Washington Cable attended to these romantic traditions of the plantation, the negro, the mountaineer, and the creole; while Sidney Lanier[482] became the poet of southern landscape and sunrise. Far more significant in Parrington’s eye was the rebirth of a southern intelligentsia represented in letters by Ellen Glasgow, W. W. Woodward, the debunker, and James Branch Cabell,[483] the ironic romanticist. Professor Parrington, who had been among the first to appreciate Cabell, admired the competence of his style and the effectiveness of his ironic commentary on American civilization.

Book Three was to present the movement of liberalism from 1903 to 1917, and the reaction to it following the war. Parrington called this period of liberalism the “great stock-taking venture.” These liberals announced that the democratic hopes of earlier days had not been fulfilled, that the Constitution is not a democratic instrument nor was it intended to be, and that while Americans were professing to create a democracy, they had been creating in fact a plutocracy. They then determined upon a new program based on their discovery of the relations between economics and politics. Such relations made necessary the control of property by the collective will, and to that end they endeavored to squeeze the Hamiltonian state into a Jeffersonian mold.[484]

The muckrakers of 1903 to 1910 attacked the plutocracy where its joints creaked. In effect this group of writers from Henry D. Lloyd to Charles Edward Russell, Gustavus Meyers, and A. M. Simons popularized economics and made the liberals conscious of what was going on behind the closed doors of the directors’ meetings. On the other hand, the movement of Progressivism, engaged in the hopeless task of directing the political machinery to democratic ends, was typified by Robert La Follette, Theodore Roosevelt, and Woodrow Wilson. Only one, La Follette, remained true to the colors; the other two compromised, then surrendered, and the hopes of liberalism went down in a tragic _débâcle_.