The tribes and castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Volume 2 (of 4)

Chapter D (1)

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Dabgar—(Sans: darvakâra, “a maker of any spoon-shaped vessel”).—The caste who make the raw hide jars in which oil, clarified butter, etc., are carried.

They are also known as Kuppêsâz, from kuppa, the leather vessel which they make (Sans: kûpa, kutupa). They have a Hindu and Muhammadan section, but no regular sub-castes. They are divided into gotras, of which the most common to the east of the Province is the Sribâstab, who take their name from the old town of Srâvasti, in the Gonda District.

Others are Dehliwâl, Dari, Mochi, Sripat, and Bengar. The Census lists give for the Hindu branch Bankar, Benbansi, Dhâlgar or “Shield-makers,” Goliwâla, Jâti, Kanaujiya, and Sribâstab, and for the Muhammadan Panjâbi.

It is possible that they are an occupational offshoot from the Chamârs.

[Occupation.] 2. The Dabgar makes usually two classes of vessel, the kuppa, or large oil and butter jar, and the phuleli, a sort of little phial for holding scented oil, which may be seen in the bâzârs hung up over the shops of the Gandhi or perfumer. These vessels are made of the clippings (katran) or the scrapings (gûdar, chhîlan) of raw hides. These he cuts up, crushes and bruises in water till they become a soft, pulpy mass. This he plasters over a mould of soft clay made in the shape of the vessel which he proposes to produce. The leather pulp is laid on in layers. He then shapes the neck on an earthen ring and dries the vessel in the sun. The inner core is extracted and the mouth-ring left to give stability to the vessel. Vessels of this kind are doubtless a very primitive survival of the leather bottle which was universally used by all nomad tribes. [271]

[Marriage and social customs.] 3. There is nothing peculiar in their marriage customs, and their rule of exogamy is of the ordinary type. To the east of the Province they are worshippers of the Pânchonpîr, to whom they offer a mixture of pepper and sugar (mirchwân), which is poured on the shrine, and the remainder drunk by the worshippers. Sometimes they also offer in the same way cakes (pûri), sweets, and, when serious trouble comes, a he-goat.

DISTRIBUTION OF DABGARS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

===============+========+=============+========
Districts. | Hindus.| Muhammadans.| Total.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~
Sahâranpur | ... | 5 | 5
Mathura | ... | 1 | 1
Etâwah | ... | 65 | 65
Shâhjahânpur | 32 | ... | 32
Pilibhît | 83 | ... | 83
Cawnpur | 53 | ... | 53
Fatehpur | 5 | 21 | 26
Hamîrpur | ... | 5 | 5
Allahâbâd | 41 | 10 | 51
Jâlaun | ... | 16 | 16
Ghâzipur | 132 | ... | 132
Ballia | 230 | ... | 230
Gorakhpur | 330 | ... | 330
Basti | 88 | ... | 88
Azamgarh | 223 | ... | 223
Kheri | 76 | ... | 76
Gonda | ... | 6 | 6
Bahrâich | 60 | ... | 60
+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~
Total | 1,353 | 129 | 1,482
===============+========+=============+========

Dâdupanthi.—A Vaishnava sect which derives its name from Dâdu, a Dhuniya or cotton-carder by caste, who died in 1703 A.D. He was, according to popular belief, a direct successor of Râmanand, and the line of descent is given—Râmanand, Kabîr, Kamâl, Jamâl, Budhdhan, and Dâdu. Dâdu was born at Ahmadâbâd, in Gujarât, and at the age of twelve migrated to Sambhar, and then to a place called Naraina, about fifty miles south-west of Jaypur. There, at the age of thirty-seven, a voice from heaven enjoined him to renounce the world and pass his life in doing good to mankind and in devotion. His biographer, Jân Gopâl, in a biography containing 2,864 lines, describes how he spent his life in the country between Ahmadâbâd, Delhi and Agra, teaching, discussing, and making many disciples. He seems to have lived a good deal at Amber, the old capital of Jaypur. He had frequent interviews with the Emperor Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri, and some wonderful stories are told of his miracles and adventures there. Finally in the neighbourhood of Naraina he was absorbed into the godhead in 1603 A.D. He is said to have had fifty-two disciples who spread his doctrines through Râjputâna and the neighbouring Provinces.

The chief of these were Rajab, Gharîb Dâs, and Sundar Dâs, and others also are named, such as Jaisa, Prayâg Dâs, Bakhnagi, Sankar Dâs, Bâba Sânwari Dâs, and Mâdho Dâs. Of these Rajab, the first disciple of Dâdu, was a Musalmân, and his Hindu followers are sometimes known by the name Uttarâdhi, as distinguished from the Nâga, who are Hindus. The latter take their name from the Sanskrit nagnaka, “a naked ascetic.”

2. The Dâdupanthis are usually divided into the Virakta, or “those void of attachment to worldly objects,” who go bare-headed, wear only a single garment, and carry a drinking vessel; the Nâga or “naked ascetics,” and the Vastradhâri, or “those who wear clothes” and lead a family life. They have, in fact, like most religious communities in India, an exoteric and an esoteric order. The exoteric or uninitiated are the householders and disciples of the Swâmi Sâdhu, or initiated order. These householders (grihastha) read, believe, and practise certain of the doctrines of the Bâni or book of songs, which embody the rules of the sect, and furnish the Dâdupanthi Swâmi with food and accommodation when he visits their villages. They are not put out of caste for becoming disciples (chela), and so retain all their marriage and social rights and privileges.

Those of high caste retain their Brâhmanical cord (janeû) and other charms, and are frequently found in the temples at idol worship. They regularly attend the fairs (mela) of the sect and provide for the support of the mendicant members of the community.

