Chapter XXXI: Section I: Kordofan

1. _General Description._

The country between the Nile and the eastern frontier of Darfur consists of vast plains broken in places by clusters of hills, which rarely exceed 600 feet in height above the plain. In the north, these plains are intersected by wadis which run down from the hills and gradually lose themselves in the sand. The country is thinly covered with low scrub, which becomes denser in the wadis. Towards the south the khors gradually become less and less, until about lat. 14° 30′ north they cease. Here the real bush country commences, and the surface of the ground becomes more undulating. There is no visible watershed, the rain sinking in where it falls.

The northern plains, occupied by camel-owning tribes, consist chiefly of reddish sand, which, if the rains are good, supports plenty of coarse grass and crops of dukhn. Should they fail, even the grass in the wadis does not afford grazing, and the wells give out (1902-03).

In the undulating country between El Obeid and the river the grey gum acacia (hashab) is the prevailing tree. The soil here contains more clay than further north. Between Id El Ud and Zereiga on the east, and Hashaba and Jebel Kon on the west, is a waterless district called El Agaba, in which grows little but marakh bush and coarse grass.

Between El Agaba and the river the ground falls, at first abruptly, and then very gently, to the river. The sandy soil gradually disappears, and along the bank is replaced by a strip of black soil, in places, 12 miles wide. This soil is rich and is generally overgrown with thick bush. On the river bank, and as far inland as the floods at high Nile reach, large red sunt trees are found. At high Nile these often stand in 3 or 4 feet of water. During the rains this soil becomes a swamp, impassable for camels in most places, the khors fill with water, and the roads near the river go out of use. As soon as the rains stop and the river falls, this soil dries up and cracks, and until the paths have been used for some time the going is very bad.

[Sidenote: Dar Hamid.]

In Dar Hamid, a large district north-west of Bara, there is a series of basins running from north to south, divided by steep ridges of red sand. At the bottom of each basin, locally called a “khor,” the soil is white, sandy earth, containing much lime. Water is here found at a depth of from 4 to 10 feet. These khors were formerly all cultivated by Danagla, who used shadufs or saglias. The whole district, which extends from Ashaf in the south to Shershar in the north, is known as El Kheiran. Date, dom, and deleib palms, as well as limes grow, and in a few places gardens with onions, shatta (red pepper), rigl, etc., have been made.

[Sidenote: Southern portion.]

Though the change is very gradual, south of lat. 13° 15′ the plains become more level. They are broken by deep khors with steep banks, and are covered with thick bush or tall trees up to the foot of the Nuba hills. Further south the bush becomes larger, until huge forest trees are met with. On the edge of the khors there are immense creepers and tangled undergrowth. The soil appears fertile, but is only cultivated near the hills. The rest of the country is covered with jungle, and becomes a swamp in the rains, but afterwards quickly dries up. The timber found is of little value, being chiefly acacia. Game is abundant. Elephant, giraffe, and antelope abound; monkeys and birds are found in great numbers in the woods. Snakes are also said to be common.

[Sidenote: Dar Nuba.]

Dar Nuba is the only part of Kordofan where the scenery can be said to be pretty, and some of the views of the hills looking over masses of forest are really beautiful, whereas most of the rest of the country is wearisome from its sameness. The hills in the north are nearly bare of vegetation. On all the Nuba hills thorny bushes grow between the rocks, except on a few of the more isolated hills, whose summits consist of piled masses of rock devoid of vegetation. They are terraced for cultivation, by the people, to a height of 300 or 400 feet from their base.

[Sidenote: Hills.]

The most important groups of hills are, in the north, Jebel Haraza and Jebel Kaja Katul, both inhabited by Nuba Arabs, and Jebel Kaja Serrug in the west. In the south, Jebel Daier, Jebel Tagale, Jebel Kadero, Jebel Gedir, Jebel Moro, Jebel Talodi, Jebel Kari, Jebel Eliri-liri, and Jebel El Joghub, are all inhabited by Nubas.

[Sidenote: Dar Hamar.]

Dar Hamar, the country west of Dar Hamid, and extending up to the Darfur frontier, consists of gently undulating steppes covered with bush. In places there are a few low rocky hills, and the horizon is broken by huge tebeldi trees. As there are few wells, almost the whole population depends on the water that is stored in these trees during the rains. Throughout the province, from November until June, the plains have a dried-up appearance, only broken by the few trees, such as the hashab and marakh, that remain green throughout the year, and in the southern districts by the trees in the khors, which can be traced as bands of dark green, winding through the black hills and dull brown plains.

[Sidenote: Drainage system.]

The drainage system of Kordofan is complicated. It is doubtful if any rain that falls there ever reaches the Nile, unless it does so underground. In the north, the hard sand forms wide shallow wadis, which, after wandering for a greater or lesser distance, either lose themselves by spreading over a bare surface, or by striking an outcrop of rock form a “sink,” which enables shallow wells to be dug, and gives an excellent supply of water. In the south, the softer soil and more abundant rainfall, together with, in places, steeper gradients, cause the shallow wadis of the north to be replaced by narrow khors with steep sides. But the water eventually disappears from the surface in the same way as in the northern districts. For example, the wadi from Abu Tabr and those north of Jebel Derish end at Shageig, where a plentiful supply of water is to be found all the year round. Jebel Kajmar also is the natural dam to Wadi El Sigai, which flows from the south. Habisa is another similar place. In the south, the Khor Abu Habl loses itself west of Gedid, and further west, El Sinut, a large lake in the rains, and a swamp afterwards, is believed to have no outlet.

[Sidenote: Lakes.]

