The tribes and castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Volume 2 (of 4)

Chapter D (11)

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12. In Aligarh at the present day if a Hâbûra is killed in the commission of any crime his accomplices give his widow one hundred and fifty rupees; if he is only arrested they have to support his wife and family until he is released. If an innocent man is convicted the real offender has to support his wife and family while he is in prison. They will not inform against each other; if anyone do so he is turned out of the gang. Neither men nor women wear any jewellery. They do not go long distances to commit crime, and in the daylight they can easily be identified as Hâbûras, because both men and women wear the modicum of clothes consistent with decency. They do not attempt to conceal their movements from the Police; and if one of the gang be arrested, the headman will at once give notice of the fact. The only stolen property they bring into the camp is grain; jewellery, vessels, and clothes they conceal in earthen vessels and bury them in the neighbourhood of the encampment. They are generally supported by some landowner, who assists them in the disposal of stolen property and gets a commission of four annas in the rupee.

[Their argot.] 13. Hâbûras have a regular Thieves’ Latin of their own, of which the following are examples:—

Corn of all kinds—kau.
Bread—tuk.
Mother—ai.
Father—bâbu.
Son—dikra.
Daughter—dikri.
Wife—dhaniyâni.
Husband—dhanni.
Son-in-law—pahuna (guest).
Vessels of all kinds—tanwara.
Clothes—lugariya.
Shoes—khakra.
Bullock—dhanda.
Cow—jengariya.
Go from here—paro hind.
Run away—nasija.
Policemen—kapâhi.
Police officer—Mota modhana.

[Schemes of reformation.] 14. A full account of the measures taken from time to time with a view to the reclamation of the tribe will be found in the report by Mr. D. T. Roberts appended to the report of the Police Commission of 1890. In the Etah District they have been brought under the operations of the Criminal Tribes Act but without much success, as the only persons subjected to the Act were the settled branch of the tribe who are, as a rule, comparatively harmless. A scheme for their colonisation in the Morâdâbâd District seems to have met with comparatively small success.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE HÂBÛRAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Halwâi. [498]—The confectioner class. They are often confounded with the Kându, who is properly a grain parcher, though he also deals in sweetmeats. These two castes are, however, totally distinct, and do not intermarry. The Halwâi takes his name from halwa, a sweetmeat made of flour, clarified butter, and sugar, coloured with saffron and flavoured with almonds, raisins, and pistachio nuts.

[Internal structure.] 2. There are a number of endogamous sub-castes, which are some of territorial origin and others which are possibly recruited from other Hindu tribes who have taken to the occupation of making sweetmeats. The last Census gives the Kanaujiya as their only important sub-caste; and among those of local importance, the Kaithiya of Farrukhâbâd, Shâhjahânpur, and Cawnpur; the Bharsiya of Mirzapur; the Jaiswâr of Faizâbâd; the Godhiya of Gonda, and the Pachhwâhân or “Western” of Bahrâich. According to the complete lists the Halwâis are peculiar for the very large number of sections derived from local towns and places. Thus we have the Ablapuriya, Ahalpuriya, Ajudhyabâsi, Akhpuriya, Alamnagari, Alipuriya, Amalpuriya, Amritpuriya, Asodpuriya, Audhiya, Aurangâbâdi, Balipuriya, Bargpuriya, Bhikhpuriya, Bilupuriya, Chandpuriya, Chaurâsiya, Drigpuriya, Dûbêpuriya, Hâjipuriya, Hâzirpuriya, Illahâbâdi, Imdâdnagari, Indauriya, Islâmpuriya, Jagatpuriya, Jaypuriya, Jajapuriya, Janakpuriya, Jaunpuriya, Kanaujiya, Khairâbâdi, Khurâsâni, Mahâbâdi, Mainpuriya, Makhdûmpuriya, Maqsûdâbâdi, Mangalpuriya, Misrikha, Muhammadâbâdi, Muradâbâdi, Naurangâbâdi, Nimkhâr, Pachhwâhân, Purabiya, Rajauriya, Ramnagari, Rasûlpuriya, Rustamnagariya, Saksena, Sarwariya, Siupuriya, Siurâjpuriya, Shâhjahânpuriya, Siyâmpuriya, Sribâstam, Tâjpuriya, Tikaitganji, Tilokpuriya, Uttarâha. Those that suggest a connection with other castes are not numerous, such as Kaithiya, Kalwâr, Mehtariya, Sunarha, Sûrajbansi. To the east of the Provinces we find the Kanaujiya (who take their origin from Kanauj): Kalwâr possibly recruited from the distiller caste: Madhesiya (residents of the middle land) (Madhya desa): Madhubansi (“sons of sweetness”): Nipâliya or Naipariya (from Nepâl). Mr. Sherring adds from Benares Pachpiriya, Bauniwâla, Gonr, Tihara, and Lakhnawa (from Lucknow). Sir H. M. Elliot gives Chailha, Bukarra, Dûbê, Kanaujiya, and Tilbhûnja or “parchers of sesamum.” All these tribes are endogamous. Mr. Sherring asserts that in Benares the Kanaujiya intermarry with the Madhesiya; but this seems very doubtful. But within these endogamous tribes they have a most elaborate system of exogamous groups known as bâni. [499] Those persons who belong to the same bâni cannot intermarry. These groups seem to be territorial, and many of them have a mnemonic verse attached to them, a few of which are given to illustrate a curious variety of intertribal exogamy:—

Nâth kê sarna.
Tu Samai ati kê dân.
Nangen kapara, bhûkhê bhât.
Biswanâth ke larua chârhawa.
Siva Kâsi men darsan pâwê.
Madhesiya baithê na pâwê.
Thân Benares.

“Under the protection of the Lord! You Samai are very charitable. Garments for the naked, boiled rice for the hungry. Offer laddu sweetmeats to Viswanâth (Siva, “Lord of the Universe”). Pay your vows to Siva at Benares. Let not one of the Madhesiya sub-caste sit with you. Head-quarters of the Bâni—Benares.”

Larkharê khambh.
Pât Sinh takht banâwa:
Baithak tanâwa.
Thân Karwati.

“Pillars tremble. Pât Sinh made a seat; arranged a resting place. Head-quarters Karwati.”

Madhu ki chori:
Bîch ban.
Thân Kandawa.

“The robbery of the honey in the midst of the jungle. Head-quarters Kandawa.”

Batya men kai singhor:
Kutamban kai bator.
Jo ban kai sarbar karai,
Batan Sâhu kai khûnta sarai.
Thân Bishal.

“Under the Singhora tree on the way is the gathering of the kinsmen. If any one discuss the Bâni, the pillar of the house of Batan, the merchant decays. Head-quarters Bishal.

Chhot mot ghorawa:
Barakai lagâm.
Jhamai charh gayê chhuri bhûri:
Ramai Padârath.
Thân Anguri.

“The horse is small and fat; the rein is long. On it quickly Jhamai mounted. Ramai Padârath. Head-quarters Anguri.”

Khânrê kâ bhusaul:
Mirich chabena.
Thân Nagar Mahai.