3. The esoteric branch are known as Swâmi, “master;” Sâdhu, “saint;” Sant, “holy man,” or Guru, “teacher.” They renounce the world and live under rules of celibacy and chastity, which are very strictly enforced. Some of them are teachers (guru), of whom many are good scholars and have a large following of disciples to whom they teach the bâni. These wander about the country and are entertained by the faithful. Others are mere beggars without any learning. They usually beg from door to door, wear ochre-coloured clothes, and the bead necklace which is forbidden by the strict rules of the order. Others practise worldly professions. Thus some of the richest money-lenders in Jaypur are Dâdupanthis; others are doctors, who have no knowledge of scientific surgery or physic, and merely know some Sanskrit verses and charms for the treatment of disease; a few keep grocery shops; others sell milk.

4. The Nâga or Military Dâdupanthis live in seven camps or villages in the neighbourhood of Jaypur. Their pay is one anna per able-bodied man a day. They are occasionally sent out to coerce revenue defaulters. They are never all out on duty at the same time, and while they are employed they are paid at the rate of two annas per diem. Those left at home cultivate land, breed camels or lend money. Their founder is said to have been Bhîm Sinh, a younger brother of one of the Râjas of Bikâner. They have done good service to the State in former times, and were faithful in the Mutiny. They are simple, quiet men, but now hardly deserve the name of soldier. They are recruited by adoption from all the higher Hindu castes, and as a natural result of a generation of peace their numbers have much reduced.

5. Dâdu appears to have taught the unity of God. “To this day,” says Mr. Coldstream, [272] “the Dâdupanthis use the phrase Sat Râm, the True God, as a current phrase expressive of their creed. He forbids the worship of idols and did not build temples; now temples are built by his followers, who say that in them they worship “The Book.” “The worship,” according to Professor Wilson, “is addressed to Râma, but it is restricted to the Japa or repetition of his name, and the Râma intended is the deity negatively described in the Vedanta theology.” In fact the doctrine of Dâdu is sometimes described as pantheistic. The religious works of the sect contain many of the sayings of Kabîr. The chief of these are the Dâdubâni, the Sakya-granth and the Janamlîla, which contains an account of the Guru and his disciples. In the Panjâb the celibates of to-day wear white cloths in contrast to most other Sâdhs who wear ochre-coloured clothes. They abjure flesh and wine, and they shave both beard and moustache. They wear necklaces and have white round caps on their heads, to which is attached a piece of cloth which hangs down the back.

6. At the Census of 1891 there were only five members of this sect recorded in these Provinces, of whom four were found in the Sahâranpur and one in the Muzaffarnagar District.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NÂGAS AND DÂDUPANTHIS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

===============+============+======+=======
Districts. |Dâdupanthis.|Nâgas.|Total.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~+~~~~~~~
Dehra Dûn | ... | 3| 3
Sahâranpur | 4 | 14| 18
Muzaffarnagar | 1 | 4| 5
Aligarh | ... | 25| 25
Agra | ... | 43| 43
Mainpuri | ... | 2| 2
Etah | ... | 4| 4
Shâhjahânpur | ... | 7| 7
Fatehpur | ... | 2| 2
Bânda | ... | 1| 1
Hamîrpur | ... | 5| 5
Allahâbâd | ... | 3| 3
Gorakhpur | ... | 4| 4
Basti | ... | 280| 280
Garhwâl | ... | 13| 13
Tarâi | ... | 1| 1
+~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~+~~~~~~~
| 5 | 411| 416
Total +~~~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
| Males 335
| Females 76
===============+===========================

Dafâli. [273]—A tribe of beggars and musicians who are found throughout the Province except the Hills, and take their name from the daf or tambourine which they play. According to their own account they are allied to the Madâris; but there is this difference, that the Dafâlis worship Sayyid Sâlâr Ghâzi, of Bahrâich, and the Madâris, Madâr Sâhib, of Makhanpur. Both are called Darwesh, but the Dafâlis try to distinguish the tribes by calling themselves Darwesh and the Madâris Durwesh. They say that they are the descendants of Roshan Darwesh, to whom they make an occasional offering of cakes and burn incense.

[Tribal organisation.] 2. In the Census Returns they are recorded under sixty-seven sections: but these appear to have no influence on marriages. Some of these are purely Muhammadan titles, as Ansâri, Quraishi, Lodi, Madariya, Mirâsi, Mujâwir, Sadîqi, and Sunni: others are Hindu names, as Jât, Jhojha, Râjput, Rânghar: others are local, as Bahrâichi, Dakkhinâha, and Uttarâha. They have a council (panchâyat) under a hereditary president (chaudhari), which generally meets at marriages and funerals and settles cases of breach of tribal rules. Offenders are usually fined in sums varying from five to ten annas. The money thus collected is spent in feeding the clansmen.

[Marriage rules.] 3. They practise the ordinary Muhammadan law of exogamy, but object to marry their daughters into families which reverence different saints or godlings. A man cannot marry a second wife in the lifetime of the first without her consent. Divorce is permitted for infidelity, and also if one party become an idiot, lunatic, or suffer serious mutilation. But in all cases the divorce must be with the sanction of the tribal council. Widow-marriage and the levirate with the usual restrictions are both allowed. Divorced persons can remarry in the tribe, provided they were not divorced for any serious violation of caste custom. The usual service (sharah) is read at marriages by one of the tribe who is known for the nonce as Maulavi.

