Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (95)

Germany
As Europe's largest economy and second most populous nation
(after Russia), Germany is a key member of the continent's economic,
political, and defense organizations. European power struggles
immersed Germany in two devastating World Wars in the first half of
the 20th century and left the country occupied by the victorious
Allied powers of the US, UK, France, and the Soviet Union in 1945.
With the advent of the Cold War, two German states were formed in
1949: the western Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the eastern
German Democratic Republic (GDR). The democratic FRG embedded itself
in key Western economic and security organizations, the EC, which
became the EU, and NATO, while the Communist GDR was on the front
line of the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact. The decline of the USSR and the
end of the Cold War allowed for German unification in 1990. Since
then, Germany has expended considerable funds to bring Eastern
productivity and wages up to Western standards. In January 1999,
Germany and 10 other EU countries introduced a common European
exchange currency, the euro. In January 2011, Germany assumed a
nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011-12 term.

Ghana
Formed from the merger of the British colony of the Gold Coast
and the Togoland trust territory, Ghana in 1957 became the first
sub-Saharan country in colonial Africa to gain its independence.
Ghana endured a long series of coups before Lt. Jerry RAWLINGS took
power in 1981 and banned political parties. After approving a new
constitution and restoring multiparty politics in 1992, RAWLINGS won
presidential elections in 1992 and 1996, but was constitutionally
prevented from running for a third term in 2000. John KUFUOR
succeeded him and was reelected in 2004. John Atta MILLS took over
as head of state in early 2009.

Gibraltar
Strategically important, Gibraltar was reluctantly ceded
to Great Britain by Spain in the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht; the British
garrison was formally declared a colony in 1830. In a referendum
held in 1967, Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain a British
dependency. The subsequent granting of autonomy in 1969 by the UK
led to Spain closing the border and severing all communication
links. A series of talks were held by the UK and Spain between 1997
and 2002 on establishing temporary joint sovereignty over Gibraltar.
In response to these talks, the Gibraltar Government called a
referendum in late 2002 in which the majority of citizens voted
overwhelmingly against any sharing of sovereignty with Spain. Since
late 2004, tripartite talks among Spain, the UK, and Gibraltar have
been held with the aim of cooperatively resolving problems that
affect the local population, and work continues on cooperation
agreements in areas such as taxation and financial services;
communications and maritime security; policy, legal and customs
services; environmental protection; and education and visa services.
Throughout 2009, a dispute over Gibraltar's claim to territorial
waters extending out three miles gave rise to periodic non-violent
maritime confrontations between Spanish and UK naval patrols. A new
noncolonial constitution came into effect in 2007, and the European
Court of First Instance recognized Gibraltar's right to regulate its
own tax regime in December 2008, but the UK retains responsibility
for defense, foreign relations, internal security, and financial
stability.

Greece
Greece achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1829.
During the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the
20th century, it gradually added neighboring islands and
territories, most with Greek-speaking populations. In World War II,
Greece was first invaded by Italy (1940) and subsequently occupied
by Germany (1941-44); fighting endured in a protracted civil war
between supporters of the king and other anti-Communists and
Communist rebels. Following the latter's defeat in 1949, Greece
joined NATO in 1952. In 1967, a group of military officers seized
power, establishing a military dictatorship that suspended many
political liberties and forced the king to flee the country. In
1974, democratic elections and a referendum created a parliamentary
republic and abolished the monarchy. In 1981, Greece joined the EC
(now the EU); it became the 12th member of the European Economic and
Monetary Union in 2001. In 2010, the prospect of a Greek default on
its euro-denominated debt created severe strains within the EMU and
raised the question of whether a member country might voluntarily
leave the common currency or be removed.

Greenland
Greenland, the world's largest island, is about 81% ice
capped. Vikings reached the island in the 10th century from Iceland;
Danish colonization began in the 18th century, and Greenland was
made an integral part of Denmark in 1953. It joined the European
Community (now the EU) with Denmark in 1973 but withdrew in 1985
over a dispute centered on stringent fishing quotas. Greenland was
granted self-government in 1979 by the Danish parliament; the law
went into effect the following year. Greenland voted in favor of
increased self-rule in November 2008 and acquired greater
responsibility for internal affairs in June 2009. Denmark, however,
continues to exercise control of Greenland's foreign affairs,
security, and financial policy in consultation with Greenland's Home
Rule Government.

Grenada
Carib Indians inhabited Grenada when COLUMBUS discovered the
island in 1498, but it remained uncolonized for more than a century.
The French settled Grenada in the 17th century, established sugar
estates, and imported large numbers of African slaves. Britain took
the island in 1762 and vigorously expanded sugar production. In the
19th century, cacao eventually surpassed sugar as the main export
crop; in the 20th century, nutmeg became the leading export. In
1967, Britain gave Grenada autonomy over its internal affairs. Full
independence was attained in 1974 making Grenada one of the smallest
independent countries in the Western Hemisphere. Grenada was seized
by a Marxist military council on 19 October 1983. Six days later the
island was invaded by US forces and those of six other Caribbean
nations, which quickly captured the ringleaders and their hundreds
of Cuban advisers. Free elections were reinstituted the following
year and have continued since that time. Hurricane Ivan struck
Grenada in September of 2004 causing severe damage.

Guam
Guam was ceded to the US by Spain in 1898. Captured by the
Japanese in 1941, it was retaken by the US three years later. The
military installation on the island is one of the most strategically
important US bases in the Pacific.

Guatemala
The Mayan civilization flourished in Guatemala and
surrounding regions during the first millennium A.D. After almost
three centuries as a Spanish colony, Guatemala won its independence
in 1821. During the second half of the 20th century, it experienced
a variety of military and civilian governments, as well as a 36-year
guerrilla war. In 1996, the government signed a peace agreement
formally ending the conflict, which had left more than 100,000
people dead and had created, by some estimates, some 1 million
refugees.

Guernsey
Guernsey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy, which held sway in
both France and England. The islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Guernsey is a British
crown dependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.
However, the UK Government is constitutionally responsible for its
defense and international representation.