“A chaff store house for sugar. Parched grain of chillies. Head-quarters Nagar Mahai.

Amrit kai biro:
Pratham dân, pratham puniya.
Thân Chunârgarh.

“A tree of the water of immortality: the first gift, the chief merit. Head-quarters Chunâr Fort.”

Chhânabê parwar.
Khâra samundar.
Thân Sudhawai.

“Ninety-six families, the Salt Ocean. Head-quarters Sudhawai.”

Sonê sobhawa:
Rûpê ardâs.
Thân Kheli.

“The beauty of gold, the desire of silver. Head-quarters Kheli.”

Sonê kai kharâun:
Dupahar Kanhaiya,
Dupahar râo.
Thân Lachhagir, Amawa, Barwar.

“Bathing sandals of gold: for two watches like Krishna: for two watches a king. Head-quarters Lachhagir, Amawa, Barwar.”

Sone kai sinkâr
Bandi chhor.
Thân Kursath.

“A chain of gold and a gold ornament for the head. Head-quarters Kursath.”

Sone kai diya,
Rûpê kai bâti
Châr pahar barê din râti.
Thân Dospur.

“A golden lamp with a silver wick. Four watches of night and day. Head-quarters Dospur.”

Sabhâdhar Pandit.
Sabarnê kai harwa:
Phûlê kai mâla gayê jhuriya.
Birtiha Bâbhan bhojan karai.
Barê gayê byâh kar lâyê.
Sonê rûpê kai kalas dharâyê.
Thân Kantit.

“The Pandit Sabhâdhar; a gold chain for the neck. The flower garlands have withered. Feed the hereditary priest. He went to marry and returned successful and laid down the sacred marriage pitchers of silver and of gold. Head-quarters Kantit.”

Lohai kai karâhi.
Kâthê kai dâb:
Phûte na karâhi,
Tûte na dâb.
Thân Kârê.

“The iron boiling pan and the wooden pounder. May the pan never crack and the pounder never break. Head-quarters Kârê.”

Kanchan bâri:
Tansu Mansu;
Thân Jhânsi:
Parwar Santokh:
Thân Manach.

“Lumps of gold: Tansu Mansu: head-quarters Jhânsi: the Santokh family: head-quarters Manach.”

Eklakhi pâkar
Tekarê âgê chalê ghana nishân:
Thân Nauganwa.

“The fig tree worth a lâkh of rupees before which the drums sound and the flags flutter. Head-quarters Nauganwa.”

Eklakhi pâkar
Pharê to khaiyân:
Nahîn to chhâhen jurayan.
Thân Kantit.

“The fig tree worth a lâkh of rupees. Eat of it when it fruits, otherwise refresh yourself under its shade. Head-quarters Kantit.”

Ataiya bataiyân
Dharê Kându ki maiyya.
Thân Rîsal.

“Sharers catch the mother of the Kându. Head-quarters Rîsal.”

Bânh pangar:
Dûhê kai sad dhâr.
Bhîm, Bhîmai mal.
Thân Karê.

“Powerful arms: a hundred streams of milk. Bhîm, Bhîmai and Mal. Head-quarters Karê.”

Bhar karai, bhar karawa:
Chhitan sâhu pîal bhar tharwa.
Thân Bharthara.

“Chhitan, the merchant drank a full dish, a small cupful and a large cup. Head-quarters Bharthara.”

Dûî khairai kai musâr.
Jabarê marê, dûbarê pratipâl karai.
Thân Benares.

“Pestle made of two acacia trees. Beat the strong, protect the weak. Head-quarters Benares.”

What the exact meaning of some of these verses may be it is not easy to determine. The places designated are all to the east of the Province or in the adjoining Districts of Bengal. In many of them some ancestor of the exogamous group seems to be designated: others may be of totemistic origin. Among the city Halwâis of Lucknow these groups have disappeared, and their rule of exogamy is that marriage within seven degrees of paternal and maternal kinship is forbidden.

[Marriage rules.] 3. The age for marriage runs from five to twelve, and the better-off members of the caste marry their daughters in infancy. One of the clansmen acts as negotiator (agua). It is forbidden to marry again during the lifetime of the first wife without leave of the tribal council. The levirate is permitted and prevails generally, but it is not enforced on the widow, and her right to select a second partner is recognised. [500] Marriage is as usual of three forms: shâdi or charhauwa, the respectable ritual; dola, that used by poor people, and sagâi for widows. In the first the worshipping of the bridegroom’s feet (pairpûja) by the father of the bride and the smearing of vermilion (sendurdân) on the parting of the bride’s hair are regarded as the binding part of the ceremony, which goes through the usual states of betrothal (barrekhi) and fixing of the marriage day (lagan). Then comes a special ceremony called “the touching of the grain” (anâj chhûna); at a lucky time fixed by the Pandit they send for some urdi pulse and gram, and the women begin to grind it. During this ceremony no widow or woman married by sagâi is allowed to be present. Then follows the singing (gitgauna), when the women commence the marriage songs, and next comes the matmangara, when some earth is collected and brought into the marriage shed, when all the women get some sweets and oil for their hair. Then follows the anointing (tel hardi), and on the day before the procession starts the clansmen are fed (bhatwân), while the father and mother of the bridegroom do the mâtri or mantri pûja, which is an emblematical remarriage. Their clothes are tied together by the Brâhman, their feet stained with dye (mahâwar), and they worship an image of the nine planets (naugraha) made of cow-dung. At the bride’s door the duâr pûja is done in the usual way. The clansmen are then fed, and some food is sent from the bride’s house for the bridegroom. While he eats it the barber rubs his father’s feet with a mixture of barley flour and turmeric known as chîkas, and the clansmen are given a mixture of sugar and pepper dissolved in water (mirchwân) to drink. On the day after the marriage (barhâr) the boy is solemnly fed on rice and pulse (khichari). When the bride arrives at her husband’s house, Gangaji, Sati and Mahâdeva are worshipped, and on the fourth day (chauthi) the bride’s father sends a present of rice, sweetmeats, butter, clothes, etc., out of which part is set aside as an offering to the godlings (deota). This is known as bujhwat.

[Birth and Death.] 4. When a woman is in the eighth month of pregnancy the athwânsa ceremony is performed. Husband and wife are dressed in new clothes and five kinds of butter cakes and five varieties of fruits in season are placed in her cap. The other ceremonies are the ordinary type. When a boy is five or six years old the ceremonial shaving (mûnran) and ear piercing (kanchhedan) are done at some shrine, such as that of the Vindhyabâsini Devi at Bindhâchal. This marks the boy’s initiation into caste privileges, and from that time he is bound to conform to the tribal rules regarding food.

