Chapter XXIV: Section 4: Country Between Blue Nile, Dinder, and Rahad, with

DESCRIPTION OF THESE RIVERS.

[Sidenote: General description.]

The country between the Blue Nile and the Rahad and Dinder Rivers is at present (1904) practically uninhabited south of the village of Durraba on the Dinder, which is about the same latitude as Karkoj on the Blue Nile.

Before the Mahdia, villages extended along both the Rahad and Dinder to nearly as far south as the Abyssinian frontier. Now, however, though inhabitants are slowly returning, there are but few villages even north of the Karkoj-Durraba line.

[Sidenote: Tribes.]

The country lying south of the latitude of Sennar being infested with the serut fly during the rainy season, the inhabitants, who are principally Kenana, Kawahla, Rufaa El Sharg, and Agaliin, are semi-nomadic; that is to say shortly before the commencement of the rains many of them trek with their camels, cattle, horses, etc., northwards across the Rahad to the well-known El Butana grazing district (_see_ p. 103), in order to escape the fly, whilst only a few remain behind to cultivate their dura, simsim, and cotton.

The whole of this country as far south as the Abyssinian frontier, in the vicinity of which the hills commence, is perfectly flat and covered with bush or forest of varying density, with here and there open spaces, often many miles in extent. The bush is thickest in the vicinity of the river banks and thickest of all along the Rahad.

The trees and bush most usually seen are talh, hashab, kittr, sayal, kurmut, heglig, laot, sunt, sidr, etc.

[Sidenote: El Agab Abu Gin.]

El Agab Abu Gin, Nazir of the Rufaa El Sharg Arabs, is in charge of all the country bordering the Dinder and Rahad (left bank) from the latitude of Sennar southwards. His residence is at Abu Hashim on the Dinder (left bank). Of the other villages occupied by his people the principal are Durraba, Bandana, Gileidat, and Lueisa.

[Sidenote: Communications.]

From the villages of Wad El Abbas and Sheikh Talha, both on the Blue Nile, roads lead to Gileidat and thence southwards along the Dinder to Durraba, beyond which point there is no regular road. From Senga and Karkoj, roads lead, _viâ_ Abu Hashim and Deberki on the Dinder, to Hawata on the Rahad. South of this, as far as the Roseires-Abu Ramla track, the country may be said to be roadless and, owing to the cotton soil and bush, travelling across country is a trying operation for man or beast. There is a good road up the right bank of the Blue Nile from Wad Medani to Famaka.

Khor Um Degul, or Agaliin, or Mehara, which lies between the Blue Nile and Dinder, and joins the latter near Deberki, was formerly thickly populated and cultivated by the Agaliin; it was, however, until 1902, quite deserted. A few villages are now said to be springing up along it, and wells are being opened. There are many talh and hashab gum trees in its vicinity.

North of Sennar-Gileidat villages are more numerous along the Rahad, Dinder and Blue Nile, though there is no great extent of cultivation.

[Sidenote: Game.]

In this district, or rather in the southern portion of it, the following species are found:—Elephant (Abyssinian variety, with small tusks), buffalo, rhinoceros, giraffe, roan, kudu, waterbuck, tora hartebeeste, tiang, reedbuck, ariel, gazelle, oribi, bushbuck, warthog, bush pig, lion, leopard, hippopotamus, crocodile, etc.

THE BLUE NILE.[68]

[Sidenote: General description.]

The Blue Nile rises in the Abyssinian mountains about 60 miles south of Lake Tsana (altitude of Lake Tsana, 4,800 feet). Its source was discovered by Bruce in the year 1760. After flowing northwards into the lake at its south-west corner, it finds an exit[69] again to the south-east, and, after making a big bend to the east, it curls round to the south and flows in a north-westerly direction towards the Sudan, which it enters near Famaka, after a course of some 500 miles. Altitude at Famaka, 1,700 feet (approx.).

Throughout the whole of this upper portion of its course, which has never been explored, it is believed to flow in a series of rapids over a rocky bed and often between high cliffs, and for the most part through the most precipitous and rugged country. Here it is known as the Abai, whereas, as soon as it reaches the plains of the Sudan, its name at once becomes “Bahr Azrak” or Blue Nile.