The chief lakes are Abu Serai, Sherkeila, El Rahad, and El Birka. In January, 1900, all were dry, but in 1901, El Rahad lasted for the whole year, though El Birka was dry by the end of December. Abu Serai always dries up a few weeks after the rains cease. Sherkeila is said generally to dry up, but was full in December, 1900, and was expected to last until the next rains. Rahad was also full.

These lakes are said to be all connected with the Khor Abu Habl, but native information points to El Rahad being the end of Khor Khashgil, only Sherkeila and Abu Serai joining the Khor Abu Habl. As a proof of this, in 1902, after the rains, Sherkeila was full and El Rahad nearly empty. When dry, wells are dug in the bottom of the lakes.

In Western Kordofan there is a series of swamps—Abu Zabbat, El Sinut, El Seneita, Toto, Kutna, and Burdia—but though in the rains they are generally full of water, they dry up almost at once, and can hardly be dignified with the name of lakes. The Baggara Arabs, who frequent these swamps, dig wells in the middle of them as they dry up and build up the mouths with wood and earth to a height of 4 or 5 feet, to prevent the mud and grass washing in during the rains. In Southern Kordofan there are many such tracts of land under water during the rains; and Butler Bey (in March, 1902) found, about 50 miles north-west of Jebel Eliri, a lake called El Abiad, which although said never to dry up, was dry in January, 1903. It was (in March, 1902) about 6 miles by 4 miles, and contained excellent fish. As far as could be ascertained it had no outlet. The only really permanent lake, as far as is known, is Lake Keilak in the Dar Homr district, which is about 4½ miles by 2 miles.

[Sidenote: Wadis, &c.]

In many districts the difference of level is so slight that it is very difficult, except during or just after the rains, to detect which way the water flows. As soon as the country dries up the wind and sand rapidly obliterates all signs of running water, and many wadis can only be recognised by their more abundant vegetation.

In the centre of the province, that is, south of the Helba-Bara road and parts of Dar Hamar and north of the Gedid-Um Ruaba-El Obeid road, there is no watershed, and hence no khors or wadis properly so called. This country is undulating, but the hills seldom have any general direction; where they have, it is north and south, but the valleys are seldom of any length and never contain streams. The rain sinks in where it falls. However, just as in Dar Hamid, every basin, though without an outlet, is called a khor, so in this part of the country every depression is called a wadi, and takes its name from the adjacent village.

[Sidenote: Water supply.]

The water supply, which is entirely dependent on the local rains, is derived from (1) wells; (2) surface water in pools or fulas and the lakes; (3) tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_), and melons.

The best watered portions of Kordofan, excluding the Nuba hills, are Dar Hamid, Bara, and El Eddaiya, where the wells can be worked with a shaduf, and there is enough water for irrigation, and the basins of El Obeid, Abu Haraz, and Sherkeila.

Elsewhere water is always liable to give out, and towards the end of the hot weather whole villages are frequently obliged to migrate to more favoured places until the rains once more fill the fulas.

[Sidenote: Wells.]

North of 14° 13′, except actually during the rains, when pools form in the khors, the only water obtainable is from wells or holes in the hills. The former are numerous, but are liable to become choked by drift sand or to fall in when a sudden rush of water comes down the khor. They vary greatly from year to year, being entirely dependent on the local rainfall over a limited area. There are a few places, such as Gabra, Habisa and El Safia, where the water is said never to give out. The wells in the desert country are seldom more than 50 feet, and often only 5 or 6 feet deep, being dug in the bed of a khor, often at its termination, as at Kagmar.

On the Bara-El Dueim road some of the wells are, however, over 200 feet deep, and water is generally plentiful. Further south the wells become less deep, and give less water. In the valley of the Khor Abu Habl and in Dar El Ahamda the wells average 30 feet, but the amount of water they contain depends entirely on the local rains.

The deep wells in Eastern Kordofan are of two kinds: those in hard soil or rock, and those in sandy soil. The former are generally 5 to 8 feet in diameter and unlined, and with care will last for years. The latter are seldom more than 3 or 4 feet in diameter and require constant attention. As they are dug, a lining called “lawai,” has to be put in. This is made of grass rope in lengths of about 40 feet. Near the bottom the lining is made of the roots of trees, that of the “hashab” being considered the best for this purpose. This class of well requires constant repairing and cleaning, and seldom lasts more than two years, when the sand at the bottom “caves in,” and a new well has to be dug. Hence, where many old wells are found it does not imply that more than one or two were open at the same time. In these, as in all desert wells, a dilwa must be used for drawing water, as a bucket damages the sides. Men must not be allowed to go near the mouth of the well with boots on. In a few places stone-lined wells exist.

In the Nuba hills the wells are usually big holes, down the sides of which the women climb to draw water; the art of well-sinking is generally unknown. In some places, however, the wells are lined with trunks of trees. When watering cattle the men and women go down the well standing across it and pass kantushes up and down. This is a very quick way of drawing water, but, as a good deal is spilt, and as both men and women are naked and covered with oil and red clay, the effect on the water is unpleasant. When drawing water in this way the women protect their head-dress, which consists as a rule of a lump of clay on each tuft of hair, by putting half a gourd on their heads.

In the Nuba mountains running streams are occasionally found, notably at Jebel Eliri, Jebel Tira El Akhdar, and Jebel Kindirma, but their water almost immediately disappears into the soil on reaching the plains.

In other mountains water is found in large rock tanks often as much as 500 feet above the plain.

In the greater portion of Dar Hamar there are no wells, and as soon as the surface water dries up, generally about the end of October, the natives are dependent on water-melons and water stored in tebeldi trees.