[Religion.] 5. They have both a Hindu and a Muhammadan branch. Hindu Halwâis are rarely initiated into any of the recognised sects, but are by preference Vaishnavas. Their clan deities are Mahâdeva, Hardiya or Hardaur and the Pânchonpîr, among whom Ghâzi Miyân is most regarded. He is worshipped on the ninth of Kuâr with cakes (bara), urad pulse, boiled rice, bread, and a goat is sacrificed. These offerings are placed on seven stones near the family shrine. Mahâbîr and Mahâdeva are propitiated with sweets (laddu), fried gram (ghunghuri), and sweet cakes in the month of Sâwan. When a child is attacked with small-pox a pice is waved round its head and put behind its pillow: a pit is dug in the ground and sharbat prepared of five different fruits is poured into it, and Sîtala Mâta worshipped with an offering of sweets (batâsha), fried gram (ghunghuri), and garlands of flowers. Their priests used to be of the special class of Brâhmans known as Kinnara Misra, but these have now taken to music as their profession, and have fallen into disrepute. Their place has been taken by ordinary Sarwariya Brâhmans.

[Occupation and social standing.] 6. Making of confectionery is the special business of the caste, but some have taken to agriculture and a good many to money-lending and other mercantile business like Banyas. Their women, who often manage their shops, have in some places an equivocal reputation. But they enjoy a character for personal purity. Brâhmans will take water from their hands, and all Hindus, except the Sarwariya Brâhmans, will eat pûris or cakes of wheaten dough fried by them in melted butter. They nearly all indulge in spirits. They eat the flesh of goats and sheep, but more particularly that of animals which have been offered in sacrifice. They eat food cooked with butter (pakki), cooked by Brâhmans, Kshatriyas and all respectable Vaisyas excepting Kalwârs. Food cooked in water (kachchi) they will eat only when prepared by members of their own caste or by their priests. Only Chamârs and other menial castes will eat their leavings. The Achârwâla or preparer of pickles, jams, etc., is generally an independent Musalmân trader, not a Muhammadan Halwâi, as seems to be the case in Bengal. [501] In the eastern parts of the Province the Hindu Halwâi often makes jams and condiments (chatni).

DISTRIBUTION OF HALWÂIS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

==============+============================+============+============ | Hindus. | | Districts. +~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+Muhammadans.|Grand Total. |Kanaujiya.| Others.| Total.| | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~ Dehra Dûn | ... | 8 | 8 | ... | 8 Sahâranpur | ... | ... | ... | 2,164 | 2,164 Muzaffarnagar | ... | 1 | 1 | 1,858 | 1,859 Meerut | ... | ... | ... | 317 | 317 Bulandshahr | ... | ... | ... | 191 | 191 Aligarh | ... | ... | ... | 32 | 32 Mathura | ... | 4 | 4 | 1 | 5 Agra | ... | ... | ... | 7 | 7 Farrukhâbâd | 100 | 1,167 | 1,267 | 93 | 1,360 Mainpuri | ... | 176 | 176 | ... | 176 Etâwah | 3 | 185 | 188 | 9 | 197 Etah | ... | ... | ... | 219 | 219 Bareilly | ... | 13 | 13 | 328 | 341 Bijnor | ... | ... | ... | 1,634 | 1,634 Budâun | ... | 129 | 129 | 115 | 244 Morâdâbâd | ... | ... | ... | 518 | 518 Shâhjahânpur | 44 | 444 | 488 | 409 | 897 Pilibhît | ... | 78 | 78 | 220 | 298 Cawnpur | 1,086 | 2,170 | 3,256 | 35 | 3,291 Fatehpur | 1,286 | 304 | 1,590 | ... | 1,590 Bânda | 615 | 317 | 932 | ... | 932 Hamîrpur | ... | 79 | 79 | ... | 79 Allahâbâd | 672 | 2,425 | 3,097 | 797 | 3,894 Jhânsi | ... | 1 | 1 | ... | 1 Jâlaun | ... | 5 | 5 | 30 | 35 Benares | 3,658 | 624 | 4,282 | 7 | 4,289 Mirzapur | 7,127 | 642 | 7,769 | 2 | 7,771 Jaunpur | 5,408 | 608 | 6,016 | 193 | 6,209 Ghâzipur | 1,350 | 124 | 1,474 | ... | 1,474 Ballia | 185 | 438 | 623 | ... | 623 Gorakhpur | 2,781 | 378 | 3,159 | 64 | 3,223 Basti | 2,598 | 110 | 2,708 | 252 | 2,960 Azamgarh | 2,610 | 943 | 3,553 | 30 | 3,583 Tarâi | ... | ... | ... | 103 | 103 Lucknow | 784 | 2,868 | 3,652 | 560 | 4,212 Unâo | 1,757 | 1,839 | 3,596 | 49 | 3,645 Râê Bareli | 689 | 894 | 1,583 | 458 | 2,041 Sîtapur | 2,224 | 1,345 | 1,569 | 2,794 | 4,363 Hardoi | 50 | 1,915 | 1,965 | 39 | 2,004 Kheri | 79 | 476 | 555 | 2,880 | 3,435 Faizâbâd | 1,922 | 645 | 2,567 | 273 | 2,840 Gonda | 965 | 853 | 1,818 | 1,976 | 3,794 Bahrâich | 107 | 789 | 896 | 5,362 | 6,258 Sultânpur | 895 | 515 | 1,410 | 198 | 1,608 Partâbgarh | 973 | 99 | 1,072 | 1,154 | 2,226 Bârabanki | 446 | 2,677 | 3,123 | 6,173 | 9,296 +~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~ Total | 38,414 | 26,288 | 64,702 | 31,544 | 96,246 ==============+==========+========+========+============+===========

Hâra.—A famous Râjput sept which is now represented only in small numbers in these Provinces. They trace their descent to the mythical cow Kamdhenu, from whose bones (hâr) they say that they were produced. The founder of the sept was Ishta Pâla, a descendant of Mânik Râê, King of Ajmer, who in A.D. 685 “sustained the first shock of the Islâmite arms.” Ishta Pâla was wounded in battle with the invading force of Mahmûd of Ghazni. “His limbs which lay dissevered, as the story goes, were collected by Sûra Bâi; and the goddess sprinkling them with the water of life, he arose. Hence the name Hâra, which his descendants bore from the bones (hâr) thus collected; but more probably from having lost (hâra) Asi.” There are nineteen eponymous clans, of which Colonel Tod gives a list. [502]

Hardoi.—A sub-caste of Banyas who take their name from the district of that name.