Until comparatively recently the Blue Nile was considered by the Abyssinians to be the main stream of the Nile, and they, several centuries ago, fully realised the value of attempting, or threatening, to deprive Egypt of her water supply by the construction of a dam at the outlet of lake Tsana or possibly elsewhere. A mission to study the possibilities of this lake was recently sent from Egypt, and the investigation showed that it is by far the most suitable site on the Blue Nile for the construction of a storage reservoir which, though its benefit to Egypt would be slight, would be of the greatest value to the Sudan.[70]

[Sidenote: Length, width, &c.]

The length of the Blue Nile, from the point near Famaka, where it enters the Sudan, to its junction with the White Nile at Khartoum, is estimated at approximately 460 miles, which makes its total length about 1,000 miles.

The average width of channel throughout its course in the Sudan is 550 yards.

Although in the northern reaches the width increases, it is rarely more than 800 yards wide at any point.

[Sidenote: Banks.]

The average height of the banks over low-water level is from 26 to 30 feet for the first 150 miles up-stream from Khartoum. Further south they are higher, and average over 33 to 39 feet above low-water level. The difference in level between flood and low-water is 20 to 23 feet. In the first quarter of the year, the river is reduced to a succession of deep pools, connected by very shallow reaches. Even native boats can with difficulty navigate the distance between Sennar and Khartoum during this season. The Blue Nile is at its lowest in April, but during the latter half of May the first or false rise begins. The real rise begins in June, and the maximum height is attained in August. In the latter half of September it begins to fall rapidly.

[Sidenote: Navigability. Cataract.]

Navigation is simple enough at high Nile. As far up-stream as Roseires, 405 miles above Khartoum, the river is navigable by the ordinary Nile steamers from the middle of June till the end of November. Just above Roseires, however, there is a cataract about 6 miles long. This cataract has never been navigated by steamer, but it is said that previous to 1881, sailing boats passed regularly up and down it. Rafts occasionally navigate it successfully on their way down stream. During the last two years a small launch and a few sailing boats have been passed up and down, but there is a dangerous reach for sailing boats above the cataract.

During November and December the water falls rapidly, and sandbanks appear in quantities, the rush of water through the narrow channels being very great. The worst part of the river is near Abdin and Sennar, but there is little rock anywhere. The water for 5 miles below Roseires is bad, and in places dangerous from rock. Steamers with barges lashed alongside, at the end of December in most years, can get through, except at one point some 20 miles south of Sennar, near Abdin, where a reef of rocks extends almost entirely across the river. Steamers have to be steadied over this place by ropes in December, and the barges passed up and down by ropes.

[Sidenote: Discharges.[71]]

Sir W. Garstin calculates the average discharge of the river at Khartoum to be:—

At low-water (May) 200 metres cube per second.

In flood (August) 11,000 „ „ „

[Sidenote: Velocity.]

The velocity of the stream is very great: even in February it is not less than 3 miles an hour, while in full flood it must be considerably over 6 miles an hour. In winter the water is very clear, and of a beautiful limpid blue. In flood, being charged with the scourings of the Abyssinian mountains and forests, it is heavily charged with deposit, and the water is of a deep chocolate colour. The Blue Nile is considered the chief fertilizing agent of Egypt.

[Sidenote: Country along the banks.]

From Khartoum to Sennar the country is uninteresting; banks flat, vegetation and population considerable, here and there cultivation by sagias, crops mostly dura.

South of Sennar the thorn jungle along the banks becomes very dense, and at high Nile dips into the water; often the only way to get through it is by hippopotamus paths, though the roads on both banks have been cleared and there are meshras at frequent intervals.

Speaking generally, the further south one goes the steeper and higher the banks become, the channel of the river being worn away by the rush of water. The country on the right bank is mostly jungle, with little cultivation and few villages.

Between Wad Medani and Sennar the jungle on the left bank runs in a strip of one or two miles in breadth; west of this strip are the cultivation and villages, which extend right across to the White Nile. Near Wad Medani the cultivation is continuous, and one marches for miles through dura fields.

As one proceeds south, the cultivation becomes less general, until south of Senga, where it is mostly confined to strips along the river bank, and a certain amount round villages a few miles inland. South of Senga the jungle is replaced by forest, large tamarind trees, etc., with thick undergrowth, and open marshes extend along the banks, which, in the dry season, afford excellent grazing. The grass, which grows to a height of 8 to 10 feet in the rains, dies rapidly as the rain ceases, and throughout November and December the natives burn enormous tracts of the dry grass. These grass fires, intended to improve the grazing as well as to enable people to get about the country, are, as may be imagined, exceedingly detrimental to the forest trees, which become distorted and stunted. The forest on both banks of the Blue Nile south of Senga is chiefly composed of acacias of several varieties, laot, tamarisk, kittr, hashab, talh, soffar, and sidr. A few kakamut, tebeldi, dom palms, and sycamores are also to be seen in these forests.