[Sidenote: Fulas.]

“Fulas,” or artificial ponds, exist near many villages. They are usually made by damming a khor, but the ground is so porous that the water seldom lasts after October. The lakes have already been described.

[Sidenote: Tebeldi trees (_Adansonia digitata_).]

The tebeldi trees (locally termed “Homr”), which are naturally hollow, and are besides often artificially scooped out, when used for storing water have a hole cut in the trunk, generally just above a big branch, on which a man can stand when drawing water. The hole is about 18 inches square. Round the bottom of the trunk a small pool is formed. This catches the water during a storm and it is then put into the tree by means of leathern buckets (dilwas) or girbas. Some trees, however, in consequence of being open at the top and having branches so formed that they act as gutters, fill themselves; these are called El Lagat, and are naturally very valuable. The trees vary in diameter outside from 10 to 25 feet, and the water-holding portion is often 20 feet high. The bark is frequently much cut about as it is used to make rope and nets. The largest trees are not used for water as the trunks are generally cracked. Water so stored remains sweet to the end of the hot weather, so that good trees are a valuable form of property, and are let or sold, either with or without the adjacent land. Near a town they are a source of many quarrels. On the main routes across Dar Hamar, _i.e._, from Obeid to Nahud, or Shidera to Nahud, the Hamar make a living by selling water to travellers. During the Dervish rule many of these trees were destroyed by raiding parties cutting holes at the bottom of the trunk.

[Sidenote: Melons.]

The melons, on which whole villages, including horses, cattle, etc., depend, are small, almost tasteless, and full of black seeds. The natives grow them on the same ground as the dukhn, or else separately. When ripe, they are gathered and stored in heaps for future use. They are also found wild all over Dar Hamar. The skins are saved and given to the goats when the grass dries up. These water melons are not the same as the ordinary well-known water melon.

[Sidenote: Produce. Dukhn.]

Dukhn or millet is the food of most of the Arabs. It is grown on the sandy ridges during the rains, and requires little water. It will not grow in the low ground as there is generally too much salt in the soil. It is also given to camels and horses, but is considered heating. It is easily grown. The ground is first cleared of grass. Before the rains, about May, holes are made with a crooked stick (mach-far) a few inches deep and 5 or 6 feet apart, and a few grains are dropped into each hole, which is then closed with the foot. As soon as the rains commence the grain sprouts, and the crop is gathered at the end of October or beginning of November. The heads of corn are piled to dry before threshing. When the young plant is a few inches high it is liable to attacks from a large millipede called surffa. The natives make no efforts to kill this, as they say it only eats at night. This is an error, but even when it is proved to the Arab that they feed by day he is too lazy to destroy it. Later on the dukhn is liable, like other crops, to attacks from locusts and voracious small birds. When required for food, it is ground between two stones, the lower one being fixed, the upper rubbed backwards and forwards. Mixed with water it is baked in flat wafers, called kisra, or boiled into asida. It is also made into a sweet beer called Merissa or Um Bilbil. The dukhn of Kordofan is famous for its good quality.

[Sidenote: Dura.]

Dura is grown south of El Obeid, in the valley of the Khor Abu Habl and Nuba hills. It requires much more water than dukhn. It is cooked in the same way, and is considered much better food, but does not make such strong merissa. As forage, it is supposed to be less heating than dukhn, and being larger, animals are obliged to masticate it more; this is an advantage, especially in the case of camels.

[Sidenote: Simsim.]

Simsim is grown in small quantities everywhere. The seed is crushed in primitive mills, made by hollowing out the stump of a sunt or haraz tree. The pestle has a long arm attached to it, and is turned round by a camel or a bullock. The oil is used for cooking and hair-dressing. The refuse is excellent food for animals out of condition.

[Sidenote: Tobacco.]

Tobacco is grown in small quantities in the Nuba hills. It is wetted and made into hard cakes and smoked in large pipes by the blacks. It has a singularly unpleasant flavour.

[Sidenote: Cotton.]

Cotton is grown in many parts of the Province and must have been formerly extensively cultivated, as the old plants are to be seen in the vicinity of most ruined villages. It is woven on hand looms into damur (coarse cotton cloth) of an inferior quality.

[Sidenote: Salt.]

Salt is made in two ways. One method consists in mixing earth that contains salt with water, allowing the sediment to settle, and then evaporating or boiling away the water. The other method, which is followed at El Ghar, and other places where there are salt-water wells, is simply to boil the water until it has all evaporated. It is generally of a dark colour and somewhat bitter.

[Sidenote: Iron.]

Iron is plentiful, but now seldom worked. Some is smelted at El Nahud and Um Semeina, and spear heads, hoes, and axes are made. The works at Jebel Haraza are not now used. The absence of fuel will always preclude its becoming an extensive industry. A clay full of iron is found some 60 miles to the north-west of El Obeid.

[Sidenote: Other minerals.]

Some old workings of gold and other minerals in the Tagale country have recently been explored, but the result has been unsatisfactory, and the gold appears to have been worked out. There may be other minerals in the country, but no details are known regarding them.

[Sidenote: Gum.]

The best gum comes from the grey acacia, called hashab. This is found between the parallels of 13° and 14°, but is little worked west of El Obeid, on account of the cost of carriage to Khartoum. The chief places where it is collected are El Obeid, Taiara, Bint Joda, Gedid, Um Dam, and Nahud, whence it is either taken by camel straight to Khartoum or to the river at El Dueim or Goz Abu Guma, and there put into boats. The cultivation is simple. In January strips of bark are torn off the trees, dead branches cut away, and, in well managed gardens, the grass is cut as protection from fire. This should always be done, as fires, both accidental and incendiary, are by no means uncommon. As soon as the hot weather comes on, the sap runs up the tree and oozes out of the wound and the tree comes into leaf. This “garden” (geneina) gum is collected every few days and taken into the nearest market. As soon as the rains commence the flow of gum ceases. Wild gum (wadi) is also collected by people who do not own gardens, from the ownerless and, as it were, wild trees, but it is worth comparatively little.