[Birth.] 4. There are no ceremonies during pregnancy, except the tying round the woman’s neck of a charm to ward off the evil spirits which attack the mother. When parturition is delayed she is given water to drink in which a sword has been washed, and the person who draws the water must do so with his right hand only. When the child is born a Chamârin is called in to cut the cord. She remains in attendance only one day, and her place is then taken by the wife of the barber. The mother is isolated for twelve days; but she is allowed to cook and do other household work. On the twelfth day is the barahi, when a dinner consisting of urad pulse, rice and meat is given to the brotherhood. When the dinner is over some sweetmeats are offered to Ghâzi Miyân, and then distributed among those present. When the child is a year old they take it and the mother, if possible, to the Ganges in the month of Bhâdon during the asterism (nakshatra) of Magha. The mother makes a little paper boat, and in it she puts a garland of flowers, a lamp, sugar, and bread, to which some add betel, and lets it float down the stream. This, a custom derived from their Hindu neighbours, is known as Ganga pujaiya. When a boy is seven years old they perform the rite of circumcision (Musalmâni). This is usually done at the ‘Id, Baqrîd, and Muharram. The friends are invited; a square is marked out in the courtyard, and the friends sit round. The boy is bathed by the barber and dressed in new clothes. Then his father’s sister’s husband (phûpha) takes him in his arms to the nearest mosque to pray. On their return the boy is given a dose of ma’jûm, and when the narcotic begins to take effect he is placed in the square by his uncle (phûpha) and seated facing the west. Then the barber performs the operation invoking God and the Prophet. The only application used for the wound is some rose water. After the operation is over the boy’s father gives a turban, lota, and a few annas to the barber, and each of the friends present puts a pice or two into his cup. After this a dinner of meat and bread is served. When the wound is cured the barber bathes the boy again, and receives some grain and a money present. [274] When they adopt they usually adopt their son-in-law, or in default of him preference is given to a brother’s son. No adoption is valid unless publicly communicated to the assembled clansmen. A feast is given and the adoption formally declared.

[Marriage ceremonies.] 5. As an instance of a low caste Muhammadan wedding that of a Dafâli may be described. The betrothal is arranged by some friend of both parties. When both parties agree, on an auspicious day selected by the village Pandit the bride’s father takes to the house of the bridegroom a ring and handkerchief on her behalf. These are accepted, and the boy’s father announces to the assembled friends that the marriage will take place. On this the girl’s father pays two and-a-half annas, and the boy’s father five annas, and with this sugar is bought and served round, after being offered to God and the Prophet. Next morning the girl’s father returns home. Some time after the boy’s father pays a visit to the bride and makes her a present of bangles (chûri), a suit of clothes (tul kapra), a boddice (choli), and some sweets. After a meeting of the tribesmen the wedding day is fixed. Poor people, however, send the girl beforehand to her husband, and any ceremony they can afford to do is done at his house. On the day before the wedding is the ratjaga, when the women sit up all night and spend their time making sweet cakes (gulgula). These are offered next morning to God and the Prophet, and to the spirits of the ancestors of the family. They are then distributed among the guests. The bridegroom is bathed and dressed in a yellow coat (jâma), trousers, and a turban. A large chaplet (sehra) hangs down from head to knee. He rides to the bride’s house followed by his friends playing on the dafla. They halt under a tree near the village, and from there the boy’s father sends a present of bangles, clothes, curds, oil, and henna. Then they come to the girl’s house, where the service is read by some old man of the tribe who can read or repeat the words. Some sugar is put close by which is distributed among the guests, and the marriage feast, consisting of sugar, rice, and curds, is served. This is known as shakarâna, or “the sugar feast.” Next day the bride’s father gives presents to her barber, bangle-maker, water-woman, and the village watchman, and then starts for the place where the bridegroom’s party are staying, with a basket containing vessels, grain and anything else he can afford to give as the dowry of his daughter. He places these before the father of the bridegroom, and asks his forgiveness for not being able to give more. The bridegroom’s father says the same, and they exchange compliments. After this the dowry basket is passed round, and all the friends present contribute as far as their means will go. This is termed “the giving of the dowry” (jahez dilâna). The husband then takes his wife away, and when he returns home he entertains his clansmen on curds, sugar, and rice, and next day gives them a regular dinner of bread and meat.

Every one present contributes two annas as dowry. After this the Ganga pujaiya is done, as already described at births, and the whole business ends with an offering of rice, curds, and sugar to Ghâzi Miyân, which is divided among the audience.

[Death ceremonies.] 6. The funeral is carried out in the usual way of Muhammadans. When it is over the mourners assemble at the house of the deceased and drink sharbat. On the fourth day they again assemble, and some verses of the Qurân are read over a vessel containing some sweets (batâsha), grain, and oil. This is known as kul parhan, and the contents of the vessel are divided among the audience. The clansmen are fed on urad pulse and rice, and the faqîr in charge of the grave is given a present. On the tenth and twentieth day bread and meat are offered to the spirit of the dead man, and on the fortieth day a final dinner is given, and next morning they put the clothes, beads, and water vessel (badhana) of the deceased on his bed and take them to his grave, where they are left for any one who wishes to carry them away. An offering of food is made to the family dead at the Shab-i-barât.

[Religion.] 7. Their tribal deities are chiefly Kâlika, Sahjâdi, and Ghâzi Miyân, three of the quintette of the Pânch Pîr. To Kâlika are offered in the month of Aghan bread and rice cooked in milk. Sahjâdi is worshipped at the same time. Ghâzi Miyân’s day is the first Sunday in the month of Jeth, when his wedding is celebrated. Animal sacrifices are made, and the meat is consumed by the worshippers. They also worship a number of local martyrs (shahîd), and they are in great fear of various demons and ghosts.

