Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (97)

Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free
elections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between the
various political parties precipitated repeated changes in
leadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent
discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increased
attention to the small island nation.

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to
Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official
title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman Al SAUD
(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian
Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abd
al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992
Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia
accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while
allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the
liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of
foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a
source of tension between the royal family and the public until all
operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist
attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaign
against domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH has
continued the cautious reform program begun when he was crown
prince. To promote increased political participation, the government
held elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for half
the members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, King
ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining members
of the advisory municipal councils. The king instituted an
Inter-Faith Dialogue initiative in 2008 to encourage religious
tolerance on a global level; in February 2009, he reshuffled the
cabinet, which led to more moderates holding ministerial and
judicial positions, and appointed the first female to the cabinet.
The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and
holds more than 20% of the world's proven oil reserves. The
government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,
particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December
2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoning
population, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on
petroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.

Senegal
The French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan were
merged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federation
in 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joined
with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in
1982. The envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement of
Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-level
separatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, and
several peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.
Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in
Africa. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years until
current President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He was
reelected in February 2007 and has amended Senegal's constitution
over a dozen times to increase executive power and to weaken the
opposition, part of the President's increasingly autocratic
governing style. Senegal has a long history of participating in
international peacekeeping and regional mediation.

Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various
paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division
of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic
opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political
movement headed by Josip "TITO" Broz (Partisans) took full control
of Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were
defeated in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his
successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between
the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half
decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the
Republic of Serbia and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian
domination led to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic
lines. In 1991, Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared
independence, followed by Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of
Serbia and Montenegro declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
(FRY) in April 1992 and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led
various military campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring
republics into a "Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia
being ousted from the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its -
ultimately unsuccessful - campaign until signing the Dayton Peace
Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC kept tight control over Serbia and
eventually became president of the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic
Albanian insurgency in the formerly autonomous Serbian province of
Kosovo provoked a Serbian counterinsurgency campaign that resulted
in massacres and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in
Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC government's rejection of a proposed
international settlement led to NATO's bombing of Serbia in the
spring of 1999, to the withdrawal of Serbian military and police
forces from Kosovo in June 1999, and to the stationing of a NATO-led
force in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure environment for the
region's ethnic communities. FRY elections in late 2000 led to the
ouster of MILOSEVIC and the installation of democratic government.
MILOSEVIC was arrested in 2001 and sent to be tried in The Hague for
crimes against humanity; he died in March 2006 before the completion
of his trial. In 2001, the country's suspension from the UN was
lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia and Montenegro, a loose
federation of the two republics with a federal level parliament.
Widespread violence predominantly targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo
in March 2004 caused the international community to open
negotiations on the future status of Kosovo in January 2006. In May
2006, Montenegro invoked its right to secede from the federation and
- following a successful referendum - it declared itself an
independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days later, Serbia declared
that it was the successor state to the union of Serbia and
Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in October 2006
and adopted the following month. In February 2008, after nearly two
years of inconclusive negotiations, the UN-administered province of
Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia - an action Serbia
refuses to recognize. At Serbia's request, the UN General Assembly
(UNGA) in October 2008 sought an advisory opinion from the
International Court of Justice (ICJ) on whether Kosovo's unilateral
declaration of independence was in accordance with international
law. In a ruling considered unfavorable to Serbia, the ICJ issued an
advisory opinion in July 2010 stating that international law did not
prohibit declarations of independence. In late 2010, Serbia agreed
to an EU-drafted UNGA Resolution acknowledging the ICJ's decision
and calling for a new round of talks between Serbia and Kosovo.

Seychelles
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. President
France-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in
2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL took
over the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-year
term.

Sierra Leone
Democracy is slowly being reestablished after the civil
war from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths
and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-third
of the population). The military, which took over full
responsibility for security following the departure of UN
peacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as a
guarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained on
the sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still look
to the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilian
UN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The new
government's priorities include furthering development, creating
jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.

Singapore
Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.
It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years
later and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one of
the world's most prosperous countries with strong international
trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of
tonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the
leading nations of Western Europe.