DISTRIBUTION OF HARDOI BANYAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Harischandi.—A Vaishnava sect who take their name from the celebrated Râja Haris Chandra, whose legend is thus told by Prof. Dowson: [503]—“He was the twenty-eighth King of the Solar race and son of Trisanku. He was celebrated for his piety and justice. There are several legends about him. The Aitareya Brâhmana tells the story of his purchasing Sunahsephas to be offered up as a vicarious sacrifice for his own son. The Mahâbhârata relates that he was raised to the heaven of Indra for his performance of the Râjasûya sacrifice and for his unbounded liberality. The Mârkandeya Purâna expands the story at considerable length. One day while Haris Chandra was hunting he heard female lamentations, which proceeded from the Sciences, who were being mastered by the austerely fervid sage Viswamitra, and were crying out in alarm at his superiority. Haris Chandra, as defender of the distressed, went to the rescue, but Viswamitra was so provoked by his interference, that the Sciences instantly perished, and Haris Chandra was reduced to a state of the most abject helplessness. Viswamitra demanded the sacrificial gift due to him as a Brâhman, and the King offered him whatever he might choose to ask—gold, his own son, wife, life, kingdom, good fortune, whatever was dearest. Viswamitra stripped him of wealth and kingdom, leaving him nothing but a garment of bark and his wife and son. In a state of destitution he left his kingdom, and Viswamitra struck Saibya, the queen, with his staff to hasten her reluctant departure. To escape from his oppressor he proceeded to the holy city of Benares, but the relentless sage was waiting for him and demanded the completion of the gift. With bitter grief wife and child were sold, and there remained only himself. Dharma, the god of justice, appeared in the form of a hideous and offensive Chandâla and offered to buy him. Notwithstanding the exile’s repugnance and horror, Viswamitra insisted upon the sale, and Haris Chandra was carried off bound, beaten, confused, and afflicted, to the abode of the Chandâla. He was sent by his master to steal clothes from the graves in a cemetery. In this horrid place and degrading work he spent twelve months. His wife then came to the cemetery to perform the obsequies of her son, who had died from the bite of a serpent. They recognised each other, and Haris Chandra and his wife resolved to die upon the funeral pyre of their son, though he hesitated to take away his own life without the leave of his master. After all was prepared he gave himself up to meditation of Vishnu. The gods then arrived headed by Dharma and accompanied by Viswamitra. Dharma entreated him to refrain from his intention, and Indra informed him that he, his wife, and son had conquered heaven by their good works. Haris Chandra declared that he could not go to heaven without the permission of his master the Chandâla. When this difficulty was removed, Harischandra objected to go to heaven without his faithful subjects. This request was granted by Indra, and after Viswamitra had inaugurated Rohitaswa, the king’s son, to be his successor, Haris Chandra, his friends and followers, all ascended in company to heaven. There he was induced by the sage Nârada to boast of his merits, and this led to his expulsion from heaven. As he was falling, he repented of his faults and was forgiven. His downward course was arrested, and he and his followers dwell in an aerial city, which, according to popular belief, is still occasionally visible in mid air.”

2. The Harischandi Faqîrs follow the principles which Haris Chandra taught his Dom master during the period of his servitude. Most of them are Doms, and they are found in small numbers in these Provinces. They appear to adopt merely a belief in Vishnu as the Creator of the universe.

Harjala. [504]—A small tribe found only in Sîtapur and Kheri. According to their own account of themselves they were once Guâl Ahîrs, and after the capture of the fort of Chithor they were obliged to wander away in the disguise of Jogis and other beggars. As they used to assume all sort of disguises they were called Harcholiya (har, “every,” chola, “body”), which was afterwards corrupted into Harjala. Another story represents the word to be derived from the fact that they will drink water from any one’s hand, (har, “every;” jal, “water”). They are divided into three exogamous sections—Bahrâichi, Khairâbâdi, and Lakhnawi, which take their names from their places of residence, Bahrâich, Khairâbâd, and Lucknow. The Census Returns add Baranikali, Brempuri, (possibly a corruption of Ibrahîmpuri), Guâlbans, and Lodh, the last two of which would connect them in some way with Ahîrs and Lodhas. They are all Hindus. Their occupation is begging in the disguise of Jogis and other regular mendicants. They sing a special song known as Sarwan, which is said to be originally a lament for the Rishi Sarwan who was accidentally shot by Râja Dasaratha as he was taking his blind father and mother slung in a basket over his shoulders to a place of pilgrimage. The legend has been localised at a place called Sarwan, in Pargana Maurânwân, of the Unâo District. [505] Some of them keep buffaloes and sell ghi; others cultivate and live by cutting grass and day labour.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE HARJALAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

============+=========
Districts. | Number.
~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~
Sîtapur | 38
Kheri | 208
+~~~~~~~~~
Total | 246
============+=========

Hayobans, Haihobans (said to be derived from haya-vansa, “the race of the horse”).—A Râjput sept found in the Ballia district. They are of the Lunar race and in the highest rank among the tribes of the District. According to Sir H. M. Elliot [506]:—“Maheswati, the capital of the Lunar Râjputs, in the Narbada valley, was founded by Sahesra Arjuna, of the Hihya or Hayobans race. Their dynasty for fifty-two generations was established at Ratanpur, in the Central Provinces. The last of the dynasty, Râja Ragnâth Sinh, died about one hundred and ten years ago. The Hayobans of Ballia claim descent from the Ratanpur kings. Chandra Got, a cadet of this house, is said to have, in 850 A.D., migrated northwards and settled at Manjha, on the Ganges, now included in the Sâran District, and waged successful war with the aboriginal Cheros. After nearly a couple of hundred years his descendants left Manjha and settled south of the Ganges at Bihiya, where they remained for five centuries and subdued the Cheros.” In or about 1528 A.D. the Râja Bhopat Deva, or perhaps one of his sons, violated Maheni, a Brâhman woman of the house of the Purohit or family priest of the Hayobans clan. She burnt herself to death, and in dying imprecated the most fearful curses on the Hayobans race. After this tragedy the clan left Bihiya, and passed beyond the Ganges to the Ballia Pargana, where for a time they were located at Gâê Ghât, and finally settled at Haldi, from which the Hayobans Râja now takes his title. The tomb of Maheni, under a pîpal tree close to the Railway at Bihiya, is still visited by women of every caste, who come in numbers either to invoke her as a deified being or to offer oblations in commemoration of her. None of them dares to enter Bihiya, which contains the remains of their ancestors’ fort. They are more swarthy than most Râjputs, and Mr. Carnegy suggests that they may have been originally a Tamil race. [507]

2. These people may possibly be connected with the Haihya of the Purânik lists. We read that they with the Jalajanghas, descendants of Yadu, conquered King Bahu or Bahuka and were finally destroyed by Sâgara. [508] A tribe of Haihayas still exists in the valley of Sahajpur, who, according to Colonel Tod, are “aware of their ancient lineage, and though few in numbers, are still celebrated for their valour.” [509] Professor Wilson suggested their connection with the Hia, Hoiei-ke, Hoieiha, and similarly denominated Hun or Turk Tribes, who make a figure in Chinese History. “At the same time it is to be observed that these tribes do not make their appearance until some centuries after the Christian era, and the scene of their first exploits is far from the frontier of India: the coincidence of appellation may therefore be merely accidental. In the word haya, which properly means ‘a horse,’ it is not impossible that we have confirmatory evidence of the Scythian origin of the Haihyas.” [510]

Hijra, Mukhannas.—The class of eunuchs. In spite of the operations of the Criminal Tribes Act (XXVII of 1871) these people are still found in considerable numbers throughout the Province; but under the rigid supervision to which they are now exposed their numbers are gradually decreasing. Formerly when a deformed boy was born in a family the Hijras of the neighbourhood used to beset the parents and endeavour to obtain possession of him. This practice has now, of course, ceased. Hijras divide the country into beats for the purposes of begging, and none of them ventures to trespass in the beat of another. Most of them wear a sort of female dress, and, as nearly all of them are Muhammadans, they call themselves by Musalmân names such as Bari Begam, Chhoti Begam, etc. They go about and attend marriage feasts and other ceremonies. They play on the drum (dhol) and cymbals (manjîra). Their death customs are the same as those of the low castes in their neighbourhood. The Census Returns show that they have a considerable number of women dependent on them.