[Occupation.] 8. The Dafâli is a beggar, and goes about with a wallet (jhori) in which he collects what he can get. But he also acts as a sort of hedge priest to the lower class Musalmâns, and officiates at marriages, funerals, and the like, for people who cannot afford to pay for the services of the regular Qâzi. They beg in beats, and each house has its body of parishioners (jajmân). One of their chief duties is the exorcising of evil spirits by beating the drum, and driving the effects of the Evil Eye from children. When a man’s children do not live he gets the Dafâli to tie a string (baddhi) round the neck of the baby. They are particularly conspicuous at the fairs of Ghâzi Miyân, whose shrines they tend, act as his priests, and receive the offerings.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DAFÂLIS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Dalera. [275]—A tribe of basket-makers, day-labourers, and thieves found in Bareilly and the Tarâi. The name is derived from the Hindi daliya, “a basket.” A common half humourous derivation is from diler, “venturesome.” According to the tribal tradition a Bargûjar Thâkur once violated a Kahâr woman and was excommunicated. His descendants are the present Daleras. They are supposed to be closely allied both to Khâgis and Mallâhs. Their head-quarters in Bareilly are at the village of Ginganwa, in Tahsîl Aonla. They are also found at Munjkhera, in the Bulandshahr District. They have no distinct traditions regarding their place of origin, except that they came from somewhere in the South about a hundred years ago. The Bareilly story is that they were driven from Meerut and Bulandshahr by a famine.

2. Their sections, of which the last Census Returns enumerate forty-four, do not throw much light on their origin. Many are derived from well-known tribes, as Bais, Barai, Bargûjar, Chauhân, Chiryamâr, Gurkha, Jâdubansi, Kânhpuriya, Mallâh.

[Marriage rules.] 3. Some of these are perhaps of totemistic origin, such as the Sirisiya of Bareilly, who will not cut or injure the siris tree (acacia sirisa). Their marriages are carried out according to the standard ritual in force among the higher Hindu castes.

[Methods of thieving.] 4. The Daleras will not thieve at night, and carry on their operations principally at fairs, bathing places, and the like. At such places a Dalera takes his seat near a pilgrim and pretends to cook. While his neighbour’s attention is occupied, the Dalera steals his vessels or other property. When he steals a brass pot, he goes into the water and with an iron spike he carries, makes holes in it, which prevent the possibility of identification. Sometimes they make a mock disturbance in a bâzâr, and in the confusion snatch articles from shops which they rapidly pass into the hands of a confederate. Or they go dressed as Thâkurs or Brâhmans and make a boy steal while they keep the shop-keeper engaged. If the lads are caught they never give their correct age or address. The thief gets a double share of the booty, and most of the gains are spent in drink. If a boy is arrested his well-dressed companions intercede for him. In their methods of crime they closely resemble those of the Barwârs and Sanaurhiyas.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DALERAS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Dângi. [276]—An agricultural tribe found chiefly in Jhânsi. The caste professes to derive its name from a certain Râja Dang, a Raghubansi Râjput, from whom they trace descent; but the word probably means no more than “hill-man” (Hindi, dang, “a hill”). They profess to be immigrants from a place called Nirver, in the Gwâlior State, with which, however, they appear to hold no connection by marriage or pilgrimage, selection of bards, priests, or barbers; and those at present resident in the Jhânsi District have come chiefly within comparatively recent times from the Datiya and Tîkamgarh States. They have nothing in the way of a genealogical tree or traditions connected with ancient sites or monuments which would throw any clear light on their origin; but there seems good reason to suspect that they may be connected with the Gond and similar races of the Central Indian plateau.

[Sub-divisions.] 2. They have no sub-tribes, but are divided into a number of exogamous gotras, among which we find in Jhânsi the Patra, Nirveriya, Disauriya, Chakauriya, Madhpuriya, Dhauriya, and Pariya. Of these the Nirveriya is derived from Nirver, their original settlement, and though local enquiries have failed to explain the meaning of the other terms, they are probably of similar local origin. Of the sixty-seven names given in the Census lists very few can be connected with those of other tribes, except perhaps the Basoriya, Luniya, Niyâriya, Pahriya, and Sarwariya. The others appear to be of purely local origin, and this would lead to the inference that the tribe has been little, if at all, exposed to foreign influence.

[Tribal council.] 3. There is no regular tribal council; but there are certain persons who are regarded in each group of villages as headmen (mukhiya), and they assemble a meeting of the adult householders whenever a case occurs demanding enquiry. They deal principally with questions of marriage, excommunication, and restoration to caste privileges.

[Marriage rules.] 4. Marriage is forbidden between members of the same gotra and between first cousins. There are no prohibitions of intermarriage based on difference of social status, geographical or local position, worship or occupation. But intermarriage of persons belonging to different religions is not permitted. When the bride arrives at her husband’s house, his kinsmen make her small presents, which are known as muchâi or munhdikhâi, “the showing of her face.” There is no restriction on the number of wives: a man marries as many as he can afford to keep. All the wives are much on the same footing; but the first wife is known as Jethi or senior, and is held in more respect in the family than those junior to her. They all live together unless they quarrel, which is very unusual: in fact the senior wife often urges her husband to marry again, as she thus obtains an assistant in house and field work. North of the River Betwa at least concubinage is permitted. Polyandry is prohibited. Little girls are allowed a considerable amount of freedom; but if an unmarried girl is detected in immorality, she is excommunicated, and her whole family as well, unless they discard her. The age for marriage is, for girls seven or eight; for boys twelve or thirteen. After betrothal the engagement is not voidable on account of disease or physical defect. The match is arranged by the parents, but those a little higher in the social scale employ a Brâhman and barber. The consent of the parents is absolutely necessary, and the parties have no freedom of choice. No price is paid for either bride or bridegroom, but when the betrothal (tîka) is being performed, the friends of the bride are expected to give the boy a present. Even idiocy, lunacy or impotence appearing after marriage are not grounds for annulling it. Divorce is permitted on the ground of adultery in the wife. It is generally done by word of mouth, and the woman is turned out of the house. But usually, even if there be no regular tribal enquiry, the husband does not divorce his wife without taking the opinion of four or five of the leading clansmen in an informal way. A divorced woman cannot be remarried in the regular way, but another man may take her as his concubine, in which case he must give a dinner (roti) to the clansmen. Children by concubines, provided that they are women of the caste, have the same rights as offspring by regular marriages; but children who are the result of illicit connections which have not been condoned, or whose mothers were not members of the caste, are not admitted to tribal privileges and cannot marry in the caste.