Sint Maarten
Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished the island of Saint Martin to the
French and Dutch, who divided it amongst themselves in 1648. The
establishment of cotton, tobacco, and sugar plantations dramatically
expanded slavery on the island in the 18th and 19th centuries; the
practice was not abolished in the Dutch half until 1863. The
island's economy declined until 1939 when it became a free port; the
tourism industry was dramatically expanded beginning in the 1950s.
In 1954, Sint Maarten and several other Dutch Caribbean possessions
became part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands as the Netherlands
Antilles. In a 2000 referendum, the citizens of Sint Maarten voted
to become a self-governing country within the Kingdom of the
Netherlands. The change in status became effective in October of
2010 with the dissolution of the Netherlands Antilles.

Slovakia
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the close
of World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely related
Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominated
Eastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and
Czechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs
agreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004 and the euro area on 1
January 2009.

Slovenia
The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
until the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,
the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new
multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World
War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short
10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and
a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a
modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring
of 2004; it joined the eurozone in 2007.

Solomon Islands
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World War
II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in
1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government
malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil
society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA sought
the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the
following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to
restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance
Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective
in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.

Somalia
Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow
its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new
nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre
ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule characterized by the
persecution, jailing and torture of political opponents and
dissidents. After the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia
descended into turmoil, factional fighting, and anarchy. In May
1991, northern clans declared an independent Republic of Somaliland
that now includes the administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi
Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag, and Sool. Although not recognized by any
government, this entity has maintained a stable existence and
continues efforts to establish a constitutional democracy, including
holding municipal, parliamentary, and presidential elections. The
regions of Bari, Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring
semi-autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing
since 1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made
strides toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative
government but has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its
border with Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool
and Sanaag. Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort
(primarily in the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions,
but when the UN withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant
casualties, order still had not been restored. In 2000, the Somalia
National Peace Conference (SNPC) held in Djibouti resulted in the
formation of an interim government, known as the Transitional
National Government (TNG). When the TNG failed to establish adequate
security or governing institutions, the Government of Kenya, under
the auspices of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development
(IGAD), led a subsequent peace process that concluded in October
2004 with the election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of a
second interim government, known as the Transitional Federal
Government (TFG) of the Somali Republic. The TFG included a
275-member parliamentary body, known as the Transitional Federal
Parliament (TFP). President YUSUF resigned late in 2008 while United
Nations-sponsored talks between the TFG and the opposition Alliance
for the Re-Liberation of Somalia (ARS) were underway in Djibouti. In
January 2009, following the creation of a TFG-ARS unity government,
Ethiopian military forces, which had entered Somalia in December
2006 to support the TFG in the face of advances by the opposition
Islamic Courts Union (ICU), withdrew from the country. The TFP was
increased to 550 seats with the addition of 200 ARS and 75 civil
society members of parliament. The expanded parliament elected
Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed, the former CIC and ARS chairman as
president on 31 January 2009, in Djibouti. Subsequently, President
SHARIF appointed Omar Abdirashid ali SHARMARKE, son of a former
president of Somalia, as prime minister on 13 February 2009.
SHARMARKE resigned in September 2010 and was replaced by Mohamed
Abdullahi MOHAMED, aka Farmajo, a dual US-Somali citizen that lived
in the United Stated from 1985 until his return to Somalia in
October 2010. The creation of the TFG was based on the Transitional
Federal Charter (TFC), which outlines a five-year mandate leading to
the establishment of a new Somali constitution and a transition to a
representative government following national elections. However, in
January 2009 the TFP amended the TFC to extend TFG's mandate until
2011.

South Africa
Dutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern day
South Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spice
route between the Netherlands and the Far East, founding the city of
Cape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in
1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found
their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold
(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the
subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British
encroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);
however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,
ruled together beginning in 1910 under the Union of South Africa,
which became a republic in 1961 after a whites-only referendum. In
1948, the National Party was voted into power and instituted a
policy of apartheid - the separate development of the races - which
favored the white minority at the expense of the black majority. The
African National Congress (ANC) led the opposition to apartheid and
many top ANC leaders, such as Nelson MANDELA, spent decades in South
Africa's prisons. Internal protests and insurgency, as well as
boycotts by some Western nations and institutions, led to the
regime's eventual willingness to negotiate a peaceful transition to
majority rule. The first multi-racial elections in 1994 brought an
end to apartheid and ushered in majority rule under an ANC-led
government. South Africa since then has struggled to address
apartheid-era imbalances in decent housing, education, and health
care. ANC infighting, which has grown in recent years, came to a
head in September 2008 when President Thabo MBEKI resigned, and
Kgalema MOTLANTHE, the party's General-Secretary, succeeded him as
interim president. Jacob ZUMA became president after the ANC won
general elections in April 2009. In January 2011, South Africa
assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the
2011-12 term.