2. The Census Returns give as sections of the so-called Hijra caste some of purely Muhammadan origin, as Bani Hâshim, Khwâja, Khwâja Sarâi, Khwâjazâd, Pathân, and Shaikh, with others of Hindu origin as Gangarâmi and Tilokbans.

DISTRIBUTION OF HIJRAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

==============+===================+===================+======= | Hindus. | Muhammadans. | Districts. +~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+ Total. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~|~~~~~~~~~~|~~~~~~~ Sahâranpur | ... | ... | 115 | 105 | 220 Muzaffarnagar | ... | ... | 21 | 12 | 33 Meerut | ... | ... | 24 | 2 | 26 Bulandshahr | ... | ... | 4 | 4 | 8 Aligarh | ... | ... | 5 | ... | 5 Mathura | ... | ... | 7 | ... | 7 Agra | 1 | ... | 18 | ... | 19 Farrukhâbâd | ... | ... | 12 | ... | 12 Mainpuri | ... | ... | 6 | ... | 6 Etâwah | ... | ... | 10 | ... | 10 Etah | ... | ... | 11 | ... | 11 Budâun | ... | ... | 25 | 10 | 35 Morâdâbâd | ... | ... | 11 | ... | 11 Shâhjahânpur | ... | ... | 8 | 7 | 15 Pilibhît | ... | ... | 3 | ... | 3 Cawnpur | 1 | ... | 28 | 1 | 30 Fatehpur | ... | ... | 13 | 4 | 17 Bânda | ... | ... | 9 | 6 | 15 Hamîrpur | ... | ... | 11 | 1 | 12 Allahâbâd | 2 | 3 | 26 | 15 | 46 Jhânsi | ... | ... | 7 | ... | 7 Jâlaun | ... | ... | 5 | ... | 5 Jaunpur | ... | ... | 1 | 2 | 3 Ghâzipur | ... | ... | 10 | 3 | 13 Ballia | ... | ... | 15 | 13 | 28 Gorakhpur | ... | ... | 16 | 11 | 27 Basti | ... | ... | 27 | 32 | 59 Azamgarh | ... | ... | 11 | 6 | 17 Lucknow | ... | ... | 18 | ... | 18 Râê Bareli | ... | ... | 44 | 9 | 53 Sîtapur | ... | ... | 18 | ... | 18 Kheri | ... | ... | 15 | ... | 15 Faizâbâd | ... | ... | 28 | 20 | 48 Gonda | ... | ... | 9 | 7 | 16 Bahrâich | ... | ... | 34 | ... | 34 Sultânpur | ... | ... | 82 | 65 | 147 Partâbgarh | ... | ... | 40 | 34 | 74 Bârabanki | ... | ... | 2 | ... | 2 +~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~ Total | 4 | 3 | 749 | 369 |1,125 ==============+========+==========+========+==========+=====

Hotri.—A functional sub-division of Brâhmans, “he that offers an oblation or burnt offering.” His title and functions recall the animal sacrifices of the Vedic age. “His business is to make the homa offering, and to recite Vedic hymns at the opening of new temples, or when large feasts are given to Brâhmans and sometimes in the private houses of rich men. The last instance of a Vedic goat sacrifice, which is the only form now allowed, that of the cow and horse being prohibited, was performed in Benares about thirty years ago. The account which I have received of it is as follows:—A certain Brâhman from Southern India, who had inherited the charge of an eternal fire from a remote and distinguished ancestry, had, through an inadvertence for which he blamed himself, allowed the fire to go out. In order to relight it and make a suitable atonement for the crime which he had committed, he determined to celebrate a great sacrifice, and collected from all the Hindu Râjas who could be induced to contribute, a sum of about thirty thousand rupees for the purpose. The ceremony lasted for twenty-one days. All this time Brâhmans were being fed in thousands, offerings of homa were being thrown on the altar, and sacred words (mantra) were repeated with each offering. The goat intended for the sacrifice, which was to crown the work, was stalled in an enclosure set apart for the sacrificial floor; and the greatest attention, amounting almost to worship, was paid to it till the day of sacrifice came round. As the goat was being led up to the altar, its neck was garlanded with flowers, and red powder was showered on its head. The most learned and distinguished Brâhmans who could be found were summoned from hundreds of miles round to take part in this Vedic sacrifice. The spot on which the goat was at last killed was screened off, so that no profane eye might behold what the Brâhmans were doing, or witness the relighting of the extinguished fire from the flame of the sacrifice. On receiving this fire relighted, the man was taken to the Ganges to be bathed by the Achârya or presiding priest; and such was the sanctity ascribed to that part of the river where he had bathed, that almost the whole city of Benares turned out to get a drop or two of water thrown at them by the hands of the priest. It is said that no such sacrifice had been performed before within the memory of any man living, nor is it expected that such will ever be performed again.

2. “There is one more function left to the Hotri, which may be traced back to the Vedic age, viz., the recitation of long passages from the ancient hymn books. This is done at times when new temples are opened or when large feasts are given to Brâhmans, and sometimes in the private houses of rich men. A Hotri is sometimes employed by men who are wealthy enough to engage his services to stand before an idol and read extracts from the Veda on their behalf. Such repetition is placed to the credit of the man who pays for it, and is believed to benefit his soul in the life beyond the grave.” [511]

Hurkiya, Hurukiya.—A small tribe of musicians and pimps, attendants on dancing girls, of whom some account has been given under the head Tawâif. They are by religion Muhammadans. As sections, according to the Census Returns, they recorded some of the other sub-castes of a similar mode of livelihood, such as Kanchan and Paturiya; others connected with higher castes, as Bâhamaniya, Kâchhi, and others of local origin, as Bihariya from Bihâr, Kâlpi and Purabiya or “Easterns.”

DISTRIBUTION OF THE HURKIYAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Husaini.—A class of so-called Brâhmans who take their name from the Muhammadan saint Husain. In the Panjâb they are called Musalmân Brâhmans, are found chiefly in the Delhi Division, and are said to receive oblations in the name of Hindu gods from Hindus and in the name of Allâh from Musalmâns. In Azamgarh they are described as half caste Brâhmans and are also known as Bhanreriya, which is another term for the Dakaut (q.v.). In Bombay they act as priests of the Bhangis. According to Dr. Wilson they are found near Ahmadnagar, formerly the seat of a Muhammadan dynasty. “They are half converts to the Muhammadan faith, though they retain some of their Brâhmanical practices; generally only intermarry among themselves. They ask alms both from Muhammadans and Hindus.” Dr. Wilson suspects that their origin may have been connected with the Brâhman to whom the Muhammadan founder of the Brâhmani dynasty of the Dakkhin was so much indebted. [512]

NOTES

[1] Based on information collected at Mirzapur and notes received through Mr. H. E. L. P. Dupernex, C.S., Azamgarh, and from Munshi Chhedi Lâl, Deputy Inspector of Schools, Gorakhpur.