Guinea
Guinea has had a history of authoritarian rule since gaining
its independence from France in 1958. Lansana CONTE came to power in
1984 when the military seized the government after the death of the
first president, Sekou TOURE. Guinea did not hold democratic
elections until 1993 when Gen. CONTE (head of the military
government) was elected president of the civilian government. He was
reelected in 1998 and again in 2003, though all the polls were
marred by irregularities. History repeated itself in December 2008
when following President CONTE's death, Capt. Moussa Dadis CAMARA
led a military coup, seizing power and suspending the constitution.
His unwillingness to yield to domestic and international pressure to
step down led to heightened political tensions that culminated in
September 2009 when presidential guards opened fire on an opposition
rally killing more than 150 people, and in early December 2009 when
CAMARA was wounded in an assassination attempt and evacuated to
Morocco and subsequently to Burkina Faso. A transitional government
led by General Sekouba KONATE held democratic elections in 2010 and
Alpha CONDE was elected president in the country's first free and
fair elections since independence.

Guinea-Bissau
Since independence from Portugal in 1974,
Guinea-Bissau has experienced considerable political and military
upheaval. In 1980, a military coup established authoritarian
dictator Joao Bernardo 'Nino' VIEIRA as president. Despite setting a
path to a market economy and multiparty system, VIEIRA's regime was
characterized by the suppression of political opposition and the
purging of political rivals. Several coup attempts through the 1980s
and early 1990s failed to unseat him. In 1994 VIEIRA was elected
president in the country's first free elections. A military mutiny
and resulting civil war in 1998 eventually led to VIEIRA's ouster in
May 1999. In February 2000, a transitional government turned over
power to opposition leader Kumba YALA after he was elected president
in transparent polling. In September 2003, after only three years in
office, YALA was ousted by the military in a bloodless coup, and
businessman Henrique ROSA was sworn in as interim president. In
2005, former President VIEIRA was re-elected president pledging to
pursue economic development and national reconciliation; he was
assassinated in March 2009. Malam Bacai SANHA was elected in an
emergency election held in June 2009.

Guyana
Originally a Dutch colony in the 17th century, by 1815 Guyana
had become a British possession. The abolition of slavery led to
black settlement of urban areas and the importation of indentured
servants from India to work the sugar plantations. This
ethnocultural divide has persisted and has led to turbulent
politics. Guyana achieved independence from the UK in 1966, and
since then it has been ruled mostly by socialist-oriented
governments. In 1992, Cheddi JAGAN was elected president in what is
considered the country's first free and fair election since
independence. After his death five years later, his wife, Janet
JAGAN, became president but resigned in 1999 due to poor health. Her
successor, Bharrat JAGDEO, was reelected in 2001 and again in 2006.

Haiti
The native Taino Amerindians - who inhabited the island of
Hispaniola when it was discovered by COLUMBUS in 1492 - were
virtually annihilated by Spanish settlers within 25 years. In the
early 17th century, the French established a presence on Hispaniola.
In 1697, Spain ceded to the French the western third of the island,
which later became Haiti. The French colony, based on forestry and
sugar-related industries, became one of the wealthiest in the
Caribbean but only through the heavy importation of African slaves
and considerable environmental degradation. In the late 18th
century, Haiti's nearly half million slaves revolted under Toussaint
L'OUVERTURE. After a prolonged struggle, Haiti became the first
black republic to declare independence in 1804. The poorest country
in the Western Hemisphere, Haiti has been plagued by political
violence for most of its history. After an armed rebellion led to
the forced resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand ARISTIDE
in February 2004, an interim government took office to organize new
elections under the auspices of the United Nations Stabilization
Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Continued violence and technical delays
prompted repeated postponements, but Haiti finally did inaugurate a
democratically elected president and parliament in May of 2006. A
massive magnitude 7.0 earthquake struck Haiti in January 2010 with
an epicenter about 15 km southwest of the capital, Port-au-Prince.
An estimated 2 million people live within the zone of heavy to
moderate structural damage. The earthquake is assessed as the worst
in this region over the last 200 years and massive international
assistance will be required to help the country recover.

Heard Island and McDonald Islands
These uninhabited, barren,
sub-Antarctic islands were transferred from the UK to Australia in
1947. Populated by large numbers of seal and bird species, the
islands have been designated a nature preserve.

Holy See (Vatican City)
Popes in their secular role ruled portions
of the Italian peninsula for more than a thousand years until the
mid 19th century, when many of the Papal States were seized by the
newly united Kingdom of Italy. In 1870, the pope's holdings were
further circumscribed when Rome itself was annexed. Disputes between
a series of "prisoner" popes and Italy were resolved in 1929 by
three Lateran Treaties, which established the independent state of
Vatican City and granted Roman Catholicism special status in Italy.
In 1984, a concordat between the Holy See and Italy modified certain
of the earlier treaty provisions, including the primacy of Roman
Catholicism as the Italian state religion. Present concerns of the
Holy See include religious freedom, international development, the
environment, the Middle East, China, the decline of religion in
Europe, terrorism, interreligious dialogue and reconciliation, and
the application of church doctrine in an era of rapid change and
globalization. About one billion people worldwide profess the
Catholic faith.

Honduras
Once part of Spain's vast empire in the New World, Honduras
became an independent nation in 1821. After two and a half decades
of mostly military rule, a freely elected civilian government came
to power in 1982. During the 1980s, Honduras proved a haven for
anti-Sandinista contras fighting the Marxist Nicaraguan Government
and an ally to Salvadoran Government forces fighting leftist
guerrillas. The country was devastated by Hurricane Mitch in 1998,
which killed about 5,600 people and caused approximately $2 billion
in damage. Since then, the economy has slowly rebounded.

Hong Kong
Occupied by the UK in 1841, Hong Kong was formally ceded
by China the following year; various adjacent lands were added later
in the 19th century. Pursuant to an agreement signed by China and
the UK on 19 December 1984, Hong Kong became the Hong Kong Special
Administrative Region (SAR) of the People's Republic of China on 1
July 1997. In this agreement, China promised that, under its "one
country, two systems" formula, China's socialist economic system
would not be imposed on Hong Kong and that Hong Kong would enjoy a
high degree of autonomy in all matters except foreign and defense
affairs for the next 50 years.