The forests south of the Khor Abu Habl are full of red gum acacias (talh), but the trees are not worked, as the gum is of little value compared with the hashab which abounds. The latter is not yet worked to more than half its capacity, even in Eastern Kordofan.

The following table shows the amount of gum, in hundredweights, exported from the Sudan, most of which comes from Kordofan, but it is impossible to say exactly what proportion:—

Year. Cwts.
— —

1879 144,706

1880 135,646

1881 150,861

1899 41,963

1900 60,912

1901 170,781

1902 220,000

1903 191,214[116]

[Sidenote: Ostrich feathers.]

The chief market for ostrich feathers is at El Nahud, where considerable quantities are collected. The best come from Dar El Zeiah in Northern Darfur, but few of these come into the market. The Hamar Arabs keep a few birds in pens. Ostriches have been seen within a few miles of El Obeid. Ostrich farming on a large scale has been proposed, but would be difficult on account of the expense of obtaining food. Feathers from wild birds (Kitala) are longer and more valuable than those plucked from farm birds (Maata), which, though cleaner, are shorter and cheaper.

[Sidenote: Ivory.]

The trade in ivory was never very large, and had in 1901 practically ceased. It is now, however, increasing rapidly, owing to Government restrictions being removed. Over 50,000 lbs. weight passed through Nahud in 1903.

[Sidenote: India-rubber.]

Large quantities of india-rubber might be collected from the country south of El Eddaiya if the cost of transport to Khartoum admitted of a fair price being paid for its collection. At present it does not.

[Sidenote: Cattle.]

There is a large export of cattle, mostly to Omdurman.

[Sidenote: Imports.]

The imports consist chiefly of cotton goods, sugar, salt, soap, tobacco, beads and metal goods, such as axes, hoes, and fasses. Blue and white cottons and muslins, with open-work pattern, are chiefly in demand, but coloured goods are frequently asked for now that the sartorial regulations of the Khalifa are no longer in force. The blacks especially like striking colours, but the dyes must be fast to stand washing with mud and water when no soap is available.

[Sidenote: Past and present conditions.]

It must be borne in mind in comparing the following account with former ones, that the Khalifa laid practically the whole of Kordofan waste at various times, and that when the province was re-occupied in December, 1899, all the large towns and most of the villages had ceased to exist. Thus, on the old road to El Obeid from Tura, _viâ_ Abu Shok and Khursi not a single village or well remained, and the present road from El Dueim to Helba and Bara had to be taken. Bara was found almost deserted, all the old houses and gardens having been destroyed. Khursi, once a large place with a market, had no inhabitants, and has now only a few huts. At El Obeid there was not a single soul, and nothing was left of the old city but a portion of the mudiria buildings. Melbis is quite overgrown, and Abu Haraz is still in ruins. Between El Obeid and Taiara there are now six villages. In January, 1900, there was not one. At Foga, once the headquarters of troops and a telegraph station, the ruins can hardly be traced. At many places in Dar Hamid, hundreds of date palms had been cut down. Everywhere the destruction was wanton and complete.

The only people who successfully resisted the Dervish occupation were the Nubas; living in the hills, they closed the entrances to their villages with defensible walls. They were constantly raided by slave-traders in the old days and so knew how best to defend themselves. But although the Mahdi failed to force these hills, except in the case of a few small and detached ones, the inhabitants all suffered severely, especially from slave-raiding. Mek Geili said in 1900 that he had lost two-thirds of his people, and, judging by the number of deserted houses in his country, this statement is probably not much exaggerated.

Those Arabs who were not taken to Omdurman, and who rebelled against the Khalifa in 1896, fled after Mahmud’s raids to the Nuba hills, the Gezira, or Nahud, a place which, though never mentioned by old travellers, had over 4,000 inhabitants in March, 1900, and a large market with traders from the Bahr El Ghazal, Darfur, and Wadai. Many of these people have now returned to their villages, but they are, of course, greatly impoverished and reduced in numbers.

2. _Inhabitants._

[Sidenote: General.]

The inhabitants consist of Arabs in the plains and Nubas (or blacks) in the hills. The Arabs are either villagers or nomads; the latter being divided into camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) and cattle owners (Baggara). There are no camel owners south and no Baggara north of El Obeid; in the south they are horse and cattle owners.

Nearly all the nomads grow a crop of dukhn, and in the west, where there are no wells, melons are grown for the cattle during the dry season. Portions of these nomad tribes have been obliged to become sedentary in consequence of the destruction of their herds.

[Sidenote: Villagers.]

The village Arabs own small herds of sheep and goats, a few donkeys, and some cattle, and sometimes a camel or two. Near the river they cultivate the islands and low ground, growing dura, beans, onions, etc. Inland, dukhn, simsim, and melons form the chief crops, with a little cotton in places. Throughout Eastern Kordofan gum is collected largely and exchanged for dura or cotton goods.

Very poor after the defeat of the Khalifa, in consequence of two good years, they are now becoming fairly prosperous. A large area round each hella (village) is under cultivation; in the gum country, the gardens show signs of attention, and both the men and women, instead of wearing the dirty waist-cloth seen when the province was first occupied, now wear Manchester cotton goods very largely. Silver ornaments are becoming common.