South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
The islands, which have
large bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east of
the Falkland Islands and have been under British administration
since 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentina
occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early
20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETON
stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to cross
Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a few
companions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for the
rest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in
1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,
the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.
Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks in
adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishing
zone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.

Southern Ocean
A large body of recent oceanographic research has
shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current
that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role
in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the
ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a
distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with
the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a
unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,
which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for a
greater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, the
International Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit the
waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern
Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which
coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates the
extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is
now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic
Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does
not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary
oceans by the US Government.

Spain
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries
ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent
failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused
the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic
and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II
but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peaceful
transition to democracy following the death of dictator Francisco
FRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined the
EU in 1986) gave Spain a dynamic and rapidly growing economy and
made it a global champion of freedom and human rights. The
government continues to battle the Basque Fatherland and Liberty
(ETA) terrorist organization, but its major focus for the immediate
future will be on measures to reverse the severe economic recession
that started in mid-2008.

Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small
islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and
potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their
entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed
by Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied by
relatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established a
fishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made any
formal claim.

Sri Lanka
The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th
century B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced
in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilization
developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.
to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In
the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom
in northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island were
controlled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in
the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,
became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by
1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed
to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and
Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. After two decades of
fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)
formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway brokering peace
negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and government forces
intensified in 2006 and the government regained control of the
Eastern Province in 2007. In May 2009, the government announced that
its military had finally defeated the remnants of the LTTE and that
its leader, Velupillai PRABHAKARAN, had been killed.

Sudan
Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have
dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.
Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of the
remainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted in
northern economic, political, and social domination of largely
non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in
1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-related
effects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,
according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over a
period of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 with
the signing of several accords. The final North/South Comprehensive
Peace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southern
rebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum for
independence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, which
broke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displaced
nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000
deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operation
from the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2009,
peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,
which has become increasingly regional in scope and has brought
instability to eastern Chad. Sudan also has faced large refugee
influxes from neighboring countries primarily Ethiopia and Chad.
Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of
government support have chronically obstructed the provision of
humanitarian assistance to affected populations.

Suriname
First explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century and
then settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname became
a Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,
workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from the
Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian
government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a
socialist republic. It continued to exert control through a
succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when
international pressure finally forced a democratic election. In
1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but a
democratically elected government - a four-party coalition -
returned to power in 1991. The coalition expanded to eight parties
in 2005 and has continued to rule since.

Svalbard
First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the
islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and
18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five
years later it officially took over the territory.

Swaziland
Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed
by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in
1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured King
MSWATI III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allow
political reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid on
these promises in recent years. A constitution came into effect in
2006, but political parties remain banned. The African United
Democratic Party tried unsuccessfully to register as an official
political party in mid 2006. Talks over the constitution broke down
between the government and progressive groups in 2007. Swaziland
recently surpassed Botswana as the country with the world's highest
known HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.

Sweden
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not
participated in any war for almost two centuries. An armed
neutrality was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's
long-successful economic formula of a capitalist system interlarded
with substantial welfare elements was challenged in the 1990s by
high unemployment and in 2000-02 and 2009 by the global economic
downturns, but fiscal discipline over the past several years has
allowed the country to weather economic vagaries. Sweden joined the
EU in 1995, but the public rejected the introduction of the euro in
a 2003 referendum.

Switzerland
The Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as a
defensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, other
localities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederation
secured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. A
constitution of 1848, subsequently modified in 1874, replaced the
confederation with a centralized federal government. Switzerland's
sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the major
European powers, and the country was not involved in either of the
two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe
over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN
and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties
with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a
UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and
international organizations but retains a strong commitment to
neutrality.

Syria
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence
in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and
experienced a series of military coups during its first decades.
Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab
Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the
Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz
al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority
Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political
stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost
the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held
occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of
President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as
president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -
stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -
were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict
between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on
alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally
Hizballah. In May 2007 Bashar al-ASAD was elected to his second term
as president.