Hungary
Hungary became a Christian kingdom in A.D. 1000 and for many
centuries served as a bulwark against Ottoman Turkish expansion in
Europe. The kingdom eventually became part of the polyglot
Austro-Hungarian Empire, which collapsed during World War I. The
country fell under Communist rule following World War II. In 1956, a
revolt and an announced withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact were met
with a massive military intervention by Moscow. Under the leadership
of Janos KADAR in 1968, Hungary began liberalizing its economy,
introducing so-called "Goulash Communism." Hungary held its first
multiparty elections in 1990 and initiated a free market economy. It
joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004.

Iceland
Settled by Norwegian and Celtic (Scottish and Irish)
immigrants during the late 9th and 10th centuries A.D., Iceland
boasts the world's oldest functioning legislative assembly, the
Althing, established in 930. Independent for over 300 years, Iceland
was subsequently ruled by Norway and Denmark. Fallout from the Askja
volcano of 1875 devastated the Icelandic economy and caused
widespread famine. Over the next quarter century, 20% of the
island's population emigrated, mostly to Canada and the US. Limited
home rule from Denmark was granted in 1874 and complete independence
attained in 1944. The second half of the 20th century saw
substantial economic growth driven primarily by the fishing
industry. The economy diversified greatly after the country joined
the European Economic Area in 1994, but Iceland was especially hard
hit by the global financial crisis in the years following 2008.
Literacy, longevity, and social cohesion are first rate by world
standards.

India
The Indus Valley civilization, one of the world's oldest,
flourished during the 3rd and 2nd millennia B.C. and extended into
northwestern India. Aryan tribes from the northwest infiltrated onto
the Indian subcontinent about 1500 B.C.; their merger with the
earlier Dravidian inhabitants created the classical Indian culture.
The Maurya Empire of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. - which reached
its zenith under ASHOKA - united much of South Asia. The Golden Age
ushered in by the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) saw a
flowering of Indian science, art, and culture. Islam spread across
the subcontinent over a period of 700 years. In the 10th and 11th
centuries, Turks and Afghans invaded India and established the Delhi
Sultanate. In the early 16th century, the Emperor BABUR established
the Mughal Dynasty which ruled India for more than three centuries.
European explorers began establishing footholds in India during the
16th century. By the 19th century, Great Britain had become the
dominant political power on the subcontinent. The British Indian
Army played a vital role in both World Wars. Nonviolent resistance
to British rule, led by Mohandas GANDHI and Jawaharlal NEHRU,
eventually brought about independence in 1947. Communal violence led
to the subcontinent's bloody partition, which resulted in the
creation of two separate states, India and Pakistan. The two
countries have fought three wars since independence, the last of
which in 1971 resulted in East Pakistan becoming the separate nation
of Bangladesh. India's nuclear weapons tests in 1998 caused Pakistan
to conduct its own tests that same year. In November 2008,
terrorists allegedly originating from Pakistan conducted a series of
coordinated attacks in Mumbai, India's financial capital. Despite
pressing problems such as significant overpopulation, environmental
degradation, extensive poverty, and widespread corruption, rapid
economic development is fueling India's rise on the world stage. In
January 2011, India assumed a nonpermanent seat in the UN Security
Council for the 2011-12 term.

Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's
five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean, but larger
than the Southern Ocean and Arctic Ocean). Four critically important
access waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab el Mandeb
(Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), and Strait of
Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysia). The decision by the International
Hydrographic Organization in the spring of 2000 to delimit a fifth
ocean, the Southern Ocean, removed the portion of the Indian Ocean
south of 60 degrees south latitude.

Indonesia
The Dutch began to colonize Indonesia in the early 17th
century; Japan occupied the islands from 1942 to 1945. Indonesia
declared its independence after Japan's surrender, but it required
four years of intermittent negotiations, recurring hostilities, and
UN mediation before the Netherlands agreed to transfer sovereignty
in 1949. Free and fair legislative elections took place in 1999
after decades of repressive rule. Indonesia is now the world's third
most populous democracy, the world's largest archipelagic state, and
home to the world's largest Muslim population. Current issues
include: alleviating poverty, improving education, preventing
terrorism, consolidating democracy after four decades of
authoritarianism, implementing economic and financial reforms,
stemming corruption, holding the military and police accountable for
human rights violations, addressing climate change, and controlling
avian influenza. In 2005, Indonesia reached a historic peace
agreement with armed separatists in Aceh, which led to democratic
elections in Aceh in December 2006. Indonesia continues to face low
intensity armed resistance by the separatist Free Papua Movement.

Iran
Known as Persia until 1935, Iran became an Islamic republic in
1979 after the ruling monarchy was overthrown and Shah Mohammad Reza
PAHLAVI was forced into exile. Conservative clerical forces
established a theocratic system of government with ultimate
political authority vested in a learned religious scholar referred
to commonly as the Supreme Leader who, according to the
constitution, is accountable only to the Assembly of Experts - a
popularly elected 86-member body of clerics. US-Iranian relations
have been strained since a group of Iranian students seized the US
Embassy in Tehran on 4 November 1979 and held it until 20 January
1981. During 1980-88, Iran fought a bloody, indecisive war with Iraq
that eventually expanded into the Persian Gulf and led to clashes
between US Navy and Iranian military forces between 1987 and 1988.
Iran has been designated a state sponsor of terrorism for its
activities in Lebanon and elsewhere in the world and remains subject
to US, UN, and EU economic sanctions and export controls because of
its continued involvement in terrorism and its nuclear weapons
ambitions. Following the election of reformer Hojjat ol-Eslam
Mohammad KHATAMI as president in 1997 and a reformist Majles
(legislature) in 2000, a campaign to foster political reform in
response to popular dissatisfaction was initiated. The movement
floundered as conservative politicians, through the control of
unelected institutions, prevented reform measures from being enacted
and increased repressive measures. Starting with nationwide
municipal elections in 2003 and continuing through Majles elections
in 2004, conservatives reestablished control over Iran's elected
government institutions, which culminated with the August 2005
inauguration of hardliner Mahmud AHMADI-NEJAD as president. His
controversial reelection in June 2009 sparked nationwide protests
over allegations of electoral fraud. The UN Security Council has
passed a number of resolutions (1696 in July 2006, 1737 in December
2006, 1747 in March 2007, 1803 in March 2008, and 1835 in September
2008) calling for Iran to suspend its uranium enrichment and
reprocessing activities and comply with its IAEA obligations and
responsibilities. Resolutions 1737, 1477, and 1803 subject a number
of Iranian individuals and entities involved in Iran's nuclear and
ballistic missile programs to sanctions. Additionally, several
Iranian entities are subject to US sanctions under Executive Order
13382 designations for proliferation activities and EO 13224
designations for support of terrorism.