[Widow marriage.] 5. Remarriage of widows is prohibited; but a man may take a widow of the caste to live with him without any ceremony, except the assent of the leading clansmen and the giving of a tribal feast. The levirate is allowed with the usual limitation, that it is only the younger brother who can claim the woman. But the widow is not compelled to live with her brother-in-law, and may set up house with an outsider, in which case the children of her first husband remain with his relations, and she loses all rights of maintenance in the household of her former husband. Her children by the first husband inherit his estate. If the first husband was childless his brothers inherit. There is no fiction that the children by the levir are supposed to belong to his dead brother.

[Birth ceremonies.] 6. There are no special observances during pregnancy. The Chamârin midwife attends and cuts the cord. During accouchement the mother adopts a sitting posture, and is held by the women of the family. After parturition is over the wife of the village barber acts as nurse. On the Dashtaun or tenth day the clansmen and friends are fed; the relations of the mother send her presents (pûch) and soaked gram is distributed. There is no indication of the couvade. For ten days the women and her relations are considered impure and are not allowed to touch other people or engage in worship of the gods. There are no special customs in connection with twins.

[Adoption. Puberty.] 7. There is no special ritual in force at adoption. The clan people are invited; the men are fed on sweets and the women on soaked gram. There are no observances at the attainment of puberty.

[Marriage ceremonies.] 8. The person who goes to the boy’s house to arrange the betrothal gives a cocoanut, some money, and a packet of betel (pân). This is the binding part of the ceremony, and the betrothal is then irreversible. Betrothal generally takes place when the girl is five or six years of age, and the consent of both parents is essential. There is no rule for the repayment of the expenses if the marriage does not take place.

9. Seven days before the actual marriage ceremony the bride’s father sends a letter (lagan ki chitthi) to the bridegroom’s father fixing the date and hour of the marriage. A sum of money already agreed on accompanies this letter. When the procession starts to fetch the bride, they halt outside her village at a place prepared for them called the Janwânsa. In the evening they march in procession to the bride’s house, being met half-way by her friends. At the door the tîka ceremony is performed, and another present in money equal to that sent with the lagan is made to the bridegroom. The bridegroom is then taken inside, where he throws a fan on the marriage shed (mandap) and returns to his party. Next day, after the dinner, and generally at night, the actual Bhanwar or perambulation of the bride and bridegroom round the sacred fire and the “giving away” of the girl (kanyâdân) are performed. The parents of the bride are not allowed to be present at the Bhanwar ceremony. On the third day the third dinner (roti) is given, and the ceremony of permitting the girl to go with her husband (bidâi) is done. Here, again, the bride’s father makes a third present equal in value to the previous two, which is known as bela or “cup.” It is optional with the parties to perform the ceremony of changing the seats of the married pair (lautpatta). In case this ceremony is performed at the marriage it is not necessary to repeat it when the bride is leaving for her husband’s house. If done, then it is known as Chauka, and the presents made at it by the father of the bride must equal in value half the presents made at the marriage. The binding part of the marriage ceremony is the perambulations round the fire and the giving away of the bride. The only apparent survival of marriage by capture is the ceremony of tîka or darwâza performed the first day. In this his maternal uncle takes the bridegroom in his arms inside the house of the bride, and there he strikes the marriage hut with a fan. As he is going away the women of the family beat the man who is carrying him with their fists and shout, “He has struck the mandap and is going away.”

[Death ceremonies.] 9. The dead are cremated and the ashes finally consigned to the Ganges. Immediately after death the corpse is covered with a piece of calico, white for men and red for women, and a few pân leaves are put over the head and breast. No offerings are made, nor is the body washed at the house. When they reach the cremation ground (ghât) a fire is lighted and the corpse laid with the head facing the south. Offerings of sesamum (til) and barley are made, and sesamum, barley and honey placed on the eyes of the corpse. The pyre is then lit by the heir, and he finally breaks the skull (kapâl kriya) to release the spirit. On the third day the relatives and clansmen are shaved. In the case of males the obsequies go on for thirteen days, and on the last day at least thirteen Brâhmans or more are feasted. The usual Srâddha is performed at the Kanâgat or Pitrapaksha in the month of Kuâr. It is incumbent on the headman of the family during each of the sixteen days to pour a libation of water in honour of his deceased ancestors before he touches food or drink. The death ceremonies are carried out by the family priest, and in his absence by any Brâhman. There is no trace of the sister’s son or other relatives on the female side exercising religious functions.

[Purification.] 10. The rules of ceremonial purification are carefully obeyed. Thus, if a person commit suicide on account of the misconduct of another, the offender is rigorously boycotted and is considered to bear the guilt (hatya) of the death. The same is the case with a man who has killed a cow, buffalo, or cat. The impurity after child-birth lasts for ten days. The death impurity lasts for ten days, except in the case of infants, when it is reduced to three days. The period of menstrual impurity extends to five days. The impurity due to death, child-birth, and menstruation is removed by the performance of the stated ceremonies, and by bathing after the expiration of the fixed period. But in the case of impurity due, as above described, to suicide or the killing of a cow, the matter is much more serious. The offender in order to purify himself is obliged to bathe in the Ganges, to feed the clansmen and Brâhmans, to perform the marriage ceremony of the Tulasi plant and the Sâlagrâma, or to pay all the expenses of the marriage of a pair of poor children in the caste. The interdict lasts until this expiation is undergone.