They have few firearms, and, as a rule, only carry a spear or small axe, even when travelling.

The most important tribe is the GOWAMA, living between El Obeid and El Agaba, and owning most of the gum country. The Shankab and Mesellemia live on the river; the DAR HAMID tribes and the BEDERIA, near El Obeid, are large tribes, but are now poor. There are several villages of DANAGLA and JAALIN scattered about. Jebel Atshan and Jebel Royan are inhabited by ZAGHAWA Arabs, relations of the large tribe in Northern Darfur, and at Ushut, north-west of El Obeid, there are a few NIMR from Eastern Darfur. Between Hashaba and Jebel Kon the BAZA Arabs have many gardens, and near Yasin, half-way between Jebel Kon and Taiara, the MASSADAB have a few villages.

[Sidenote: Nomads. Baggara.]

The nomad tribes are far superior to the villagers, both physically and mentally. The various BAGGARA[117] tribes live chiefly in Southern Kordofan, and only move north during the rains. They occupy the plains between El Obeid and the Bahr El Arab, and, being constantly in touch with the NUBAS in the hills, were the chief slave-raiders. Their occupations are hunting for meat and skins, and occasionally for ivory, and herding their cattle. They own a good many horses, but when on the move carry their baggage on their bulls. They always carry arms. These consist of a large stabbing spear and small throwing spears. They own a certain number of Remington rifles, but have little ammunition, and their rifles are generally in bad order, as they cut down the stock and fore-end to lighten them and frequently remove the backsight, as it makes the rifle more convenient to carry.

They also carry a broad-bladed straight sword, which, when mounted, is slung over the high pommel of the saddle, the blade resting against the side of the saddle under the left thigh. The large spear (Kibis) is carried in the hand and the small spears (Tabaiig) are hung on the off side in a kind of quiver (Turkash). Shields are not used. A few of the richer men wear chain armour. They are by far the most warlike people in Kordofan, and are inclined to resent being no longer allowed to raid the blacks. The most important tribes are the HAWAZMA, between Sungikai and Jebel Eliri; the MESSERIA, near Sinut; the KENANA, between Lake No and Tendik; the Selim, on the White Nile south of Dar El Ahamda (a branch of the tribe situated in the Gezira and Upper Nile Provinces), the HABBANIA, now a small tribe at Sherkeila. The HOMR, south of El Eddaiya towards the Bahr El Arab, are a large and fairly rich tribe; and the GIMMA, near Gedid, the majority of whom, however, have permanent villages.

[Sidenote: Camel owners.]

The camel owners (Siat El Ilbil) are less numerous, and live entirely in Northern Kordofan, only moving as far south as El Obeid when the water and grazing further north is exhausted. This depends, of course, on the rains. In the winter of 1902-03 the Kordofan tribes were all south of the Shageig-Kagmar road by the beginning of December. They are by far the pleasantest-mannered Arabs to meet, being independent, but hospitable and polite, though perhaps no more honest than the rest.

They live chiefly on camel or goats’ milk (the former is excellent) and dukhn; the latter they grow as a rain crop or buy with money earned by carrying goods, or else in exchange for sheep and goats. During the rains they all go north and east towards Dongola and beyond the Wadi Melh. Though most of the tribes still own herds of camels, goats, and sheep, large portions of some tribes live in villages and cultivate.

Of the camel-owning tribes in the province, the HAMAR, once a large and prosperous tribe owning thousands of camels, now reduced in numbers, own but a few hundred. They have a good many sheep and goats. Their country (Dar Hamar) lies between Dar Hamid and the Darfur frontier. A large proportion of this tribe have now settled down in their former villages and cultivate near Nahud, Um Bel, and all along the frontier between Foga and Taweisha.

The KABABISH still own many camels. They claim the country north of Kaja Katul and eastwards to Gabra.[118] Their great watering-places are Gabra, El Safia, Habisa, and Kagmar. A great part of the tribe under Sheikh Ali Tom suffered very heavily from the Dervish rule, and for having supplied us with camels in 1884-85, they had to face the vengeance of the Mahdi when we abandoned the country. Their cultivation is west of Omdurman.

The SHENABLA graze their flocks and herds in Dar Hamid, but keep many goats and sheep near Shat. The BENI JERAR, now a small tribe, generally water their camels at Kagmar, but have cultivation near Shat, Um Deisis, and in the Busata district. Both the SHENABLA and BENI JERAR were formerly under the head sheikh of the Kababish, but separated in Dervish times.

The KAWAHLA live north-west of Shageig, where they water during the dry season. They own many camels and do a good deal of carrying trade.

[Sidenote: Blacks.]

In the northern hills the inhabitants called NUBA ARABS speak Arabic and have copied the habits of the village Arabs. They are black and have woolly hair but their features are more prominent than is the case with the southern tribes: they are not negroes. They live chiefly in straw tukls at the foot of their hills, though at Jebel Haraza some still live on the hillside. At Jebel Um Durrug the ruins of a very large village can be seen on the north side of Jebel Kershungal (the highest peak), near the largest well (a crack in the rock). At Jebel Abu Hadid there is also a large ruined village on the side of Jebel El Hella. At Jebel Atshan and Jebel Maganus, now entirely deserted by the Nubas, the ruins of small circular stone huts can be traced.