Iraq
Formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, Iraq was occupied by
Britain during the course of World War I; in 1920, it was declared a
League of Nations mandate under UK administration. In stages over
the next dozen years, Iraq attained its independence as a kingdom in
1932. A "republic" was proclaimed in 1958, but in actuality a series
of strongmen ruled the country until 2003. The last was SADDAM
Husayn. Territorial disputes with Iran led to an inconclusive and
costly eight-year war (1980-88). In August 1990, Iraq seized Kuwait
but was expelled by US-led, UN coalition forces during the Gulf War
of January-February 1991. Following Kuwait's liberation, the UN
Security Council (UNSC) required Iraq to scrap all weapons of mass
destruction and long-range missiles and to allow UN verification
inspections. Continued Iraqi noncompliance with UNSC resolutions
over a period of 12 years led to the US-led invasion of Iraq in
March 2003 and the ouster of the SADDAM Husayn regime. US forces
remained in Iraq under a UNSC mandate through 2009 and under a
bilateral security agreement thereafter, helping to provide security
and to train and mentor Iraqi security forces. In October 2005,
Iraqis approved a constitution in a national referendum and,
pursuant to this document, elected a 275-member Council of
Representatives (CoR) in December 2005. After the election, Ibrahim
al-JAFARI was selected as prime minister; he was replaced by Nuri
al-MALIKI in May 2006. The CoR approved most cabinet ministers in
May 2006, marking the transition to Iraq's first constitutional
government in nearly a half century. On 31 January 2009, Iraq held
elections for provincial councils in all provinces except for the
three provinces comprising the Kurdistan Regional Government and
Kirkuk province. Iraq held a national legislative election in March
2010, and after nine months of deadlock the CoR approved the new
government in December.

Ireland
Celtic tribes arrived on the island between 600-150 B.C.
Invasions by Norsemen that began in the late 8th century were
finally ended when King Brian BORU defeated the Danes in 1014.
English invasions began in the 12th century and set off more than
seven centuries of Anglo-Irish struggle marked by fierce rebellions
and harsh repressions. A failed 1916 Easter Monday Rebellion touched
off several years of guerrilla warfare that in 1921 resulted in
independence from the UK for 26 southern counties; six northern
(Ulster) counties remained part of the UK. In 1949, Ireland withdrew
from the British Commonwealth; it joined the European Community in
1973. Irish governments have sought the peaceful unification of
Ireland and have cooperated with Britain against terrorist groups. A
peace settlement for Northern Ireland is gradually being implemented
despite some difficulties. In 2006, the Irish and British
governments developed and began to implement the St. Andrews
Agreement, building on the Good Friday Agreement approved in 1998.

Isle of Man
Part of the Norwegian Kingdom of the Hebrides until the
13th century when it was ceded to Scotland, the isle came under the
British crown in 1765. Current concerns include reviving the almost
extinct Manx Gaelic language. Isle of Man is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.
However, the UK Government remains constitutionally responsible for
its defense and international representation.

Israel
Following World War II, the British withdrew from their
mandate of Palestine, and the UN partitioned the area into Arab and
Jewish states, an arrangement rejected by the Arabs. Subsequently,
the Israelis defeated the Arabs in a series of wars without ending
the deep tensions between the two sides. The territories Israel
occupied since the 1967 war are not included in the Israel country
profile, unless otherwise noted. On 25 April 1982, Israel withdrew
from the Sinai pursuant to the 1979 Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty. In
keeping with the framework established at the Madrid Conference in
October 1991, bilateral negotiations were conducted between Israel
and Palestinian representatives and Syria to achieve a permanent
settlement. Israel and Palestinian officials signed on 13 September
1993 a Declaration of Principles (also known as the "Oslo Accords")
guiding an interim period of Palestinian self-rule. Outstanding
territorial and other disputes with Jordan were resolved in the 26
October 1994 Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace. In addition, on 25 May
2000, Israel withdrew unilaterally from southern Lebanon, which it
had occupied since 1982. In April 2003, US President BUSH, working
in conjunction with the EU, UN, and Russia - the "Quartet" - took
the lead in laying out a roadmap to a final settlement of the
conflict by 2005, based on reciprocal steps by the two parties
leading to two states, Israel and a democratic Palestine. However,
progress toward a permanent status agreement was undermined by
Israeli-Palestinian violence between September 2003 and February
2005. In the summer of 2005, Israel unilaterally disengaged from the
Gaza Strip, evacuating settlers and its military while retaining
control over most points of entry into the Gaza Strip. The election
of HAMAS to head the Palestinian Legislative Council froze relations
between Israel and the Palestinian Authority (PA). Ehud OLMERT
became prime minister in March 2006 and presided over a 34-day
conflict with Hizballah in Lebanon in June-August 2006 and a 23-day
conflict with HAMAS in the Gaza Strip during December 2008 and
January 2009. OLMERT, who in June 2007 resumed talks with PA
President Mahmoud ABBAS, resigned in September 2008. Prime Minister
Binyamin NETANYAHU formed a coalition in March 2009 following a
February 2009 general election. Direct talks launched in September
2010 collapsed following the expiration of Israel's 10-month partial
settlement construction moratorium in the West Bank. Diplomatic
initiatives to revive the negotiations through proximity talks began
at the end of 2010.