[Religion.] 11. Dângis are Hindus and worship all the ordinary deities, such as Râmchandra, Krishna, Mahâdeva, Durga, etc. They also worship the village godlings. Thus Sîtala is worshipped in the months of Asârh, Kuâr, and Chait, with an offering of boiled rice and cakes, pice and cowries; the food is taken by a Brâhman, the cash by a Mâli. Hardaul, the cholera godling, is worshipped in Asârh, and during epidemics of the disease. His offerings are cakes, sweetmeats, and packets of betel. All these things, except the cakes, are taken by a Brâhman. Sîtala has usually a regular masonry shrine, while Hardaul has only a platform. These deities are chiefly worshipped by women and children, adult males seldom visit their shrines. At marriages they propitiate the sainted dead, whom they call deva pitra, but they have no definite idea of their nature or functions. An old snake represents Bhûmiya or the godling of the hamlet, and is worshipped in the month of Asârh (June–July). Their sacred trees are the pîpal (Ficus religiosa) and the chhonkar (Prosopis spicigera). Evil spirits (bhût, pret) are propitiated in cases of sickness supposed to be due to demoniacal agency. It is said that Brâhmans have no objection to eating pakki roti from the hands of Dângis. Their priests are Dûbê or Tiwâri Brâhmans, and are received on the same footing as other Brâhmans. Sometimes they have a Guru in addition to a Purohit; sometimes the same man fulfils both functions. They have a special festival known as the maur chhût or “loosing of the marriage crown,” when in the month of Bhâdon the marriage crown of a pair who have been married during the year is thrown into the water. The only festival at which drunkenness is permitted is the Holi. The cows of the family are worshipped at the Diwâli and horses at the Dasahra.

[Oaths and exorcism.] 12. Oaths are made in the name of the Ganges and the Tulasi plant; in the name of the gods; by holding a lota full of Ganges water; by holding a son or grandson in the arms; by going to a shrine and opening the door at the time of swearing. Taking a false oath involves loss of property, disease, and death. Exorcism of evil spirits is in the hands of the Syâna, or “cunning man.” Sickness due to the Evil Eye is relieved by waving some mustard and salt round the head of the patient, and then throwing it into the fire.

Social rules.

13. Meat is forbidden; some will not eat onions. They will not touch a Bhangi or Basor, or a person guilty of Hatya, as above described. Women are not allowed to touch the Sâlagrâma, and children under ten are not permitted to join in any religious celebration. They observe the usual taboo against the wife calling her husband by his name. It is said that at the Akhtîj festival, on the third of the light half of Baisâkh, the wife, in order to bring luck on the house, is obliged to call her husband once by his name. They abstain from wine, the flesh of monkeys, beef, pork, flesh of cloven-footed and uncloven-footed animals, fowls, fish, and all kinds of vermin. The head of the family does not eat the baingan or egg-plant (Solanum melongena) from Asârh till the Deouthân feast in Kârttik, and this vegetable is not eaten on the eleventh day of the light and dark fortnights in each month. Women and men eat apart, and before eating two morsels are offered to the gods with folded hands, and a libation of water is poured on the ground. The use of intoxicating drugs is not forbidden, but excess use of them is considered disgraceful.

[Salutation.] 14. Their form of salutation is Râm! Râm! with the hand raised to the forehead.

[Food.] 15. They will eat close to Ahîrs, but not out of the same dish. They will take food cooked by a Brâhman and will drink water from the hands of a Mâli, Kâchhi, Dhîmar, or Nâu. They will not smoke out of the pipe of a Basor, Bhangi, or Chamâr.

[Occupation.] 16. The Dângis are ordinary cultivators and practise no handicrafts.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DÂNGIS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Darvesh.—A general Persian word for a faqîr. Mr. Platts derives it from the Zend root drigh, “to be poor, to beg,” and compares the Sanskrit darbh, root dribh and daridra. The term in these Provinces does not seem to denote a special caste; but Mr. Ibbetson [277] notices in the Panjâb that there seems to be a colony of people of this name, who cultivate land, play musical instruments, beg, make ropes, go to a house where there has been a death and chant the praises of the deceased, hang about mosques, and so forth. They are hardly ascetics, yet the small number of women seems to show that they have not yet formed into a separate caste, and are still recruited from outside.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE DARVESH ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

Daryadâsi.—A Vaishnava sect in the Ghâzipur district, founded by one Darya Dâs, a Vaishnava mendicant of the Koeri caste, whose followers now number 2,310.

Darzi.—(Persian darz, “a seam”) The tailor caste: pedantically known as Khaiyât (Arabic khaiyât, “to sew”).—The caste is purely occupational and consists of a Hindu as well as a Muhammadan branch. Like all similar so-called castes it shows a tendency to break up into endogamous occupational branches, such as the Rafugar or darner of old clothes, the Khaimadoz or tent-maker, and the Dastarband or maker of the elaborate turbans, such as are worn by office clerks and native servants. The patron saint of the Muhammadan branch is Ibrahîm or Abraham, who, according to them, practised the craft. In the month of Sâwan they make offerings to him of rice stew (pulâo) and cakes. These Musalmân Darzis take the titles of Shaikh and Khalîfa.