Taiwan
In 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan to
Japan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.
Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 million
Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the
1947 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next five
decades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized and
incorporated the local population within the governing structure. In
2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from the
Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout this
period, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic
"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be the
relationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question of
Taiwan's eventual status - as well as domestic political and
economic reform.

Tajikistan
The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and
1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following the
Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercely
contested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Much of
present-day Sughd province was transferred from the Uzbek SSR to the
newly formed Tajik SSR in 1929. Ethnic Uzbeks form a substantial
minority in Sughd province. Tajikistan became independent in 1991
following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and experienced a civil
war between regional factions from 1992-97. There have been no major
security incidents in recent years, although the country remains the
poorest in the former Soviet sphere. Attention by the international
community since the beginning of the NATO intervention in
Afghanistan has brought increased economic development and security
assistance, which could create jobs and strengthen stability in the
long term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World Trade
Organization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.

Tanzania
Shortly after achieving independence from Britain in the
early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of
Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the
first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.
Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to
two contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party won
despite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.

Thailand
A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th
century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast
Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A
bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In
alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US treaty
ally following the conflict. A military coup in September 2006
ousted then Prime Minister THAKSIN Chinnawat. The interim government
held elections in December 2007 that saw the former pro-THAKSIN
People's Power Party (PPP) emerge at the head of a coalition
government. The anti-THAKSIN People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD)
in May 2008 began street demonstrations against the new government,
eventually occupying the prime minister's office in August and
Bangkok's two international airports in November. The PAD ended
their protests in early December 2008 following a court ruling that
dissolved the ruling PPP and two other coalition parties for
election violations. The Democrat Party then formed a new coalition
government and ABHISIT Wetchachiwa became prime minister. In October
2008 THAKSIN went into voluntary exile to avoid imprisonment for a
corruption conviction, and has since agitated his followers from
abroad. THAKSIN supporters re-organized into the United Front for
Democracy Against Dictatorship (UDD) and rioted in April 2009,
shutting down an ASEAN meeting in Phuket, and in early 2010
protested a court verdict confiscating most of THAKSIN's wealth.
Between March and May 2010, the UDD staged large protests and
occupied several blocks of downtown Bangkok. A government operation
to disperse the protesters after nine weeks led to clashes that
resulted in 89 deaths and an estimated $1.5 billion in arson-related
property losses. These protests exposed major cleavages in the Thai
body politic which continue to hamper the current government. Since
January 2004, thousands have been killed as separatists in
Thailand's southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces increased the
violence associated with their cause.

Timor-Leste
The Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor
in the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century.
Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an
1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the
island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945,
but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in
World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal
on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian
forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July
1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful
campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during
which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.
On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, an
overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for
independence from Indonesia. Between the referendum and the arrival
of a multinational peacekeeping force in late September 1999,
anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the
Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth
campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400
Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into western Timor as
refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including
homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and
nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20
September 1999, the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the
International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) deployed to the
country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002,
Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.
In late April 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's
security when a military strike led to violence and a near breakdown
of law and order. At Dili's request, an Australian-led International
Stabilization Force (ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste in late May. In
August, the UN Security Council established the UN Integrated
Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police
presence of over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restored
stability, allowing for presidential and parliamentary elections in
April and June 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere. In February
2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack against the
president and prime minister. The ringleader was killed in the
attack and the majority of the rebels surrendered in April 2008.
Since the unsuccessful attacks the government has enjoyed one of its
longest periods of post-independence stability.

Togo
French Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,
installed as military ruler in 1967, ruled Togo with a heavy hand
for almost four decades. Despite the facade of multiparty elections
instituted in the early 1990s, the government was largely dominated
by President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) party
has maintained power almost continually since 1967 and maintains a
majority of seats in today's legislature. Upon EYADEMA's death in
February 2005, the military installed the president's son, Faure
GNASSINGBE, and then engineered his formal election two months
later. Democratic gains since then allowed Togo to hold its first
relatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007.
After years of political unrest and condemnation from international
organizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally being
re-welcomed into the international community.

Tokelau
Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding
island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate
in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in
1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of the
islands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of free
association with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold for
approval.

Tonga
Tonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lost
its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The Friendly
Islands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became
a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in
1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth
of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.

Trinidad and Tobago
First colonized by the Spanish, the islands came
under British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugar
industry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.
Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers from
India between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as well
as the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910
added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.
The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks
largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.
Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
The government is coping with a rise in violent crime.