[2] Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa, 37, sqq.

[3] Chronicles of Unâo, 27.

[4] Settlement Report, 87, sq.

[5] Cunningham, Archæological Survey, XXII., 107.

[6] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 379; Oldham, Memoir, I., 15–26.

[7] Elliott, Chronicles of Unâo, 26.

[8] Oldham, Memoir, I., 46.

[9] Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 359, sqq.

[10] Chronicles of Unâo, 26; Lucknow Settlement Report, 62, 116. For other instances see Sherring, loc. cit. I., 357, sqq.

[11] Oudh Gazetteer, Introduction, XXXV., sq.; Indian Antiquary, I., 265, sq.; Clans of Râê Bareli, 2.

[12] Archæological Survey, XXI., 105; Census Report, North-West Provinces, 1891, p. 220.

[13] I., 306.

[14] Archæological Survey, XI., 67.

[15] Mr. J. W. McCrindle, Indian Antiquary, VI., 339; XIII., 380.

[16] Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[17] Journal Royal Asiatic Society, N. S., V., 376. On the Bharatas, see Oppert, Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsha, 578, sqq.

[18] Primitive Culture, I., 46.

[19] Oudh Gazetteer, Introduction, XXXV.

[20] Notes, 19.

[21] Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1877.

[22] Settlement Report, 33.

[23] See instances of this in Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 496.

[24] On this see Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 483, sq.

[25] A further account of him is given under Bind, 9.

[26] Oudh Gazetteer, I., 341.

[27] On this custom see Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, 465; and compare Korwa, para. 10.

[28] Based on local enquiries at Mirzapur and notes by the Deputy Inspector of Schools, Bareilly and Agra, Mr. W. H. O’N. Segrave, Basti, and Munshi Niyâz Ahmad, Fatehpur.

[29] Bombay Gazetteer, XVI., 60.

[30] Monograph on Trades and Manufactures, 76.

[31] Sultânpur Settlement Report, 178.

[32] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur and notes by Pandit Baldeo Prasâd, Deputy Collector, Cawnpur; Bâbu Jay Gopal Banerji, Râê Bareli; Bâbu Mûl Chand, Subordinate Judge, Konrh, Mirzapur; Bâbu Sânwal Dâs, Deputy Collector, Hardoi.

[33] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 98.

[34] Central India, II., 132.

[35] For the immunity of the Bhâts compare that of the herald in classical literature—Iliad, I., 334; Æschylus, Agamemnon, 498; Plato, Laws, 941 A.

[36] North Indian Notes and Queries, July 1893.

[37] Based on enquiries at Mirzapur, and notes by Mr. E. Rose, C.S., Collector of Farrukhâbâd, and Munshi Chhotê Lâll, Archæological Survey, Lucknow.

[38] Purchas, II., 1475, quoted in Hobson Jobson, s.v. Serai.

[39] Eastern India, II., 289.

[40] Travels, I., 86, Hobson Jobson, 615.

[41] Eastern India, loc. cit.

[42] Entirely based on a note by Munshi Atma Râm, Head Master, High School, Mathura.

[43] Punjâb Ethnography, 297.

[44] Râjputâna Gazetteer, II., 170.

[45] Panjâb Ethnography, section 448.

[46] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 162.

[47] Indian Antiquary, XIII., 361. General Cunningham takes Phyllitæ to correspond to parna and to mean “leaf clad” like the Juangs up to the present day. Dr. Oppert seems to consider Phyllitæ as derived from Bhîl. Original Inhabitants of Bharatavarsa, 80, sq.

[48] Wheeler, History of India, I., 84, sq.; Westminster Review, 1868, page 387.

[49] Captain Hunter, Journal Royal Asiatic Society, VIII., 181; Malcolm, Central India, I., 526.

[50] Ibid., I., 519.

[51] Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, 172.

[52] Asiatic Studies, 160.

[53] Ibid., II., 180, sq.

[54] Bareilly Settlement Report, 19; Gazetteer, North-West Provinces, V., 578, sq.

[55] I., 177, sqq.; III., 64, 114.

[56] Some account of Gûga, known also as Zâhir Diwân, will be found in the Introduction to Popular Religion and Folklore, 133. At the last Census 122,991 persons returned themselves as his votaries.

[57] For the Mahra Bhoksas mainly based on notes collected through Mr. G. A. Tweedy, C.S., Dehra Dûn.

[58] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, II., 371: J. C. Nesfield, Calcutta Review, LXXX., 41.

[59] Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, XXXIV., II., 150.

[60] Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[61] Census Report, North-West Provinces, I., 321.

[62] Census Report, N.-W. P., 1865, I., Appendix 60, sqq.

[63] Ibbetson, Panjâb Ethnography, 115; C. F. Oldham, Contemporary Review, XLVII., 412, sq.; Panjâb Notes and Queries, II., 181 sq.

[64] Ibbetson, loc. cit., 114.

[65] Atkinson, loc. cit. II., 833.

[66] Chiefly based on notes by Munshi Badri Nâth, Deputy Collector, Kheri, and Munshi Mahadeo Prasâd, Head Master, Zillah School, Pilibhît.

[67] Panjâb Census Report, 1891, page 295, sq.

[68] Tribes and Castes, I., 28.

[69] Ibid.

[70] Calcutta Review, LXXVI., 82.

[71] Azamgarh Settlement Report, 27, sq.

[72] Ghâzipur Memo., I., 43.

[73] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[74] Oldham, ibid., I., 68, sqq.

[75] Hindu Tribes, I., 41, sq.

[76] These probably include a few of the Dravidian Bhuînhârs who were not separately tabulated.

[77] For an account of the branch of the tribe who have lately become notorious in Bengal, see Hunter, Orissa, II., 144.

[78] Dalton, Ethnology, 185.

[79] Tribes and Castes, I., 109, sq.

[80] Descriptive Ethnology, 140.

[81] Ibid., 147; also see Ball, Jungle Life, 267.

[82] Risley, Tribes and Castes, II., Appendix II.

[83] This is something like the custom of the Hos; but among them it is the bride and bridegroom who pledge each other. Dalton, Descriptive Ethnology, 193.

[84] Among the Bhuiyas of Bengal “the bridegroom acknowledges his wife and threatens any one who attempts to take her from him.” Dalton, Ethnology, 148.

[85] On the sacredness of the kalsa, see Campbell, Notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom, 9.

[86] This Westermarck calls the “simplest way of purchasing a wife.” History of Human Marriage, 390.

[87] Tylor, Primitive Culture, II., 30.

[88] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 115, sq.

[89] Dalton, Ethnology, 179.

[90] Cf. ibid., 148.

