Chapter I: Part I

_Origins, Sources, and Place in the Classification of
Knowledge of the Geographical Lore of the Time of the
Crusades_
I THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ANCIENT WORLD 9
Sources 9
The Pythagoreans, Plato, and Aristotle 9
Roman Influence on Geography 10
Ptolemy 10
Latin Writers: Pliny, Solinus, Capella, Macrobius 11
The History of the Universe 12
Ancient Cosmogony 12
Celestial Influences 12
Cosmic Cycles: The Great Years 13
Geographic Application of the Theory of the Great Years 14
Duration of the Great Years 14
Shape, Movements, and Size of the Earth 15
Sphericity of the Earth 15
Immobility of the Earth 15
Circumference of the Earth 16
The Distribution of Habitable Regions; Zones; the
Distribution of Land and Water 17
Zones 17
Crates’ Theory of Four Land Masses 18
Extent of the “Oikoumene” 19
Physical Geography 19
Aristotle, Seneca, and Pliny 19
The Four Elements 20
Meteorology 21
Winds 22
Climatology 23
The Water Element 24
The Sea: Its Salinity, Depth, Currents, and Tides 25
Subterranean Channels 27
Rivers of the Underworld 28
Origin of Rivers 29
The Nile Flood 30
The Lands 31
Earthquakes and Volcanoes 31
Height of Mountains 32
Mathematical Geography and Cartography 33
Mathematical Geography Largely Based on Itineraries 33
Astronomical Determination of Latitude 34
Astronomical Determination of Longitude 34
Cartography 35
The Expansion of Regional Knowledge 36
Expansion of Greek Regional Knowledge 37
Geography at Alexandria 38
Hellenistic Regional Knowledge 39
Regional Knowledge of Mela and Pliny 40
The “Periplus of the Erythraean Sea” 40
Limits of Ancient Regional Knowledge on the South and
East 41
II THE CONTRIBUTION OF WESTERN CHRISTENDOM BEFORE 1100 A. D. 43
Introduction 43
Scriptural Influence on Early Medieval Geography 43
Ignorance of the Best Work of Antiquity 43
Scientific Stagnation During the Early Middle Ages 44
Sources 45
The Bible 45
Writings of the Church Fathers 46
Interpretation of the Bible 46
Classical Influences 47
Encyclopedic Compilations 47
Miscellaneous Geographical Writings 48
Legends 49
Books of Travel and Description 50
The History of the Universe 51
Christianity Opposed to Belief in an Eternal Universe 51
The Creation 52
Shape and Size of the Earth 53
Early Christian Belief in a Flat Earth 53
Early Christian Belief in a Spherical Earth 54
Size of the Earth 54
Zones and the Antipodes 55
Zones 55
The Antipodes 55
Physical Geography 57
Meteorology 57
The Waters Above the Firmament 58
The Congregation of the Waters 59
The Nile Flood 60
The Earth Upon the Waters 61
The Sea 61
The Lands 62
The Medieval Attitude Towards Landscape and Scenery Before
1100 A. D. 63
Esthetic Appreciation of Nature in Antiquity 63
Early Christian Attitude Towards Nature 64
Revival of Esthetic Feeling in the Middle Ages 64
Mathematical Geography and Cartography 65
Mathematical Geography 65
Maps 65
Macrobian Maps 66
T-O Maps 66
Sallust Maps 68
Beatus Maps 68
Regional Geography 70
Limited Geographical Horizon in the Early Middle Ages 70
Medieval Conception of the Known World 71
Paradise 71
Rivers of Paradise 72
Asia 72
Gog and Magog 72
Romance of Alexander the Great 73
St. Thomas in India 74
Africa 74
Europe 74
Explorations to the North 75
The Atlantic 75
America Reached by the Norsemen 76
III THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE MOSLEMS 77
Sources 77
Influence of Aristotle 77
Influence of Ptolemy’s “Almagest” 78
Influence of Ptolemy’s “Geography” 78
Az-Zarqalī and the “Toledo Tables” 79
Geography in Sicily 79
Edrisi 80
Influence of Sicilo-Moslem Geography 81
Oriental Ideas Transmitted to the West 82
Astronomical Geography; Theories of the Tides 82
The Great Years 82
Cosmic Cycles and Geographical Changes 83
Theories of the Tides 84
Measurement of a Terrestrial Degree 85
Geographical Positions 85
Arin 86
Arabic Exploration and Travel 87
IV THE SOURCES FOR THE PERIOD 1100–1250 A. D. 88
Introduction 88
Theological and Philosophical Works 89
Theological Works 89
Peter Abelard 89
Hugh of St. Victor 90
Hildegard of Bingen 90
Peter Lombard and Peter Comestor 91
The School of Chartres: Its Intellectual Independence 91
Bernard and Theodoric of Chartres 91
Adelard of Bath; Hermann the Dalmatian; Robert of
Retines 92
Bernard Sylvester 93
William of Conches 93
Alexander Neckam 93
Translations from the Arabic; Works Written under Arabic
Influence; Aristotelianism and Its Opponents 95
Adelard of Bath; Peter Alphonsi 95
John of Seville; Plato of Tivoli 96
“Marseilles Tables” and “Toledo Tables” 96
Robert of Retines; Hermann the Dalmatian; Daniel of
Morley 97
Gerard of Cremona; John of Holywood (Sacrobosco) 97
Aristotelianism Introduced Through Arabic Works 98
Gerard of Cremona 99
Michael Scot 99
Aristotelianism in the Thirteenth Century 100
Opponents of Aristotelianism 101
William of Auvergne 101
Robert Grosseteste 101
Encyclopedic Works 102
“De Imagine Mundi” 103
Lambert’s “Liber Floridus”; Guido’s Encyclopedia 103
“Lucidarius” 104
Gervase of Tilbury 104
Jacques de Vitry 105
“L’Image du Monde” 105
“Konungs-Skuggsjá” 105
Great Encyclopedias of the Thirteenth Century 106
Dante 106
Histories, Chronicles, Sagas, Epic Poems 107
Otto of Freising 107
Gunther of Pairis 108
Walter of Châtillon; William the Breton 108
Historians and Histories of the Crusades 109
Scandinavian Historical Works 110
Latin Histories of the North 111
Legends 113
Romance of Alexander 113
Prester John 114
St. Brandan 115
Pilgrim Narratives; Miscellaneous Records of Travel 115
Christian Pilgrim Narratives 115
Letters of Travel 116
Jewish Travelers 117
Benjamin of Tudela 117
Petachia of Ratisbon 118
Topographical Works 118
Godfrey of Viterbo 119
Gervase of Canterbury 119
Giraldus Cambrensis 119
Maps 121
Zone Maps 121
T-O and Sallust Maps 121
Beatus Maps 122
Maps of Lambert, Guido, Henry of Mayence, and Others 124
Regional Maps 125
Matthew Paris’ Maps of Britain 126
V THE PLACE OF GEOGRAPHY IN THE MEDIEVAL CLASSIFICATION OF
KNOWLEDGE 127
Geography Included Under Geometry 127
Geography Included Under Astrology 128
Geography and the Aristotelian Division of Learning 129