Italy
Italy became a nation-state in 1861 when the regional states
of the peninsula, along with Sardinia and Sicily, were united under
King Victor EMMANUEL II. An era of parliamentary government came to
a close in the early 1920s when Benito MUSSOLINI established a
Fascist dictatorship. His alliance with Nazi Germany led to Italy's
defeat in World War II. A democratic republic replaced the monarchy
in 1946 and economic revival followed. Italy was a charter member of
NATO and the European Economic Community (EEC). It has been at the
forefront of European economic and political unification, joining
the Economic and Monetary Union in 1999. Persistent problems include
illegal immigration, organized crime, corruption, high unemployment,
sluggish economic growth, and the low incomes and technical
standards of southern Italy compared with the prosperous north.

Jamaica
The island - discovered by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1494 -
was settled by the Spanish early in the 16th century. The native
Taino Indians, who had inhabited Jamaica for centuries, were
gradually exterminated and replaced by African slaves. England
seized the island in 1655 and established a plantation economy based
on sugar, cocoa, and coffee. The abolition of slavery in 1834 freed
a quarter million slaves, many of whom became small farmers. Jamaica
gradually obtained increasing independence from Britain. In 1958 it
joined other British Caribbean colonies in forming the Federation of
the West Indies. Jamaica gained full independence when it withdrew
from the Federation in 1962. Deteriorating economic conditions
during the 1970s led to recurrent violence as rival gangs affiliated
with the major political parties evolved into powerful organized
crime networks involved in international drug smuggling and money
laundering. Violent crime, drug trafficking, and poverty pose
significant challenges to the government today. Nonetheless, many
rural and resort areas remain relatively safe and contribute
substantially to the economy.

Jan Mayen
This desolate, arctic, mountainous island was named after
a Dutch whaling captain who indisputably discovered it in 1614
(earlier claims are inconclusive). Visited only occasionally by seal
hunters and trappers over the following centuries, the island came
under Norwegian sovereignty in 1929. The long dormant Beerenberg
volcano resumed activity in 1970; the most recent eruption occurred
in 1985. It is the northernmost active volcano on earth.

Japan
In 1603, after decades of civil warfare, the Tokugawa
shogunate (a military-led, dynastic government) ushered in a long
period of relative political stability and isolation from foreign
influence. For more than two centuries this policy enabled Japan to
enjoy a flowering of its indigenous culture. Japan opened its ports
after signing the Treaty of Kanagawa with the US in 1854 and began
to intensively modernize and industrialize. During the late 19th and
early 20th centuries, Japan became a regional power that was able to
defeat the forces of both China and Russia. It occupied Korea,
Formosa (Taiwan), and southern Sakhalin Island. In 1931-32 Japan
occupied Manchuria, and in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of
China. Japan attacked US forces in 1941 - triggering America's entry
into World War II - and soon occupied much of East and Southeast
Asia. After its defeat in World War II, Japan recovered to become an
economic power and an ally of the US. While the emperor retains his
throne as a symbol of national unity, elected politicians hold
actual decision-making power. Following three decades of
unprecedented growth, Japan's economy experienced a major slowdown
starting in the 1990s, but the country remains a major economic
power.

Jersey
Jersey and the other Channel Islands represent the last
remnants of the medieval Dukedom of Normandy that held sway in both
France and England. These islands were the only British soil
occupied by German troops in World War II. Jersey is a British crown
dependency but is not part of the UK or of the European Union.
However, the UK Government is constitutionally responsible for its
defense and international representation.

Jordan
Following World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman
Empire, the UK received a mandate to govern much of the Middle East.
Britain separated out a semi-autonomous region of Transjordan from
Palestine in the early 1920s, and the area gained its independence
in 1946; it adopted the name of Jordan in 1950. The country's
long-time ruler was King HUSSEIN (1953-99). A pragmatic leader, he
successfully navigated competing pressures from the major powers
(US, USSR, and UK), various Arab states, Israel, and a large
internal Palestinian population. Jordan lost the West Bank to Israel
in the 1967 war and barely managed to defeat Palestinian rebels who
attempted to overthrow the monarchy in 1970. King HUSSEIN in 1988
permanently relinquished Jordanian claims to the West Bank. In 1989,
he reinstituted parliamentary elections and initiated a gradual
political liberalization; political parties were legalized in 1992.
In 1994, he signed a peace treaty with Israel. King ABDALLAH II, the
son of King HUSSEIN, assumed the throne following his father's death
in February 1999. Since then, he has consolidated his power and
undertaken an aggressive economic reform program. Jordan acceded to
the World Trade Organization in 2000, and began to participate in
the European Free Trade Association in 2001. In 2003, Jordan
staunchly supported the Coalition ouster of Saddam in Iraq and
following the outbreak of insurgent violence in Iraq, absorbed
thousands of displaced Iraqis. Municipal elections were held in July
2007 under a system in which 20% of seats in all municipal councils
were reserved by quota for women. Parliamentary elections were held
in November 2010 and saw independent pro-government candidates win
the vast majority of seats.

Kazakhstan
Ethnic Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes
who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united
as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th
century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During the
1950s and 1960s agricultural "Virgin Lands" program, Soviet citizens
were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures.
This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other
deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled
non-ethnic Kazakhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 drove
many of these newcomers to emigrate. Kazakhstan's economy is larger
than those of all the other Central Asian states largely due to the
country's vast natural resources. Current issues include: developing
a cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the
country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets;
diversifying the economy outside the oil, gas, and mining sectors;
enhancing Kazakhstan's economic competitiveness; developing a
multiparty parliament and advancing political and social reform; and
strengthening relations with neighboring states and other foreign
powers.