2. The Hindu Darzis are made up, as is shown by their exogamous sub-divisions, of various elements. Thus, among the five hundred and twenty-six sections of the Hindu and one hundred and forty-six of the Muhammadan branch, we find the names of many well-known tribes and castes, such as Agariya, Agarwâla, Atishbâz, Bâchhal, Baddhik, Baid, Bais, Baiswâr, Bâmhan, Baniyâna, Bargûjar, Benbans, Bhât, Chamâr, Chandeli, Chauhân, Chhatri, Dhânuk, Gûjar, Gaur, Jâdon, Janwâr, Kachhwâhiya, Kâyasth, Kharwâr, Koli, Marâtha, Mukeri, Ojha, Panwâr, Râjput, Râthaur, Raghubansi, Sakarwâr, Solankhi, Sûrajbansi, Taga, Tânk, Tomar, and Turkiya. With these are many local titles, such as Bareli, Bathmi, or Srivâtsav, Bhadwariya, Bhâgalpuriya, Dilliwâl, Hardwâriya, Jaiswâr, Jalâlpuriya, Kânhpuriya, Mathur or Mathuriya, and Sarwariya. The Kâyasth caste has contributed many recruits to them who call themselves Sribâstab or Sribâstak Kâyasths from Dundiya Khera, the head-quarters of the Bais Râjputs. The name is derived from the town of Srâvasti, now Sahet Mahet in the Gonda district. In Garhwâl the Hindu Darzi is known as Bora, most of whom seem to be of the Dom tribe. In the Western Districts their endogamous sub-divisions are Râthaur, Mathuriya, Mahor, and Saksena (from Sankisa): of these the Râthaur, who claim descent from the Râjput tribe of that name, are the highest, and Mathuriya and Mahor, who are often contemptuously termed Chamar Sujiya or Chamârs’ tailors, are the lowest. In Benares, according to Mr. Sherring, their sub-divisions are Sribâstav, Nâmdeo, Tânchara, Dhanesh, Panjâbi, Gaur, Kantak, and Saksena. Among sections locally important we find the Zahûri of Sahâranpur: the Chauhân and Jogi of Muzaffarnagar: the Sadîqi of Sîtapur: the Turkiya of Kheri, and the Pîrzâda of Gonda. The Musalmân Darzis follow the ordinary rules of Muhammadan exogamy; but it is said that there is now-a-days a tendency to replace these by the usual standard Hindu formula. Widows remarry by the sagâi or kâj form, and the levirate is optional.

[Religion.] 3. Though most of the Darzis in the east of the Province profess to be Sunni Muhammadans, they still cling to many Hindu usages. They worship Kâlika, Bhawâni, and the Pânchonpîr, among whom they particularly reverence Ghâzi Miyân. [278] These are worshipped in the month of Jeth, when the wedding of Ghâzi Miyân is commemorated. The offerings to them consist of rich cakes (malîda), bread, fowls, sweetmeats, melons, cucumbers, gram-flour, and cakes made of pulse and pumpkin (konhrauri). They bury their dead in the usual Muhammadan form, and lay offerings to the spirits of their deceased ancestors at the ‘Id and Shab-i-barât. They are said to eat beef more freely than ordinary Muhammadans of their class. Those who are Hindus follow the rites and customs of the higher castes.

[Occupation and social life.] 4. The ordinary Darzi is a very low-paid and hard-worked craftsman. According to Mr. Hoey [279] in Lucknow the rate for making men’s jackets (angarkha) is from three to eight annas according as the work is plain or more or less ornamented: for men’s drawers (mardâna pâêjâma) one and-a-half to two annas: coats (kurta) one and-a-half annas: jackets (salûka) one and-a-half annas. The only articles of female apparel made by them are drawers (pâêjâma), which are either of the ordinary tight pattern (churidâr), or wide with gussets (kalidâr), such as are worn by dancing women and servants. Some are master-tailors, and these, according to Mr. Hoey, make as much profit by each workman as his daily wages, one and-a-half annas to three annas per diem. Their women are said to be constantly divorced, and there are few women who have not changed husbands more than once.

5. The occupation is an ancient one. In the vocabulary of Amara Sinha there are two words for workers with a needle—tunnavâya, or “those who darn” (the modern Rafugar), and the other the sauchika (represented by the modern Sûji), a general tailor. The profession of the latter was of sufficient importance to necessitate the establishment of a special tribe and a mixed class. The lawful issue of Vaisyas by a Sûdra woman were, according to the ancient law book of Usanas, destined to live by it and were called Sauchi or “needle-men.” [280] The occupation is a poor one and held rather in contempt. The village proverb runs,—Darji ka pût jab tak jîta tab tak sîta—“the tailor’s brat will do nothing but sew all his life long.” Another is,—Darzi ki sûi khabhi tâsh men, kabhi tât men—“the tailor’s needle now in embroidery, now in canvass.”

DISTRIBUTION OF DARZIS ACCORDING TO THE CENSUS OF 1891.