[91] The worshippers of people killed by tigers numbered 7,784 according to the Report of 1891. Mr. Baillie remarks (page 216), that the worship is general throughout Oudh and the Gorakhpur Districts. “In Gorakhpur, Gonda, or Bahrâich, it might have been expected, but it seems extraordinary that such worship has retained its hold in Sultânpur. Probably the comparative rarity of such a death in the Southern Districts of late years made it appear the more impressive and preserved its memory the longer.” For Baghaut worship, see Introduction to Popular Religion and Folklore, 167.

[92] Ethnology, 146.

[93] Collection of Papers relating to the Settlement of South Mirzapur, page 2.

[94] Risley, Tribes and Castes, II., 102.

[95] Jungle Life, 418.

[96] History of Human Marriage, 508.

[97] Ibid., 499.

[98] Ibid., 485; Frazer, Golden Bough, II., 238, sqq.

[99] Letourneau, Evolution of Marriage, 76.

[100] Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 532.

[101] Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 483.

[102] Tylor, Primitive Culture, I., 453.

[103] Tylor, Primitive Culture, II., 30.

[104] At the same time this seems to be a real belief of the Santâls. Hunter, Rural Bengal, 210; and see Tylor, Primitive Culture, II., 97, and Professor Max Müller writes:—“In the Vedic accounts of hell a pit (karta) is mentioned into which the lawless are said to be hurled down (Rig Veda, IX., 73, 8), and into which Indra casts those who offer no sacrifice (Rig Veda, I., 121, 13). One poet prays that the Adityas may preserve him from the destroying wolf and from falling into the pit (Rig Veda, II., 29, 6). In one passage we read that those who break the commandments of Varuna and who speak lies are born for that deep place (Rig Veda, IV., 5, 5.).” Cf. Basor, 7.

[105] This condition in which there are no priests and the religious duties are performed by the house father is undoubtedly primeval. It was the case among the Homeric Greeks where Agamemnon himself performs the sacrifice (Iliad, III. 271, and compare Wilson, Preface to Vishnu Purâna, 2, Virgil, Æneid III, 80, Genesis, XIV, 17).

[106] This may possibly be a survival of the matriarchate, see Lubbock, Origin of Civilization, 146.

[107] Descriptive Ethnology, 133.

[108] Ibid., 135.

[109] See Agariya, para. 22.

[110] Among the Mahili Mundas pork is tabooed. Risley, Tribes and Castes, II., 12.

[111] Nesfield, Brief View, 52, sq.; Calcutta Review, CLXVII., 265.

[112] Indian Antiquary, XI, 117.

[113] Wilson, Rig Veda, II., 28: Manu, Institutes, II., 99. There is an interesting account of the manner in which water was supplied and cooled in Akbar’s Court in Blochmann, Aîn-i-Akbari, I., 55, sq.

[114] Lectures, I., 97, note.

[115] Panjâb Ethnography, 193.

[116] Report, Inspector-General of Police, North-Western Provinces, 1867, page 94, sq.

[117] Ibbetson, loc. cit., para. 533.

[118] The word Vindhya is probably derived from the root bind or bid, “to divide.” The name, as is suggested by the legend of Agastya Muni, seems to refer to the range as the main barrier against the Brâhmanical exploitation of Central and Southern India: see Professor Wilson, Works, III, 332.

[119] Tribes and Castes, I, 131.

[120] Jhusi was the head-quarters of the eccentric Râja of Harbong, for whom see Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[121] Azamgarh Settlement Report, 33, sq.

[122] In Bengal they are in a transition stage. Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 131.

[123] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I, 132.

[124] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I., 133, and see Bhar, 9.

[125] Risley, loc. cit., I., 133.

[126] Report, Inspector-General of Police, North-Western Provinces, 1868, page 51.

[127] Gonda Settlement Report, 15.

[128] Panjâb Census Report, 1891, page 139, sqq., quoting Sirsa Settlement Report, 136.

[129] The sect recorded as Bishnoi numbers 49,559, mostly found in the Bijnor District.

[130] Central Provinces Gazetteer, 48.

[131] It need hardly be said that this custom of Brâhmans condescending to perform ceremonies for people of low caste is irregular. See Manu, III., 65, IV., 61, 81, 99.

[132] For the significance of the kohabar ceremony see Majhwâr, paragraph 18.

[133] See Bhuiya, paragraph 18.

[134] Tylor, Primitive Culture, I., 453.

[135] Ibid., II., 152.

[136] Tylor, Primitive Culture, I., 481, 483, 490, 492, 495.

[137] Ibid., II., 75.

[138] Amina Sati is one of the Pânchonpîr.

[139] This festival has obvious analogies in European custom. Mannhardt considers them to be sun-charms or magical ceremonies intended to secure a proper supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants. See Frazer, Golden Bough, II., 268.

[140] Tylor, Primitive Culture, I., 109.

[141] See Agariya, para. 22.

[142] Tylor, Primitive Culture, I., 451.

[143] Tylor, Primitive Culture, II., 51.

[144] Supplemental Glossary, s.v.

[145] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Bulandshahr Memo., 151, sqq.

[146] Bühler, Sacred Laws, I., 72.

[147] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, III., 344, sq.

[148] Buchanan, Eastern India, II., 454.

[149] Malcolm, Central India, I., III., sq.

[150] Principally based on notes by Pandits Râmgharîb Chaubê and Bhân Pratâp Tiwâri.

[151] Professor Eggeling, Encyclopædia Britannica, s.v., Brâhmanism.

[152] Ancient Sanskrit Texts, I., 213, 2nd edition; Nesfield, Calcutta Review, CLXVII, 258.

[153] Aitareya Brâhmana, I., Introduction, 9.

[154] Aitareya Brâhmana, 263, sq.

[155] Ibid., I., 282, sq.

[156] Settlement Report, 117.

[157] North-West Provinces Gazetteer VIII, Part III, 49; VI, 351, sq.

[158] Oudh Gazetteer, I, 305, 365; III, 229.

[159] Central India, II, 201.

[160] Archæological Reports, VIII, 102, sqq.

[161] Wilson, Vishnu Purâna, 359.

[162] Ibid., 451.

[163] III, 8,026.

[164] Wilson, Rig Veda, I., 42, note.

[165] Ibid., II., 319.

[166] Bühler, Books of the East, II., 6.

[167] Max Müller, Ancient Sanskrit Literature, 58, sq.; Rajendra Lala Mitra, Indo-Aryans, II., 266.

[168] Haug, Aitareya Brâhmana, II., 479.

[169] Frazer, Golden Bough, II., 238, sqq.

[170] Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 353.

[171] Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 358.

[172] Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 359.

[173] Golden Bough, II., 342, sqq.

[174] Prehistoric Antiquities, 416, 420.

[175] XII, 46, and see Muir, Ancient Sanskrit Texts, I., 128, note.

[176] Panjâb Ethnography, para. 236.

[177] Sacred city of the Hindus, 14.

[178] Mathura, 179, sqq.

[179] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, III., 270.

[180] Partly based on a note by Diwân Bijay Bahâdur Sinh of Lalitpur.

[181] Settlement Report, Appendix C.