Kenya
Founding president and liberation struggle icon Jomo KENYATTA
led Kenya from independence in 1963 until his death in 1978, when
President Daniel Toroitich arap MOI took power in a constitutional
succession. The country was a de facto one-party state from 1969
until 1982 when the ruling Kenya African National Union (KANU) made
itself the sole legal party in Kenya. MOI acceded to internal and
external pressure for political liberalization in late 1991. The
ethnically fractured opposition failed to dislodge KANU from power
in elections in 1992 and 1997, which were marred by violence and
fraud, but were viewed as having generally reflected the will of the
Kenyan people. President MOI stepped down in December 2002 following
fair and peaceful elections. Mwai KIBAKI, running as the candidate
of the multiethnic, united opposition group, the National Rainbow
Coalition (NARC), defeated KANU candidate Uhuru KENYATTA and assumed
the presidency following a campaign centered on an anticorruption
platform. KIBAKI's NARC coalition splintered in 2005 over the
constitutional review process. Government defectors joined with KANU
to form a new opposition coalition, the Orange Democratic Movement,
which defeated the government's draft constitution in a popular
referendum in November 2005. KIBAKI's reelection in December 2007
brought charges of vote rigging from ODM candidate Raila ODINGA and
unleashed two months of violence in which as many as 1,500 people
died. UN-sponsored talks in late February produced a powersharing
accord bringing ODINGA into the government in the restored position
of prime minister.

Kiribati
The Gilbert Islands became a British protectorate in 1892
and a colony in 1915; they were captured by the Japanese in the
Pacific War in 1941. The islands of Makin and Tarawa were the sites
of major US amphibious victories over entrenched Japanese garrisons
in 1943. The Gilbert Islands were granted self-rule by the UK in
1971 and complete independence in 1979 under the new name of
Kiribati. The US relinquished all claims to the sparsely inhabited
Phoenix and Line Island groups in a 1979 treaty of friendship with
Kiribati.

Korea, North
An independent kingdom for much of its long history,
Korea was occupied by Japan beginning in 1905 following the
Russo-Japanese War. Five years later, Japan formally annexed the
entire peninsula. Following World War II, Korea was split with the
northern half coming under Soviet-sponsored Communist control. After
failing in the Korean War (1950-53) to conquer the US-backed
Republic of Korea (ROK) in the southern portion by force, North
Korea (DPRK), under its founder President KIM Il Sung, adopted a
policy of ostensible diplomatic and economic "self-reliance" as a
check against outside influence. The DPRK demonized the US as the
ultimate threat to its social system through state-funded
propaganda, and molded political, economic, and military policies
around the core ideological objective of eventual unification of
Korea under Pyongyang's control. KIM's son, the current ruler KIM
Jong Il, was officially designated as his father's successor in
1980, assuming a growing political and managerial role until the
elder KIM's death in 1994. After decades of economic mismanagement
and resource misallocation, the DPRK since the mid-1990s has relied
heavily on international aid to feed its population. North Korea's
history of regional military provocations, proliferation of
military-related items, long-range missile development, WMD programs
including tests of nuclear devices in 2006 and 2009, and massive
conventional armed forces are of major concern to the international
community.

Korea, South
An independent Korean state or collection of states has
existed almost continuously for several millennia. Between its
initial unification in the 7th century - from three predecessor
Korean states - until the 20th century, Korea existed as a single
independent country. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War,
Korea became a protectorate of imperial Japan, and in 1910 it was
annexed as a colony. Korea regained its independence following
Japan's surrender to the United States in 1945. After World War II,
a Republic of Korea (ROK) was set up in the southern half of the
Korean Peninsula while a Communist-style government was installed in
the north (the DPRK). During the Korean War (1950-53), US troops and
UN forces fought alongside soldiers from the ROK to defend South
Korea from DPRK attacks supported by China and the Soviet Union. An
armistice was signed in 1953, splitting the peninsula along a
demilitarized zone at about the 38th parallel. Thereafter, South
Korea achieved rapid economic growth with per capita income rising
to roughly 17 times the level of North Korea. In 1993, KIM Young-sam
became South Korea's first civilian president following 32 years of
military rule. South Korea today is a fully functioning modern
democracy. President LEE Myung-bak has pursued a policy of global
engagement since taking office in February 2008, highlighted by
Seoul's hosting of the G-20 summit in November 2010. Serious
tensions with North Korea have punctuated inter-Korean relations in
recent years, including the North's sinking of the South Korean
warship Cheonan in March 2010 and its artillery attack on South
Korean soldiers and citizens in November 2010.

Kosovo
Ethnic Serbs migrated to the territories of modern Kosovo in
the 7th century but did not fully incorporate them into the Serbian
realm until the early 13th century. During the medieval period,
Kosovo became the center of a Serbian Empire and saw the
construction of many important Serb religious sites, including many
architecturally significant Serbian Orthodox monasteries. The defeat
of Serbian forces at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 led to five
centuries of Ottoman rule during which large numbers of Turks and
Albanians moved to Kosovo. By the end of the 19th century, Albanians
replaced the Serbs as the dominant ethnic group in Kosovo. Serbia
reacquired control over Kosovo from the Ottoman Empire during the
First Balkan War of 1912. Kosovo became an autonomous province of
Serbia with status almost equivalent to that of a republic under the
1974 Constitution of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
Despite legislative concessions, Albanian nationalism increased in
the 1980s, which led to riots and calls for Kosovo's independence.
At the same time, Serb nationalist leaders, such as Slobodan
MILOSEVIC, exploited Kosovo Serb claims of maltreatment to secure
votes from supporters, many of whom viewed Kosovo as their cultural
heartland. Under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia instituted a new
constitution in 1989 that revoked Kosovo's status as an autonomous
province of Serbia. Kosovo Albanian leaders responded in 1991 by
organizing a referendum that declared Kosovo independent. Under
MILOSEVIC, Serbia carried out repressive measures against the
Albanians in the early 1990s as the unofficial Kosovo government,
led by Ibrahim RUGOVA, used passive resistance in an attempt to try
to gain international assistance and recognition of an independent
Kosovo. Albanians dissatisfied with RUGOVA's passive strategy in the
1990s created the Kosovo Liberation Army and launched an insurgency.
Starting in 1998, Serbian military, police, and paramilitary forces
conducted a counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres
and massive expulsions of ethnic Albanians. Approximately 800,000
Albanians were forced from their homes in Kosovo during this time.
International attempts to mediate the conflict failed, and
MILOSEVIC's rejection of a proposed settlement led to a three-month
NATO military campaign against Serbia beginning in March 1999 that
forced Serbia to agree to withdraw its military and police forces
from Kosovo. UN Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) placed
Kosovo under a transitional administration, the UN Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK), pending a determination of
Kosovo's future status. A UN-led process began in late 2005 to
determine Kosovo's final status. The negotiations ran in stages
between 2006 and 2007, but ended without agreement between Belgrade
and Pristina. On 17 February 2008, the Kosovo Assembly declared
Kosovo independent. Since then, over sixty countries have recognized
Kosovo, and it has joined the International Monetary Fund and World
Bank. Serbia continues to reject Kosovo's independence and it
subsequently sought an advisory opinion from the International Court
of Justice (ICJ) on the legality under international law of Kosovo's
independence declaration. In July 2010 the ICJ ruled that Kosovo's
declaration of independence did not violate international law.