In the southern hills, as at Jebel Tagale, Jebel Daier, Jebel El Joghub, etc., the natives are pure, or nearly pure, NUBAS, and speak Nuba, though most hills have different dialects. But there are also several hills occupied by escaped slaves. These consist of negroes of mixed origin, and call themselves after the tribe they escaped from. Thus at Jebel Eliri there are HAWAZMAS and KAWAHLAS; at Jebel Krondi, HAWAZMAS; and at Jebel Talodi, HOMRS. They speak Arabic, and have little intercourse with the NUBAS.

The NUBAS are split up into innumerable tribes, each under a mek, who is generally on bad terms with his neighbours. Mek Geili, of Tagale, is one of the most powerful. He is a Jaalin by extraction; it is not uncommon for the mek to be of Arab descent. Each mek is assisted by a “kugur.” who acts as chief rain-maker and adviser to the tribe, his power being dependent chiefly on his astuteness. He is often the only man who can speak any Arabic.

Living in the zone of good rains they raise large crops of dura round the base of their hills. They make, in good years, large quantities of merissa (native beer), and drunkenness is very common. They own a good many cattle. The men, as a rule, wear no clothing, and the young women are usually contented with an elaborately plaited head of hair and a girdle of beads, from which a strip of cotton 3 or 4 inches wide depends, both in front and behind. But in places the latter garment is replaced by a strip of dom palm an inch wide. The married women generally wear either a cotton robe or a goat or sheep-skin. In many places the whole body is covered with a mixture of red clay and oil; and each tuft of hair, which is generally very short, is covered with a lump of red clay to make it stand out at right angles to the head. Cotton clothes, are, however, gradually coming into fashion in the less remote hills.

In most of the hills there are a good many rifles, but ammunition is scarce. The Remington rifle is the most common, but old Italian ones, magazine and single-loaders, are seen. Ammunition is manufactured locally, match-heads being often used as a substitute for caps.

A man who owns a rifle, even if his bandolier be empty, always carries it for appearance sake. In January, 1900, it was estimated that Mek Geili alone had 1,500 rifles. The other arms carried are knob-kerries and spears, but no shields. The blacks chiefly fear being raided by horsemen when they are cutting their crops on the plains at the foot of their hills. To disconcert the Arab horsemen they leave the trunks of the trees about 2 or 3 feet high when they clear the ground, and also make pit-falls with spikes at the bottom. A horse running against one of these stumps hidden in the dura gives his rider a bad fall and enables the fleeing black to turn on his pursuer or escape to the hills. Their houses used to be always built high up on the hill, and any gullies or valleys closed by stone walls high enough and strong enough to be easily defended, but now they are beginning to build in the plains. They also take care, as a rule, to have water inside their defences; they were thus able to hold out successfully against the Dervish expeditions which were sent against them from time to time. It is also probable that having been constantly raided for slaves by the Government troops they had discovered the best means of escape and of defence even before the Mahdia.

It is difficult to say how they will develop now that they no longer live in fear of the Arab. They are lazy, but have had no inducements to work. Easily angered, their quarrels do not seem to last long; in fact, they are primitive children who require constant watching lest they become unmanageable, and constant protection lest other races abuse their ignorance, improvidence, or credulity.

[Sidenote: Habitations.]

In a few places, such as El Dueim and El Obeid, there are mud houses with flat roofs. But the natives mostly live in conical-shaped straw huts (tukls) or in box-shaped shelters called “rakubas.” The house is generally surrounded by a thorn fence, inside which the sheep and goats are kept at night.

Tukls are cylindrical buildings with conical roofs. They are generally built by driving forked stakes (shab) into the ground in a circle from 10 to 20 feet in diameter. A circle (kara) of similar size is then made, apart from the other circle, of strong tough twigs tied together every few inches with strips of bark. To form the roof, four poles are tied together at their small ends and the butts pushed into the kara to form a cone. A small circle of twigs is then lashed on near the top and more poles placed with their butts in the kara and their tops lashed to the upper circle. As many more horizontal bands of twigs as the size of the huts demand are then made, and the whole frame is lifted on to the forks of the uprights. The roof is then thatched with dura, or dukhn stalks, and the walls are built of the same material.

“Rakubas” are box-shaped huts made of poles and covered with grass or straw. They are useless in the rains but excellent at other times, as the walls, while keeping out the sun, let the wind through.

The camel-owning Arabs make tents of woollen blankets. They are exactly the shape of gipsy tents in England. The Baggara tribes make similar tents, but cover them with mats made of grass or reeds and tanned ox-hides called “dilla.” The old frames can frequently be seen on deserted camping grounds.

The Nubas, though they vary very much in skill, generally build better tukls than the Arabs. The walls are made of either stone, mud, or wattle and daub, the latter being sometimes ornamented with a pattern in red clay. The roofs are much better thatched than those of the Arabs and are given a steeper pitch.

The furniture of an Arab tukl consists of a few bedsteads (angarib), very short and narrow, and sometimes a mat. The cooking utensils consist of a grindstone (generally outside the door), a stone to cook kisra on, a few wooden dishes for food, some flat baskets and earthenware pots (kantûsh), spherical in shape, for water. Pillows of wood to support the head are used by the blacks, who go in for extensive head dresses. Small and very light axes are used for cutting wood, they are seldom more than an inch wide and 5 inches long. A dilwa or bucket made of a piece of soft leather suspended from a circle of wood by strings a few inches long, so that it can open out nearly flat at the bottom of the well when water is scarce, is used for drawing water.

[Sidenote: Rope.]

Rope is made from the bark of trees, such as the tebeldi (_Adansonia digitata_), sayal (_Acacia spirocarpa_), kittr, and usher, which makes the best.

[Sidenote: Fire.]