[182] From enquiries at Mirzapur and a note by Bâbu Badri Nâth, Deputy Collector, Kheri.

[183] Manu, Institutes, X., 23.

[184] Tribes and Castes, I., 166.

[185] Notes, 15.

[186] Principally based on enquiries at Mirzapur; an elaborate note by Bâbu Vindhyeswari Prasâd, Deputy Collector, Ballia, and notes by the Deputy Inspectors of Schools, Agra, Bareilly, Budâun, Bijnor; Pandit Râmavatâr Pânrê, Karwi, and the Deputy Commissioner, Sultânpur.

[187] Institutes, X., 36.

[188] Hindu Tribes and Castes, I., 392.

[189] Tribes and Castes, I., 176.

[190] Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities, 327, sq.

[191] II, 21.

[192] Loc. cit., IV, 66.

[193] McCrindle, Indian Antiquary, VI., 342, Note.

[194] For instances of this belief, see Spencer, Principles of Sociology, I., 241.

[195] Frazer, Totemism, 79; Folklore, II., 181.

[196] Bombay Gazetteer, XVI, 71.

[197] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I, 178.

[198] Ibbetson, Panjâb Ethnography, para. 265.

[199] Central Provinces Gazetteer, 100, sqq.

[200] Hoey, Monograph, 90, sqq. It is in curious contrast to the Homeric system of preparing hides, which consisted in rubbing with fat and stretching. Iliad, XVII, 383.

[201] Supplementary Glossary, s.v., Gaur Râjput.

[202] Oudh Gazetteer, III, 307.

[203] P. 175.

[204] Supplementary Glossary, s.v.

[205] Settlement Report, 295.

[206] Partly based on notes by M. Jumna Din, Teacher of the Sumerpur School, and M. Râmsabây, teacher of the School at Mahoba, Hamîrpur District.

[207] Mirzapur Gazetteer, 120, sqq. Benett, Clans of Râê Bareli.

[208] Oudh Gazetteer, Introduction, XXXVI, Indian Antiquary, I, 265 sq.

[209] Elliott, Chronicles of Unâo, 23, 54.

[210] Buchanan, Eastern India, II, 458.

[211] Settlement Report, 20.

[212] Maclagan, Panjâb Census Report, 120, sqq.

[213] Essays, I, 178.

[214] Râjputâna Gazetteer, III, 215.

[215] Indian Caste, II, 156.

[216] Notes, 30.

[217] Growse, Mathura, 10.

[218] Bholanâth Chandra, Travels, II, 36.

[219] Annals, I, 102.

[220] Archæological Reports, II, 255.

[221] Eastern India, II, 462.

[222] Chronicles of Unâo, 42, sq.

[223] Mainpuri Settlement Report, 17, sqq.

[224] Raikes, Notes, 8.

[225] Settlement Report, LXVII.

[226] Ibid., 34.

[227] Ibid., 32.

[228] Eastern India, II, 462.

[229] Râja Lachhman Sinh, Memo., 164, sq.

[230] Settlement Report, 60.

[231] Census Report, 1865, Table IV, 6.

[232] Atkinson, Himalayan Gazetteer, III, 276.

[233] Eastern India, II, 462.

[234] Hindu Tribes, I., 229.

[235] Journal Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1866, Part II. According to Dr. J. Muir they were perhaps the Kîkatas of the Sanskrit writers—Ancient Sanskrit Texts, II, 363. The Kîkatas appear to have been residents of the modern Bihâr.

[236] Descriptive Ethnology, 125.

[237] Calcutta Review, CXXXVII, 351.

[238] Eastern India, II, 341.

[239] Settlement Report of Palamau, 28, sqq.

[240] This is probably the Morang, now one of the Nepâl Districts.

[241] Reports, Archæological Survey, XV, 60, XVII, 131, sq.: XXII, 75.

[242] Probably Kunwara, “Prince,” Neura, Neula, “weasel.”

[243] Memoir of Ghâzipur, I, 51.

[244] Eastern India, I, 24.

[245] Descriptive Ethnology, 126.

[246] Tribes and Castes, I, 199.

[247] Dalton, loc. cit., 126.

[248] Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 23.

[249] Risley, loc cit., I, 201.

[250] Westermarck, loc. cit., 109.

[251] Risley, Tribes and Castes, I, 202.

[252] Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 177, 180.

[253] This is possibly derived from pad, foot: ag, to move tortuously.

[254] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, I, 243.

[255] Spencer, Principles of Sociology, I, 243.

[256] Dalton, Ethnology, 160, Note; Risley, loc. cit., I, 202.

[257] Bombay Gazetteer, VI, 26.

[258] Based on enquiries made at Mirzapur and notes by Bâbu Bâsdeo Sahây, Headmaster, High School, Farrukhâbâd, and Nawâb Muhammad Ali Khân, Bulandshahr.

[259] Bombay Gazetteer, V, 73.

[260] Gazetteer, North-West Provinces, I, 423.

[261] Census Report, North-West Provinces, 1891, p. 235. For a further account of Nâmdeo, see Dhuniya, 6.

[262] Monograph, 83–89.

[263] Panjâb Census Report, 193.

[264] The Pîran Kaliyar fair is held on the Ganges Canal, about four miles north-east of Rurki. Its date is the first of the month Rabi-ul-awwal. By Hindus it is largely attended, and is by them supposed to celebrate the death of Râja Karan.

[265] Râjputâna Gazetteer, II, 6189.

[266] For details and calculation of profits, see Hoey, Monograph on Trades and Manufactures, 147, sqq.

[267] Jhûsi must have been once an important place. It was the head-quarters of the kingdom of Harbong, and is connected with the legend of Gorakhnâth. Elliot, Supplemental Glossary, s.v., Harbong ka râj; Gazetteer, N.-W. P., VIII, Part II, 189, sqq.

[268] See Monier Williams, Brahmanism and Hinduism, 227.

[269] Grierson, Behâr Peasant Life, 403.

[270] A full list of the implements used will be found in Grierson, Behâr Peasant Life, 108, sqq., and Rural and Agricultural Glossary, s.v., Chûrihâr.

[271] Schrader, Prehistoric Antiquities, 260, Note.

[272] Maclagan, Panjâb Settlement Report, 147.

[273] Mainly based on information collected at Mirzapur.

[274] For the regular circumcision ritual, see Lane, Modern Egyptians, I, 71.

[275] From notes by Pandit Janardan Datt Joshi, Deputy Collector, Bareilly, and Report, Inspector-General of Police, N.-W. P., 1869, p. 125, sqq.

[276] Based on a series of notes by Munshi Râdha Raman, Deputy Collector, Jhânsi.

[277] Panjâb Ethnography, para. 526.

[278] In Gujarât on the sixth day of the birth a pair of scissors covered with cloth is laid down, and the child made to bow to them.—Bombay Gazetteer, V, 73.

[279] Monograph on Trade and Manufactures, 100.

[280] Rajendra Lala Mitra, Indo-Aryans, I, 184.

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The tribes and castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Volume 2 (of 4)Chapter D (11)

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