Tunisia
Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia
culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a
protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following
World War I was finally successful in getting the French to
recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's
first president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-party
state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic
fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any
other Arab nation. In November 1987, BOURGUIBA was removed from
office and replaced by Zine el Abidine BEN ALI in a bloodless coup.
BEN ALI is currently serving his fifth consecutive five-year term as
president. Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in
its foreign relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising
pressure for a more open political society.

Turkey
Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants
of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who
was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."
Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging
social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party
rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950
election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful
transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have
multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of
instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),
which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political
power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the
ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then
Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus
in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since
acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"
which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984
by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's
Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the
Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.
After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents
largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK
announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK
increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a
member of NATO. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of the
European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many
reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession
membership talks with the European Union in 2005.

Turkmenistan
Eastern Turkmenistan for centuries formed part of the
Persian province of Khurasan; in medieval times Merv (today known as
Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an
important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia between 1865 and
1885, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved
independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensive
hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to this
underdeveloped country once extraction and delivery projects are
expanded. The Turkmen Government is actively working to diversify
its gas export routes beyond the still dominant Russian pipeline
network. In 2010, new gas export pipelines that carry Turkmen gas to
China and to northern Iran began operating, effectively ending the
Russian monopoly on Turkmen gas exports. President for Life
Saparmurat NYYAZOW died in December 2006, and Turkmenistan held its
first multi-candidate presidential election in February 2007.
Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a deputy cabinet chairman under NYYAZOW,
emerged as the country's new president.

Turks and Caicos Islands
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
remain a British overseas territory.

Tuvalu
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.

Uganda
The colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Uganda
grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with different
political systems and cultures. These differences prevented the
establishment of a working political community after independence
was achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)
was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla
war and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at
least another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986
has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. During
the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential and
legislative elections.

Ukraine
Ukraine was the center of the first eastern Slavic state,
Kyivan Rus, which during the 10th and 11th centuries was the largest
and most powerful state in Europe. Weakened by internecine quarrels
and Mongol invasions, Kyivan Rus was incorporated into the Grand
Duchy of Lithuania and eventually into the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth. The cultural and religious legacy of Kyivan Rus laid
the foundation for Ukrainian nationalism through subsequent
centuries. A new Ukrainian state, the Cossack Hetmanate, was
established during the mid-17th century after an uprising against
the Poles. Despite continuous Muscovite pressure, the Hetmanate
managed to remain autonomous for well over 100 years. During the
latter part of the 18th century, most Ukrainian ethnographic
territory was absorbed by the Russian Empire. Following the collapse
of czarist Russia in 1917, Ukraine was able to achieve a short-lived
period of independence (1917-20), but was reconquered and forced to
endure a brutal Soviet rule that engineered two forced famines
(1921-22 and 1932-33) in which over 8 million died. In World War II,
German and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 to 8 million
more deaths. Although final independence for Ukraine was achieved in
1991 with the dissolution of the USSR, democracy and prosperity
remained elusive as the legacy of state control and endemic
corruption stalled efforts at economic reform, privatization, and
civil liberties. A peaceful mass protest "Orange Revolution" in the
closing months of 2004 forced the authorities to overturn a rigged
presidential election and to allow a new internationally monitored
vote that swept into power a reformist slate under Viktor
YUSHCHENKO. Subsequent internal squabbles in the YUSHCHENKO camp
allowed his rival Viktor YANUKOVYCH to stage a comeback in
parliamentary elections and become prime minister in August of 2006.
An early legislative election, brought on by a political crisis in
the spring of 2007, saw Yuliya TYMOSHENKO, as head of an "Orange"
coalition, installed as a new prime minister in December 2007.
Viktor YANUKOVUYCH was elected president in a February 2010 run-off
election that observers assessed as meeting most international
standards. The following month, the Rada approved a vote of
no-confidence prompting Yuliya TYMOSHENKO to resign from her post as
prime minister.

United Arab Emirates
The Trucial States of the Persian Gulf coast
granted the UK control of their defense and foreign affairs in 19th
century treaties. In 1971, six of these states - Abu Zaby, 'Ajman,
Al Fujayrah, Ash Shariqah, Dubayy, and Umm al Qaywayn - merged to
form the United Arab Emirates (UAE). They were joined in 1972 by
Ra's al Khaymah. The UAE's per capita GDP is on par with those of
leading West European nations. Its generosity with oil revenues and
its moderate foreign policy stance have allowed the UAE to play a
vital role in the affairs of the region. For more than three
decades, oil and global finance drove the UAE's economy, however, in
2008-09, the confluence of falling oil prices, collapsing real
estate prices, and the international banking crisis hit the UAE
especially hard.