Fire is made by twirling a stick of marakh (_Leptadenia spartium_) on a piece of usher (_Calotropis procera_), or if no usher is available, two pieces of marakh are used. Two pieces of hard wood are also used at times, sand being put in the hole to increase friction.

3. _Towns._

EL OBEID.—El Obeid, the capital of Kordofan, is situated in lat. 13° 11′ north and long. 30° 14′ east. Its elevation has been given as between 1,700 and 2,000 feet. It is built on the side of a depression in the centre of which are the wells. These are from 60 to 80 feet deep, and give (except from March to June) a plentiful supply of water for the present population of about 10,000 people, but in former times, when the population was larger, there were frequently water famines.

The old mudiria is still standing and has been repaired. Barracks for a Sudanese battalion and details are being built, and the town laid out in squares. Most of the inhabitants, many of whom only come in for the dry season, live in tukls, but a good many mud-brick houses have been built by merchants. There is a large market, and a considerable trade is done in gum and cattle.

The old fortifications can still be traced in places, but most of the old buildings have disappeared.

The town was held by Mohammed Pasha Said against the Mahdi from 3rd September, 1882, till 17th January, 1883, when it fell (_see_ p. 247). It is 158 miles from Dueim on the W. Nile and, therefore, 268 miles from Khartoum. It is 388 miles from El Fasher.

BARA.—Bara is now a small place, but there are excellent gardens there and a small market.

EL DUEIM.—El Dueim, on the Nile, is the port of Kordofan. Most of the merchandise for the interior is landed there, and gum is shipped to Omdurman. There is a good market. (_Vide_ p. 56 for description.)

NAHUD.—Nahud, situated 165 miles west of El Obeid and 80 miles south of Foga, is a new town of some 7,000 inhabitants. It is not mentioned in any of the old accounts of Kordofan, as before the decline of the Dervish rule it was a small place populated by Hamar and people from the river, such as Jaalin, Danagla, etc., who had originally gone out to trade in slaves. Gradually people collected there, so that the inhabitants consist of every tribe in Kordofan, the Hamar predominating. All the trade with Darfur passes through here, and there is a large market where cotton and trade goods can be purchased. Cattle is the chief trade. Gum is not in any demand, owing to cost of transport. Feathers and ivory are obtainable in fairly large quantities. India-rubber is brought in in small quantities. There is little crime there now; the market has been built, and there are some 40 good mud-brick shops owned by Greeks, Syrians, Jaalin, Danagla, etc. Dukhn is plentiful. When the town was first occupied drunkenness was very common amongst both sexes. Dura, simsim, and cotton are also brought into the market. It is the second town in Kordofan, and is increasing.

TAIARA.—Taiara, formerly the centre of the gum trade, was destroyed by the Dervishes, and in December, 1899, consisted of but six huts. It is now the headquarters of a district and has a good market. There are several gum merchants there, besides agents of Omdurman firms. The place is rapidly growing.

4. _Animals._

[Sidenote: Cattle.]

The Baggara tribes have large herds of the hump variety, but they are seldom anxious to sell them. They are small, but their meat is of good quality. The bulls are used as pack-transport animals and are extremely docile. Cattle are generally watered every second day, but if grazing is scarce and they have to go far from the wells, it is not uncommon for them to go three or even four days without water. This applies especially to the cattle in Northern Kordofan. There is also a smaller humpless variety.

The Nubas own considerable herds but seldom sell them. Like the Dinkas and other blacks they regard cattle as a form of wealth which enables them to obtain wives.

[Sidenote: Camels.]

These have also decreased to a terrible extent. The Kababish, Kawahla, Shanabla, Hamar, and Beni Jerar, who formerly had the whole of the carrying trade of Kordofan, are now hardly able to cope with it. All over the gum country Hawawir and other northern tribesmen are to be found with caravans of camels. The Hamar have almost ceased to be a camel-owning tribe, and it must be years before the supply of camels is at all large. The villagers own few camels, and the Baggara tribes none, as they cannot live south of lat. 13° 30′. In the Dinka country to the south it is not at all uncommon for people, especially children, to fly in dread at the sight of a camel.

[Sidenote: Horses.]

The Baggara tribes own a good many horses. Some are ugly animals, all head and tail, and not up to much weight, but the larger proportion are small horses, up to weight, good looking and well bred. The Dongalawi horse is prized, but it is now scarce; horses, or rather ponies, are also imported from Abyssinia. These are far inferior, but ridden by Arabs they are more suited to the country, being very hardy. If trained they can do 60 miles without water and do not seem to suffer. Their price is generally £E.3 to £E.5, but a good one runs to £E.18.

[Sidenote: Donkeys.]

There are a good many donkeys, chiefly among the villagers. Like the horses they can go for a couple of days without water. From Zereiga to Bint Joda (50 miles) or from Abu Zabbat to Nahud (65 miles) are quite common marches for donkeys.

[Sidenote: Sheep and goats.]

Large numbers of sheep and goats are owned by all tribes. In the south there is a small and very active breed which seems to carry more meat in proportion to its size than the ordinary Arab breed.

[Sidenote: Game.]

Elephants are found in Dar El Homr, Dar El Ahamda, Dar El Tagale, and Dar Jange. Elephants are very numerous in Dar El Homr from May until June, when they travel to Dar Fertit and towards Lake No.

Rhinoceros (both black and “white”) are found in Dar El Homr and Dar El Rizeigat.

Buffalo are found in Dar El Homr, Dar El Nuba and in Dar El Ahamda.

Lion, leopard, and cheetah are found all over Kordofan from south of Kaja Katul, and are very numerous in the south.

Giraffe are found south of El Eddaiya and are very plentiful all over Southern and South-Western Kordofan.