[Sidenote: Climate.]

The months of December, January, and February are cool and healthy. March, April and May are hot. The rainy season begins in May and lasts till the end of October.[72] August, September, and October are very hot and damp. The drenching rains cool the air temporarily, but the subsequent heat is moist and enervating. On the upper reaches at Sennar, Karkoj, and further south, as the vegetation and foliage increase in density, so does malarial fever abound in proportion for at least a month after the rains have ceased. September and October are probably the worst months.

[Sidenote: Serut fly.]

In October, frequent heavy thunderstorms occur with torrential rain; they are, however, very local. Heavy dew at night. The storms get less frequent as the month goes on, and are over before November, after which the climate gradually improves. The north wind blows fitfully during November and December, and the nights are cold, but the temperature by day is very high until late in December, particularly south of Karkoj. The “serut fly” practically appears and disappears with the rains, and is scarce in October, except in certain places. Its northern limit is Sennar. Mosquitoes are bad at all stations at night during August, September, and October.

[Sidenote: Cotton.]

Cotton is cultivated by the natives on the Blue Nile either on the foreshore of the river or inland on ground found by experience to be suitable in a good rainy season.

On the Dinder the only crop raised is the rain crop. This is sown in July after the heavy rains have commenced at the same time as dura, etc. The foreshore sowing takes place simultaneously with that of other foreshore crops, _i.e._, about December, after the river has fallen, according to the state of the Nile and the height of the submerged banks thus cultivated.

Both rain and foreshore crops begin to be ready for picking 4 months after sowing. There are usually three pickings, the last being the worst, as by that time the plants, which during winter are neglected, are invariably suffering from drought.

In a good year one feddan (acre) of rain-watered land will produce 400 to 1,000 lbs. of unginned cotton. The species of cotton generally sown on the Blue Nile and Dinder are “Abu Hareira,” “Belwa,” and “Mumtaz.” The two former, usually sown on the foreshore, are the old native kinds, whilst the latter, sown as raincrop, was introduced by Mumtaz Pasha from Egypt in the days of the Old Government. The “Abu Hareira” and “Belwa” kinds last 3 years, but the “Mumtaz” only one.

On the Blue Nile, the most favourable land for cotton cultivation is said to be from Sennar southwards to Abu Naama; on the Dinder, the land above Deberki and Abu Rakhis is considered best. Good cotton (irrigated), however, was grown at Wad Medani last year (1903-1904) on the Government experimental farm; 6¾ kantars[73] being actually grown on 1,000 square metres, or a ¼ feddan, giving an average yield of 27 kantars (2,700 lbs.) per feddan.

[Sidenote: Principal towns.]

ROSEIRES.—On the right bank; residence of a British Inspector and Egyptian Mamur. Post and telegraph office; communication by ferry with left bank. There is usually a garrison of one company, under a British officer, furnished by the battalion at Wad Medani. A gunboat is also stationed here. The population is increasing, chiefly Hameg and Sudanese tribes. The market is kept open all the year round, and most ordinary requirements can be obtained here. For rainfall, _vide_ footnote on preceding page.

KARKOJ.—On the right bank is an unimportant village, formerly residence of a British Inspector and Mamur, and the headquarters of the District, which has, however, now been moved to Senga. Population about 1,000, mostly Jaalin. The market, which is a poor one, is held on Wednesdays and Saturdays. There is no post or telegraph office here. Senga is the telegraph office.

SENGA.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)

SENNAR.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)

WAD EL ABBAS.—On the right bank; was founded about 50 years ago. The population numbers about 1,200, and consists chiefly of Jaalin, with a mixed lot of Gezira Arabs, as well as about 300 Sudanese.

There is a weekly market on Wednesdays.

WAD MEDANI.—Left bank. (_Vide_ Chap. V, p. 119.)

For principal towns between Wad Medani and Khartoum (_vide_ Chaps. IV and V).

[Sidenote: Game.]

See under “Country between Blue Nile and Rahad,” p. 109.

[Sidenote: Tributaries of Blue Nile.]