United Kingdom
The United Kingdom has historically played a leading
role in developing parliamentary democracy and in advancing
literature and science. At its zenith in the 19th century, the
British Empire stretched over one-fourth of the earth's surface. The
first half of the 20th century saw the UK's strength seriously
depleted in two World Wars and the Irish republic withdraw from the
union. The second half witnessed the dismantling of the Empire and
the UK rebuilding itself into a modern and prosperous European
nation. As one of five permanent members of the UN Security Council,
a founding member of NATO, and of the Commonwealth, the UK pursues a
global approach to foreign policy. The UK is also an active member
of the EU, although it chose to remain outside the Economic and
Monetary Union. The Scottish Parliament, the National Assembly for
Wales, and the Northern Ireland Assembly were established in 1999.
The latter was suspended until May 2007 due to wrangling over the
peace process, but devolution was fully completed in March 2010.

United States
Britain's American colonies broke with the mother
country in 1776 and were recognized as the new nation of the United
States of America following the Treaty of Paris in 1783. During the
19th and 20th centuries, 37 new states were added to the original 13
as the nation expanded across the North American continent and
acquired a number of overseas possessions. The two most traumatic
experiences in the nation's history were the Civil War (1861-65), in
which a northern Union of states defeated a secessionist Confederacy
of 11 southern slave states, and the Great Depression of the 1930s,
an economic downturn during which about a quarter of the labor force
lost its jobs. Buoyed by victories in World Wars I and II and the
end of the Cold War in 1991, the US remains the world's most
powerful nation state. Over a span of more than five decades, the
economy has achieved steady growth, low unemployment and inflation,
and rapid advances in technology.

United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges
All of the following
US Pacific island territories except Midway Atoll constitute the
Pacific Remote Islands National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) Complex and as
such are managed by the Fish and Wildlife Service of the US
Department of the Interior. Midway Atoll NWR has been included in a
Refuge Complex with the Hawaiian Islands NWR and also designated as
part of Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument. These remote
refuges are the most widespread collection of marine- and
terrestrial-life protected areas on the planet under a single
country's jurisdiction. They sustain many endemic species including
corals, fish, shellfish, marine mammals, seabirds, water birds, land
birds, insects, and vegetation not found elsewhere.
Baker Island: The US took possession of the island in 1857. Its
guano deposits were mined by US and British companies during the
second half of the 19th century. In 1935, a short-lived attempt at
colonization began on this island but was disrupted by World War II
and thereafter abandoned. The island was established as a NWR in
1974.
Howland Island: Discovered by the US early in the 19th century, the
uninhabited atoll was officially claimed by the US in 1857. Both US
and British companies mined for guano deposits until about 1890. In
1935, a short-lived attempt at colonization began on this island,
similar to the effort on nearby Baker Island, but was disrupted by
World War II and thereafter abandoned. The famed American aviatrix
Amelia EARHART disappeared while seeking out Howland Island as a
refueling stop during her 1937 round-the-world flight; Earhart
Light, a day beacon near the middle of the west coast, was named in
her memory. The island was established as a NWR in 1974.
Jarvis Island: First discovered by the British in 1821, the
uninhabited island was annexed by the US in 1858 but abandoned in
1879 after tons of guano had been removed. The UK annexed the island
in 1889 but never carried out plans for further exploitation. The US
occupied and reclaimed the island in 1935. It was abandoned in 1942
during World War II. The island was established as a NWR in 1974.
Johnston Atoll: Both the US and the Kingdom of Hawaii annexed
Johnston Atoll in 1858, but it was the US that mined the guano
deposits until the late 1880s. Johnston and Sand Islands were
designated wildlife refuges in 1926. The US Navy took over the atoll
in 1934. Subsequently, the US Air Force assumed control in 1948. The
site was used for high-altitude nuclear tests in the 1950s and
1960s. Until late in 2000 the atoll was maintained as a storage and
disposal site for chemical weapons. Munitions destruction, cleanup,
and closure of the facility were completed by May 2005. The Fish and
Wildlife Service and the US Air Force are currently discussing
future management options; in the interim, Johnston Atoll and the
three-mile Naval Defensive Sea around it remain under the
jurisdiction and administrative control of the US Air Force.
Kingman Reef: The US annexed the reef in 1922. Its sheltered lagoon
served as a way station for flying boats on Hawaii-to-American Samoa
flights during the late 1930s. There are no terrestrial plants on
the reef, which is frequently awash, but it does support abundant
and diverse marine fauna and flora. In 2001, the waters surrounding
the reef out to 12 nm were designated a US NWR.
Midway Islands: The US took formal possession of the islands in
1867. The laying of the trans-Pacific cable, which passed through
the islands, brought the first residents in 1903. Between 1935 and
1947, Midway was used as a refueling stop for trans-Pacific flights.
The US naval victory over a Japanese fleet off Midway in 1942 was
one of the turning points of World War II. The islands continued to
serve as a naval station until closed in 1993. Today the islands are
a NWR and are the site of the world's largest Laysan albatross
colony.
Palmyra Atoll: The Kingdom of Hawaii claimed the atoll in 1862, and
the US included it among the Hawaiian Islands when it annexed the
archipelago in 1898. The Hawaii Statehood Act of 1959 did not
include Palmyra Atoll, which is now partly privately owned by the
Nature Conservancy with the rest owned by the Federal government and
managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service. These organizations are
managing the atoll as a wildlife refuge. The lagoons and surrounding
waters within the 12 nm US territorial seas were transferred to the
US Fish and Wildlife Service and designated as a NWR in January 2001.

