Chapter II: Part II

_The Substance and Character of the Geographical Lore of the
Time of the Crusades_
VI COSMOGONY, COSMOLOGY, AND COSMOGRAPHY 133
General Character of the Cosmology and Natural Science of
the Period 134
The Chartres Group: Bernard Sylvester and Theodoric 134
Adelard of Bath and William of Conches 135
Concept of Natural Laws 136
The Orthodox Tendency 137
Effects of Influx of Arabic Science 138
The Creation 138
Problems 139
The Preëxistence of Matter 139
The Orthodox View 139
A Rational View 141
Processes of the Creation 141
Theodoric of Chartres’ Theory 141
William of Conches’ Theory 142
Function of Light in the Creation 143
The Nature of the Six Days 144
Eternity of the Universe 145
Bernard Sylvester’s Account of the Creation 145
The Icelandic Account 146
Macrocosm and Microcosm 147
Shape, Movements, and Size of the Earth 150
Sphericity of the Universe 150
Shape of the Earth 152
Immobility of the Earth 153
Size of the Earth 155
Zones, the Antipodes, and “Climata” 156
Zones 156
Uninhabitability of Polar Caps and Equatorial Zone 157
Austral Continent and Antipodal Regions 157
The Cratesian Theory 158
Persistence of Belief That Antipodal Regions Were
Inhabited 159
Manegold’s Arguments Against This Doctrine 161
Habitability of the Equatorial Region 162
Grosseteste on the Habitable Parts of the Earth 163
The Equatorial Zone 163
The Southern Hemisphere 164
The Polar Regions 165
VII THE ATMOSPHERE 166
Meteorology 166
Composition of the Atmosphere 166
Temperature 167
Upper Levels of the Atmosphere 167
Clouds 168
Precipitation 169
Floods; The Deluge 170
Winds 171
Atmospheric Circulation 172
Names of the Winds 173
Qualities of the Winds 174
Local Winds 175
Climatology 175
Hot and Cold Climates 176
Distribution of Climates 177
Climatic Differences Between East and West 177
Topographic Influences Upon Climate 177
The Sea 177
Mountains 178
Influence of Climate on Man 180
Climate of Rome 180
VIII THE WATERS 182
The Waters Above the Firmament 182
Rationalistic Beliefs 182
Literal Beliefs 183
Purpose of the Waters 184
The Congregation of Waters 184
Connection Between Seas and Rivers 185
The Earth Established on the Waters 186
The Oceans and Seas 187
Relative Areas of Land and Sea 187
Explanation of Uniform Level of Sea Surface 188
Salinity of the Sea 189
Tides 190
Lunar Causation 190
Terrestrial Causation 192
Giraldus Cambrensis’ Tidal Studies 194
Other Marine Phenomena Noted by Giraldus 196
St. Brandan and the Spirit of the Sea 197
Bottom of the Sea 198
The Waters of the Lands 199
Ground Water 199
The Sea As the Source of the Waters of the Land 200
Effect of Land on Waters Which Spring From It 202
Miraculous Wells and Springs; Geysers 203
The Fountain of Youth 204
Rivers 205
The Nile Flood 206
Lakes 207
IX THE LANDS 210
Classification of Land Areas 210
Quantitative and Qualitative Subdivisions 210
Giraldus Cambrensis’ Comparison of East and West 211
Mountains 212
Origin of Mountains 213
Their Size and Height 214
Miraculous Mountains 214
Accurate Observation of Orographic Phenomena 215
Appreciation of the Beauty of Mountains 215
Religious Attitude Towards Mountains 216
Normal Medieval Feeling About Mountains 217
Glaciers 219
Volcanoes and Earthquakes 220
Visits to Volcanoes 220
Volcanic Region of Southern Italy and Sicily 220
Michael Scot on the Eolian Isles and Etna 222
Volcanoes of Iceland 222
St. Brandan’s Visits to Volcanic Isles 224
Volcanoes As Gates of Hell 225
Causes of Vulcanism 225
Earthquakes 227
Deserts 228
Islands 229
Origins 229
Miraculous Islands 229
Islands of St. Brandan 230
Influences of Geographical Environment 231
On Plant and Animal Life 231
On Man 232
Topography As a Natural Defense 233
Theory of the Westward Flow of Civilization 233
Feeling for Landscape and Scenery 235
Spiritual Feeling for Nature 235
Esthetic Love of Nature 237
Practical Interest in Countrysides 238
Giraldus Cambrensis’ Eye for Local Topography 240
X THE ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE KNOWN WORLD 241
Phenomena Resulting From Differences in Latitude 241
“Climata” 242
Geographical Coördinates 243
Methods of Finding Latitude and Longitude 244
XI CARTOGRAPHY 247
Inaccuracy 247
Accuracy Not Deemed Necessary 248
Exaggeration 249
Distortion 249
Technique 250
Conventions 251
Symbols and Legends 252
Summary 254