Kuwait
Britain oversaw foreign relations and defense for the ruling
Kuwaiti AL-SABAH dynasty from 1899 until independence in 1961.
Kuwait was attacked and overrun by Iraq on 2 August 1990. Following
several weeks of aerial bombardment, a US-led, UN coalition began a
ground assault on 23 February 1991 that liberated Kuwait in four
days. Kuwait spent more than $5 billion to repair oil infrastructure
damaged during 1990-91. The AL-SABAH family has ruled since
returning to power in 1991 and reestablished an elected legislature
that in recent years has become increasingly assertive. The country
witnessed the historic election in May 2009 of four women to its
National Assembly.

Kyrgyzstan
A Central Asian country of incredible natural beauty and
proud nomadic traditions, most of Kyrgyzstan was formally annexed to
Russia in 1876. The Kyrgyz staged a major revolt against the Tsarist
Empire in 1916 in which almost one-sixth of the Kyrgyz population
was killed. Kyrgyzstan became a Soviet republic in 1936 and achieved
independence in 1991 when the USSR dissolved. Nationwide
demonstrations in the spring of 2005 resulted in the ouster of
President Askar AKAEV, who had run the country since 1990.
Subsequent presidential elections in July 2005 were won
overwhelmingly by former prime minister Kurmanbek BAKIEV. Over the
next few years, the new president manipulated the parliament to
accrue new powers for himself. In July 2009, after months of
harassment against his opponents and media critics, BAKIEV won
re-election in a presidential campaign that the international
community deemed flawed. In April 2010, nationwide protests led to
the resignation and expulsion of BAKIEV. He was replaced by
President Roza OTUNBAEVA who will serve as president until 31
December 2011 according to a presidential decree issued 19 May 2010.
Presidential elections are scheduled to be held in October 2011.
Continuing concerns include: endemic corruption, poor interethnic
relations, and terrorism.

Laos
Modern-day Laos has its roots in the ancient Lao kingdom of Lan
Xang, established in the 14th Century under King FA NGUM. For 300
years Lan Xang had influence reaching into present-day Cambodia and
Thailand, as well as over all of what is now Laos. After centuries
of gradual decline, Laos came under the domination of Siam
(Thailand) from the late 18th century until the late 19th century
when it became part of French Indochina. The Franco-Siamese Treaty
of 1907 defined the current Lao border with Thailand. In 1975, the
Communist Pathet Lao took control of the government ending a
six-century-old monarchy and instituting a strict socialist regime
closely aligned to Vietnam. A gradual, limited return to private
enterprise and the liberalization of foreign investment laws began
in 1988. Laos became a member of ASEAN in 1997. In late 2009,
Thailand returned to Laos about 3,000 Hmong residing in refugee
camps.

Latvia
The name "Latvia" originates from the ancient Latgalians, one
of four eastern Baltic tribes that formed the ethnic core of the
Latvian people (ca. 8th-12th centuries A.D.). The region
subsequently came under the control of Germans, Poles, Swedes, and
finally, Russians. A Latvian republic emerged following World War I,
but it was annexed by the USSR in 1940 - an action never recognized
by the US and many other countries. Latvia reestablished its
independence in 1991 following the breakup of the Soviet Union.
Although the last Russian troops left in 1994, the status of the
Russian minority (some 30% of the population) remains of concern to
Moscow. Latvia joined both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004.

Lebanon
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French separated out the region of Lebanon in 1920, and granted this
area independence in 1943. A lengthy civil war (1975-1990)
devastated the country, but Lebanon has since made progress toward
rebuilding its political institutions. Under the Ta'if Accord - the
blueprint for national reconciliation - the Lebanese established a
more equitable political system, particularly by giving Muslims a
greater voice in the political process while institutionalizing
sectarian divisions in the government. Since the end of the war,
Lebanon has conducted several successful elections. Most militias
have been reduced or disbanded, with the exception of Hizballah,
designated by the US State Department as a Foreign Terrorist
Organization, and Palestinian militant groups. During Lebanon's
civil war, the Arab League legitimized in the Ta'if Accord Syria's
troop deployment, numbering about 16,000 based mainly east of Beirut
and in the Bekaa Valley. Israel's withdrawal from southern Lebanon
in May 2000 and the passage in September 2004 of UNSCR 1559 - a
resolution calling for Syria to withdraw from Lebanon and end its
interference in Lebanese affairs - encouraged some Lebanese groups
to demand that Syria withdraw its forces as well. The assassination
of former Prime Minister Rafiq HARIRI and 22 others in February 2005
led to massive demonstrations in Beirut against the Syrian presence
("the Cedar Revolution"), and Syria withdrew the remainder of its
military forces in April 2005. In May-June 2005, Lebanon held its
first legislative elections since the end of the civil war free of
foreign interference, handing a majority to the bloc led by Sa'ad
HARIRI, the slain prime minister's son. In July 2006, Hizballah
kidnapped two Israeli soldiers leading to a 34-day conflict with
Israel in which approximately 1,200 Lebanese civilians were killed.
UNSCR 1701 ended the war in August 2006, and Lebanese Armed Forces
(LAF) deployed throughout the country for the first time in decades,
charged with securing Lebanon's borders against weapons smuggling
and maintaining a weapons-free zone in south Lebanon with the help
of the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL). The LAF in
May-September 2007 battled Sunni extremist group Fatah al-Islam in
the Nahr al-Barid Palestinian refugee camp, winning a decisive
victory, but destroying the camp and displacing 30,000 Palestinian
residents. Lebanese politicians in November 2007 were unable to
agree on a successor to Emile LAHUD when he stepped down as
president, creating a political vacuum until the election of LAF
Commander Gen. Michel SULAYMAN in May 2008 and the formation of a
new unity government in July 2008. Legislative elections in June
2009 again produced victory for the bloc led by Sa'ad HARIRI, but a
period of prolonged negotiation over the composition of the cabinet
ensued. A national unity government was finally formed in November
2009 and approved by the National Assembly the following month. In
January 2010, Lebanon assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security
Council for the 2010-11 term.