==============+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+========+========+==========+========== Districts. |Chhîpi. | |Kaithiya. | | |Mathuriya. | | | |Nâmdeobansi. | | | | |Râthaur. | | | | | |Saksena. | | | | | | |Sribâstab. | | | | | | | |Others. | | | | | | | | |Muhammadans. | | | | | | | | | | Total. +~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~ Dehra Dûn | 123| ... | ... | ... | ... | 8| ... | 89| 27| 247 Sahâranpur | 789| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 1,079| 1,170| 3,038 Muzaffarnagar | 1,032| ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 727| 2,487| 4,246 Meerut | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 364| 9,385| 9,749 Bulandshahr | ... | 35 | 10| ... | 33| ... | ... | 2,265| 2,267| 4,610 Aligarh | ... | ... | ... | ... | 238| ... | ... | 4,811| 132| 5,181 Mathura | 1| ... | 70| ... | 16| ... | ... | 3,220| 125| 3,432 Agra | 254| 12 | 66| 258| 842| ... | ... | 2,940| 80| 4,452 Farrukhâbâd | ... | 889 | 88| ... | ... | 563| 69| 48| 2,666| 4,323 Mainpuri | 17| 464 | 674| ... | 230| 127| 154| 1,625| 49| 3,340 Etâwah | ... | 927 | 602| 44| 12| 135| 550| 606| 98| 2,974 Etah | ... | 476 | 454| ... | 735| 243| 2| 1,170| 515| 3,595 Bareilly | ... | 1,723 | ... | ... | ... | 29| 214| 1,603| 3,896| 7,465 Bijnor | ... | 2 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 123| 5,877| 6,002 Morâdâbâd | ... | 247 | 19| 4| ... | 571| 16| 687| 3,456| 5,000 Budâun | ... | 622 | 835| ... | 60| 760| 86| 657| 1,465| 4,485 Shâhjahânpur | ... | 919 | 361| ... | 9| 850| 225| 324| 3,450| 6,138 Pilibhît | ... | 710 | 20| ... | ... | 1,408| 8| 113| 1,383| 3,642 Cawnpur | 12| 1,126 | 17| ... | ... | 44| 2,651| 747| 1,706| 6,303 Fatehpur | ... | ... | ... | 9| ... | 107| 2,799| 746| 443| 4,104 Bânda | ... | ... | ... | 106| ... | 898| 2,225| 1,249| 15| 4,493 Hamîrpur | 4| 26 | ... | 15| ... | 337| 107| 1,646| 4| 2,139 Allahâbâd | ... | ... | ... | 149| ... | ... | 2,868| 1,457| 3,928| 8,402 Jhânsi | ... | ... | 13| 147| 5| ... | 27| 2,168| 7| 2,367 Jâlaun | ... | 350 | ... | 299| ... | 7| 542| 866| ... | 2,064 Lalitpur | ... | ... | ... | 137| ... | ... | ... | 1,417| ... | 1,554 Benares | ... | 8 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 344| 236| 1,942| 2,530 Mirzapur | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 120| 421| 2,642| 3,183 Jaunpur | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 246| 102| 4,506| 4,854 Ghâzipur | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 16| 102| 10| 2,619| 2,747 Ballia | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 2,503| 2,503 Gorakhpur | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 173| 120| 8,273| 8,566 Basti | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 34| 338| 3| 8,765| 9,140 Azamgarh | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 5,416| 5,416 Tarâi | ... | 162 | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 194| 810| 1,166 Lucknow | ... | ... | ... | 13| ... | ... | 580| 201| 3,362| 4,156 Unâo | ... | 30 | ... | ... | ... | 1| 2,359| 373| 1,799| 4,562 Râê Bareli | ... | 17 | ... | 6| ... | ... | 1,625| 577| 3,417| 5,642 Sîtapur | ... | 93 | ... | ... | ... | 132| 412| 64| 6,884| 7,585 Hardoi | ... | 132 | ... | ... | ... | ... | 16| 157| 5,579| 5,884 Kheri | ... | 157 | ... | ... | ... | 6| 212| 204| 6,625| 7,204 Faizâbâd | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 111| 47| 4,938| 5,096 Gonda | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 824| ... | 8,640| 9,464 Bahrâich | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 33 | 28 | 7,698 | 7,759 Sultânpur | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 303 | 229 | 5,425 | 5,957 Partâbgarh | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 1,181 | 304 | 2,660 | 4,145 Bârabanki | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | ... | 376 | ... | 6,569 | 6,945 +~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~+~~~~~~~~~~ Total | 2,232 | 9,127 | 3,229 | 1,187 | 2,180 | 6,276 | 21,898 | 36,017 | 1,45,703 | 2,27,849 ==============+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+========+========+==========+==========

Dasnâmi.—An order of the Gusâîns. The word means “the ten names,” and is derived from their practice of affixing a special name to define the endogamous sections. The term Sannyâsi properly means a person who is undergoing the stage (asrama) of meditation and abandonment of the world prescribed by the early law-givers. But it more specially means a follower of the reformer Sankara Achârya. He is said to have had four pupils, from whom ten orders were derived. Padaman Achârya founded the Tîratha and Asrama classes; Sarûpa Achârya the Vana and Aranya; Tarnaka or Tank Achârya the Giri, Sâgara and Parvata; Prithodar or Prithivi Achârya the Puri, Bhârati and Saraswati. The lists, however, disagree in the enumeration of the ten classes. In these Provinces they are usually given as Tîratha; Asrama; Vana; Aranya; Sarasvati; Puri; Bhârati; Giri; Parvata, and Sâgara. Mr. Maclagan, writing of the Panjâb, says:—“According to some the order is divided into four divisions (called math, “the hut of an ascetic”), the Joshi Math, containing the Giri, Puri, and Bhârati; the Sangri Math, containing the Vana, Aranya, and Tîratha; the Narâgani Math, containing the Parvata and Asrama; the Brahmachâri Math, containing the Saraswati and Dandi. The fact that there are ten groups of Sannyâsis is well known, but different versions are given of the names. Of eight lists which I have before me from different parts of the Province, the Giri, Puri, Aranya, and Bhârati appear in all; but one or other of the following names, Astâwar; Jati; Bodla; Dandi; Datta; Achârya; Kar; Nirambh, or Pari, is often substituted for one or other of the remaining class names. According to some accounts only eight of the classes are really Sannyâsis, the Bhârati being Jogis and the Dandis Vaishnavas. Three classes only, the Nirambh, Asrama, and Saraswati, are allowed to wear or use arms. Five of the sub-divisions are said to be recruited from Brâhmans alone, viz., the Saraswati, Achârya, Aranya, Vana, and Anandi, the others being open to the public. A man of any caste may become a Sannyâsi, but in practice the order is made up of Brâhmans and Khatris mainly, and according to some the true Sannyâsi will partake of food only in the house of a Brâhman or a Khatri.” [281]

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The tribes and castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, Volume 2 (of 4)Chapter D (1)

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