Uruguay
Montevideo, founded by the Spanish in 1726 as a military
stronghold, soon took advantage of its natural harbor to become an
important commercial center. Claimed by Argentina but annexed by
Brazil in 1821, Uruguay declared its independence four years later
and secured its freedom in 1828 after a three-year struggle. The
administrations of President Jose BATLLE in the early 20th century
established widespread political, social, and economic reforms that
established a statist tradition. A violent Marxist urban guerrilla
movement named the Tupamaros, launched in the late 1960s, led
Uruguay's president to cede control of the government to the
military in 1973. By yearend, the rebels had been crushed, but the
military continued to expand its hold over the government. Civilian
rule was not restored until 1985. In 2004, the left-of-center Frente
Amplio Coalition won national elections that effectively ended 170
years of political control previously held by the Colorado and
Blanco parties. Uruguay's political and labor conditions are among
the freest on the continent.

Uzbekistan
Russia conquered the territory of present-day Uzbekistan
in the late 19th century. Stiff resistance to the Red Army after the
Boshevik Revolution was eventually suppressed and a socialist
republic established in 1924. During the Soviet era, intensive
production of "white gold" (cotton) and grain led to overuse of
agrochemicals and the depletion of water supplies, which have left
the land poisoned and the Aral Sea and certain rivers half dry.
Independent since 1991, the country seeks to gradually lessen its
dependence on agriculture while developing its mineral and petroleum
reserves. Current concerns include terrorism by Islamic militants,
economic stagnation, and the curtailment of human rights and
democratization.

Vanuatu
Multiple waves of colonizers, each speaking a distinct
language, migrated to the New Hebrides in the millennia preceding
European exploration in the 18th century. This settlement pattern
accounts for the complex linguistic diversity found on the
archipelago to this day. The British and French, who settled the New
Hebrides in the 19th century, agreed in 1906 to an Anglo-French
Condominium, which administered the islands until independence in
1980, when the new name of Vanuatu was adopted.

Venezuela
Venezuela was one of three countries that emerged from the
collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830 (the others being Ecuador and New
Granada, which became Colombia). For most of the first half of the
20th century, Venezuela was ruled by generally benevolent military
strongmen, who promoted the oil industry and allowed for some social
reforms. Democratically elected governments have held sway since
1959. Hugo CHAVEZ, president since 1999, seeks to implement his
"21st Century Socialism," which purports to alleviate social ills
while at the same time attacking capitalist globalization and
existing democratic institutions. Current concerns include: a
weakening of democratic institutions, political polarization, a
politicized military, drug-related violence along the Colombian
border, overdependence on the petroleum industry with its price
fluctuations, and irresponsible mining operations that are
endangering the rain forest and indigenous peoples.