Lesotho
Basutoland was renamed the Kingdom of Lesotho upon
independence from the UK in 1966. The Basuto National Party ruled
for the first two decades. King MOSHOESHOE was exiled in 1990, but
returned to Lesotho in 1992 and was reinstated in 1995.
Constitutional government was restored in 1993 after seven years of
military rule. In 1998, violent protests and a military mutiny
following a contentious election prompted a brief but bloody
intervention by South African and Botswana military forces under the
aegis of the Southern African Development Community. Subsequent
constitutional reforms restored relative political stability.
Peaceful parliamentary elections were held in 2002, but the National
Assembly elections of February 2007 were hotly contested and
aggrieved parties continue to dispute how the electoral law was
applied to award proportional seats in the Assembly.

Liberia
Settlement of freed slaves from the US in what is today
Liberia began in 1822; by 1847, the Americo-Liberians were able to
establish a republic. William TUBMAN, president from 1944-71, did
much to promote foreign investment and to bridge the economic,
social, and political gaps between the descendents of the original
settlers and the inhabitants of the interior. In 1980, a military
coup led by Samuel DOE ushered in a decade of authoritarian rule. In
December 1989, Charles TAYLOR launched a rebellion against DOE's
regime that led to a prolonged civil war in which DOE himself was
killed. A period of relative peace in 1997 allowed for elections
that brought TAYLOR to power, but major fighting resumed in 2000. An
August 2003 peace agreement ended the war and prompted the
resignation of former president Charles TAYLOR, who faces war crimes
charges in The Hague related to his involvement in Sierra Leone's
civil war. After two years of rule by a transitional government,
democratic elections in late 2005 brought President Ellen JOHNSON
SIRLEAF to power. The UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) maintains a
strong presence throughout the country, but the security situation
is still fragile and the process of rebuilding the social and
economic structure of this war-torn country continues.

Libya
The Italians supplanted the Ottoman Turks in the area around
Tripoli in 1911 and did not relinquish their hold until 1943 when
defeated in World War II. Libya then passed to UN administration and
achieved independence in 1951. Following a 1969 military coup, Col.
Muammar Abu Minyar al-QADHAFI began to espouse his own political
system, the Third Universal Theory. The system is a combination of
socialism and Islam derived in part from tribal practices and is
supposed to be implemented by the Libyan people themselves in a
unique form of "direct democracy." QADHAFI has always seen himself
as a revolutionary and visionary leader. He used oil funds during
the 1970s and 1980s to promote his ideology outside Libya,
supporting subversives and terrorists abroad to hasten the end of
Marxism and capitalism. In addition, beginning in 1973, he engaged
in military operations in northern Chad's Aozou Strip - to gain
access to minerals and to use as a base of influence in Chadian
politics - but was forced to retreat in 1987. UN sanctions in 1992
isolated QADHAFI politically following the downing of Pan AM Flight
103 over Lockerbie, Scotland. During the 1990s, QADHAFI began to
rebuild his relationships with Europe. UN sanctions were suspended
in April 1999 and finally lifted in September 2003 after Libya
accepted responsibility for the Lockerbie bombing. In December 2003,
Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to
develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism.
QADHAFI has made significant strides in normalizing relations with
Western nations since then. He has received various Western European
leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations,
and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he
traveled to Brussels in April 2004. The US rescinded Libya's
designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In January
2008, Libya assumed a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council
for the 2008-09 term. In August 2008, the US and Libya signed a
bilateral comprehensive claims settlement agreement to compensate
claimants in both countries who allege injury or death at the hands
of the other country, including the Lockerbie bombing, the LaBelle
disco bombing, and the UTA 772 bombing. In October 2008, the US
Government received $1.5 billion pursuant to the agreement to
distribute to US national claimants, and as a result effectively
normalized its bilateral relationship with Libya. The two countries
then exchanged ambassadors for the first time since 1973 in January
2009. Libya in May 2010 was elected to its first three-year seat on
the UN Human Rights Council, prompting protests from international
non-governmental organizations and human rights campaigners.

Liechtenstein
The Principality of Liechtenstein was established
within the Holy Roman Empire in 1719. Occupied by both French and
Russian troops during the Napoleonic wars, it became a sovereign
state in 1806 and joined the Germanic Confederation in 1815.
Liechtenstein became fully independent in 1866 when the
Confederation dissolved. Until the end of World War I, it was
closely tied to Austria, but the economic devastation caused by that
conflict forced Liechtenstein to enter into a customs and monetary
union with Switzerland. Since World War II (in which Liechtenstein
remained neutral), the country's low taxes have spurred outstanding
economic growth. In 2000, shortcomings in banking regulatory
oversight resulted in concerns about the use of financial
institutions for money laundering. However, Liechtenstein
implemented anti-money-laundering legislation and a Mutual Legal
Assistance Treaty with the US that went into effect in 2003.