XII REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY 255
General Character of Regional Knowledge of the Period 255
Geography of Tradition and Geography of Observation 255
Gradations of Accuracy of Knowledge 256
The “Oikoumene” As a Whole 257
The “Oikoumene” Divided into Three Parts 258
The Center of the “Oikoumene” 259
Jerusalem As the Center 259
The Exact Position of the Earth’s Center 260
The Terrestrial Paradise 261
Paradise in the East 261
Journeys to Paradise 263
The Rivers of Paradise 264
Asia 265
The Opening of Asia in the Thirteenth Century 266
The Mongol Conquests 266
Thirteenth-Century Journeys 269
The Great Mountain System of Asia 270
The Land of the “Seres” 271
China 271
India 272
Subdivisions 272
Facts Known About India 273
Marvels of India 274
Legend of St. Thomas in India 275
Visit of Patriarch John of India to Rome 278
Indian Ocean 279
Islands of the Indian Ocean 280
Al-Battānī on the Indian Ocean 280
Scythia and Central Asia 281
Benjamin of Tudela on Central Asia 282
Prester John 283
Origins of the Legend 283
Prester John’s Kingdom As Described in His “Letter” 285
Alliance With Prester John Desired 286
Gog and Magog 287
Western Asia 288
Mesopotamia 289
Benjamin of Tudela on Baghdad 289
Benjamin of Tudela on Arabia 291
Syria and Palestine 292
Geographical Knowledge Enlarged by the Crusades 292
Occidental Population of the Levant 294
European Occupation of Syria 294
Asia Minor 295
Western Asia As Described by the Crusaders 296
Africa 298
Egypt As Part of Asia 298
Descriptions of Egypt 299
Africa West of Egypt 300
Ethiopia 302
Sources of the Nile 304
Traditional View of Central Africa 306
The Mediterranean Sea 307
The Name “Mediterranean” 307
The Mediterranean During the Crusades 307
Instructions for Navigation in the Mediterranean 308
Islands of the Mediterranean 309
Sicily 311
Europe 312
Northeastern Europe 312
Russia 312
Poland 313
Slavic Europe As Described by Benjamin of Tudela and
Petachia of Ratisbon 314
Hungary 314
Balkan Peninsula 316
Constantinople 318
Italy 319
Rome 321
Antiquities 321
Spain 322
The Alps 323
Use of Terms “Transalpine” and “Cisalpine” 324
“Alemannia” 325
Germany 325
Baltic Regions 327
Scandinavia 329
France 331
Paris 331
Alsace 332
Southern France 333
Islands of the Atlantic Ocean 334
British Isles 335
Cities of Britain 336
Giraldus Cambrensis on Ireland and Wales 337
Ireland 337
Wales 340
William Fitzstephen on London 341
Matthew Paris’ Maps of Britain 342
Orkneys and Shetlands 345
Iceland and Thule 345
Iceland in Icelandic Literature 346
Greenland 347
Polar Seas 348
Wineland the Good 349
Fabulous Isles 350
St. Brandan’s Isles 351
XIII CONCLUSION 353
The Outstanding Elements of the Geographical Lore of the
Time of the Crusades 353
Character of the Geographical Lore of the Time of the
Crusades 358
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NOTES TO CHAPTER I 365
NOTES TO CHAPTER II 378
NOTES TO CHAPTER III 392
NOTES TO CHAPTER IV 396
NOTES TO CHAPTER V 416
NOTES TO CHAPTER VI 417
NOTES TO CHAPTER VII 430
NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII 435
NOTES TO CHAPTER IX 445
NOTES TO CHAPTER X 453
NOTES TO CHAPTER XI 458
NOTES TO CHAPTER XII 459

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE 491
BIBLIOGRAPHY 503

INDEX 547

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

FIG. PAGE
1 Types of T-O and Sallust maps 67
2 St. Sever Beatus map 69
3 Zone map in Lambert of St. Omer’s _Liber floridus_ 122
4 Osma Beatus map 123
5 The macrocosm, the microcosm, and the winds from Hildegard
of Bingen’s _Liber divinorum operum_ 148
6 Sketch map of the Mediterranean region and the Near East
plotted from the geographical positions in the
_Marseilles Tables_, with inset of Henry of Mayence’s
map 245
7 Plan of Jerusalem from the anonymous _Gesta Francorum
Ierusalem expugnantium_ 250
8 Two sections from the Hereford map to illustrate the
marvels of India 276–277
9 Matthew Paris’ map of Britain 343
10 Diagram to illustrate John of Holywood’s reasoning that
the earth is in the center of the universe 422
11 Comparative diagram of certain parallels of latitude and
of the _climata_ according to various ancient and
medieval geographers 454–455
12 Map showing the relative positions of certain points in
Europe as indicated in astronomical tables of the
twelfth and early thirteenth centuries 457