Roan-antelope are found in Southern Kordofan.

Kudu are found scattered all over Kordofan; most plentiful in Kaja and Talodi districts.

Hartebeeste (_Jacksonii_) are very plentiful in Southern Kordofan.

Tiang are plentiful in S. and S.E. and in Kaja and Foga districts; there is a different species to that found on the White Nile, etc., which has been identified as the “_Damaliscus korrigum_” of West Africa, _vide_ App. C.

Oryx (white) are found in Dar Hamid and Kaja districts.

Ril or Addra Gazelle are found all over Northern and North-Western Kordofan, but are local. They are not found elsewhere in the Sudan.

Addax are found north of Jebel Fas. Rare.

Ariel are found near Gabra and as far south as Fachi Shoya, but not very far west of White Nile.

White-eared cob (_Cobus leucotis_) are found on the White Nile and in Dar Jange.

Mrs. Gray’s waterbuck are found in Dar Jange.

Waterbuck (two kinds) are found on the White Nile and in Dar Homr.

Reedbuck are found in Southern Kordofan.

Oribi, duiker, dig-dig, bushbuck, gazelle (four kinds) and warthog are found in most places south and south-west of Keilak.

Gazelle (three kinds), viz., _Rufifrons_, _Dorcas_, and _Isabella_, are plentiful in various part of Kordofan.

The “harnessed antelope” and eland are said to exist in the south.

[Sidenote: Small Game.]

Hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard (four kinds), and guinea-fowl are plentiful in the south up to January.

5. _Climate and Health._

The year in Kordofan is divided into three seasons, viz.:—

The Kharif, or rainy season, which commences usually about 15th of June and lasts until the end of September.

The Shita, or cold weather, from the beginning of October to the end of February.

The Seif, or hot weather, from March to the middle of June.

THE RAINY SEASON.[119]—Towards the middle of June the wind changes to the south, and heavy clouds begin to collect in that quarter. These, in a very few days, bring a storm of rain, usually heralded by strong wind, clouds of dust and sand, and thunder and lightning. These storms appear every two or three days. Although a steady rain falls, occasionally for 24 days, it usually comes in the form of stormy showers. As the result of these showers, by the end of July, the ground, even in the villages and around Government buildings, become covered with rank green vegetation, which defies all efforts to destroy it. The rank smell from this grass, the numerous frogs, toads, and other reptiles it harbours, and the general lassitude produced by these surroundings, render life anything but enjoyable during the day, whilst sleep inside one’s house is rendered well nigh impossible at night by the steamy moistures of the air and attacks of sand flies and mosquitos.

THE COLD WEATHER.—Towards the end of September the wind begins to blow from the north and a great change takes place. The fever decreases, until by the end of November there are only a few cases in hospital. The weather is delightfully cool and the breezes bracing and refreshing.

THE HOT WEATHER.—The heat in El Obeid and Western Kordofan is not as great as in other parts of the Sudan; the maximum temperature being rarely above 106° Fahr., whilst the nights remain delightfully cool until the rains appear.

Altitude above the sea level, compiled by Major Prout, 1876:—[120]

Feet.

Helba 1,381

Bara 1,622 Wells 20 feet deep.

El Obeid 1,919 „ 80-130 „ „

Faki Don 1,743 „ 120 „ „

Hamdaui 1,734 „ 110 „ „

Magenis 1,820 „ 80 „ „

Um Dobau 1,704 „ 15 „ „

Gumburra 1,853

Tibri 2,072

Um Ratali 1,994

Shitangul 1,998

Aboir Tine 1,789

Abu Sinun Hella 1,928

[Sidenote: Health.]

Most diseases in Kordofan may be included under one of two heads—malarial and venereal. Were it not for these classes of disease Kordofan might be considered a healthy country.

MALARIA.—The fever is, perhaps, more often of the remittent type. Those attacked for the first time almost invariably have remittent fever; the subsequent attacks are either remittent or intermittent. During January and February, which are otherwise healthy months, a particularly sudden and severe type of remittent fever has been noticed. A patient, previously well, will lose consciousness in the course of an hour, and either die in a state of coma or only recover after weeks of convalescence. This apparently is the result of malaria contracted during the rains, as Egyptian and British officers who have spent a wet season here and afterwards left the district, have been attacked in this way whilst on leave in Cairo and England. The good effect of hypodermic injections of hydro-bromide of quinine in fever of this kind is worth recording.

VENEREAL DISEASES of every kind rage, except in Dar Nuba, where the people make great efforts to prevent the spread of these diseases. Travellers should take precautions to prevent their guides and servants drinking out of their water-bottles.

WATER-BORNE DISEASES.—Of diseases traceable to an impure water supply there has been a remarkable freedom in El Obeid itself. In this garrison there have been only a few cases of dysentery and diarrhœa during the last three years. Amongst the inhabitants of the country further south, who derive their water supply from rain water collected in hollows during the rainy season or from shallow wells during the dry season, this is not always the case, as many cases of dysentery, tape worm, guinea worm (very prevalent), etc., coming from these parts testify.

GUINEA WORM.—With regard to the guinea worm, there is not sufficient evidence to prove that it is contracted by washing or wading in water, as the natives state. It in all probability is taken into the system with drinking water. To avoid this pest all surface water or water that is likely to have been fouled by the natives wading in it (for the ova are introduced into the water in this way) should be boiled before being drunk.

SMALL-POX is still common in the southern part of the district, and the faces of many of the inhabitants are scarred in consequence.

PNEUMONIA is common amongst the blacks during the cold weather, and a great many camels die from this disease.