With the exception of the Dinder and the Rahad, there are in the Sudan no other important affluents of the Blue Nile, with the exception of perhaps the Khor Tomat, which joins the main stream near Famaka. This is dry, except during and shortly after the rainy season. Water, however, is easily obtained by digging in its bed.

[Sidenote: Dinder. General.]

The River DINDER rises in the Abyssinian mountains to the south-west of Dunkur, and after flowing for about 50 miles through very mountainous country it enters the plains of the Sudan and flows for about 200 miles in a north-westerly direction until it joins the Blue Nile (right bank) about 40 miles above the town of Wad Medani.

[Sidenote: Bed.]

Its bed near Dunkur, where it leaves the mountains, is rocky and stony, and about 100 yards wide. It was here found (June, 1901) to be 3 feet deep, with a rapid current, and for several months in the rainy season it must be difficult to ford.

Throughout its course in the Sudan its bed, which is sandy and free from rocks a few miles below where it crosses the frontier, is much less winding than that of the Rahad and rarely exceeds 200 yards in width. Its tendency is to become narrower in its lower reaches, and at its mouth it is not more than 120 yards wide.

Upstream of the old site of El Haj the river is wider and shallower and banks lower than in the inhabited area. Even in the old days there were few or no permanent villages above El Haj, but only temporary grazing encampments.

[Sidenote: Banks.]

Its banks are steep and generally about 15 feet high. They are, as a rule, rather higher than the adjacent country, which, when the river is full, becomes flooded and marshy. These marshes were formerly extensively planted with cotton, which is said to have been of good quality; its cultivation is now being encouraged as far as the limited population admits.

[Sidenote: Forests.]

The forests along the banks of the Dinder are of better quality and less dense than those of the Rahad; sunt, kakamut, haraz, sidr, hashab, talh, babanus, etc., are plentiful.

[Sidenote: Navigability.]

The Dinder has been navigated by steamer as far up-stream as Deberki, about 120 miles from its mouth. Large sailing boats ascend it as far as El Safra. Of course, this is only possible whilst the river is in flood during, perhaps, three months in the year, and owing to the wooded banks and southerly wind it is very difficult for sailing boats. In the dry season water stands in pools. There is little doubt, however, that like the Rahad it is navigable in flood to the Abyssinian border.

[Sidenote: Flood.]

The flood arrives at the junction with the Blue Nile about the last week in June. This is rather earlier than the Rahad flood, owing to the later commencement of the rains in Northern Abyssinia, and possibly partly due to the Dinder not being so excessively tortuous as the Rahad. Both Dinder and Rahad bring down large quantities of fertilising matter.

[Sidenote: Tributaries.]

None of much importance.

[Sidenote: Rahad. General.]

The RAHAD rises in Abyssinia in the mountainous region between Lake Tsana on the East and Kwara to the west. It takes, at first, a northerly direction, but after entering the Sudan it flows generally north-west in an extraordinarily winding bed to its junction with the Blue Nile, almost opposite the town of Wad Medani.

[Sidenote: Width.]

Its width probably nowhere exceeds 100 yards, and is frequently not more than 60; in places it is only 30 yards wide. It loses much of its water by “spills” known as “Maya,” and is a much more imposing-looking river above than below Hawata.

[Sidenote: Banks.]

The banks, especially the right, are steep and high, sometimes as much as 40 feet above the bed at low water. They differ from those of the Dinder in that only the left bank is liable to be flooded, and that only at a few places, and consequently do not lend themselves to cultivation to the same extent.

[Sidenote: Forest.]

Belts of dense kittr bush and other jungle grow along its banks. In the lower reaches there are many fine sunt trees, and further inland talh, heglig, etc. Bordering its upper reaches are heglig, silag, khashkhash, ardeib, tebeldis, gemmeiz, etc.

[Sidenote: Villages.]

There are few villages at present above Hawata (right bank), and consequently there is no regular path, though the bush has been to a certain extent cleared. Travelling along the river above Shammam, though practicable, is a difficult operation, more especially before the grass is burnt.

[Sidenote: Flood.]

The flood reaches the Blue Nile about the first week in July, and water ceases to flow at the mouth by the end of November. High water is said to last 90 days from about mid-July.

[Sidenote: Navigability.]

The river, when in flood, is navigable for small steamers throughout, but its comparatively narrow bed, combined with very sharp and frequent bends, militate against successful navigation by sailing boats.

Mr. Armbruster navigated the river in the stern-wheeler Amara from its mouth to Meshra Abid (420 miles) in August, 1904. On the way down stream navigation was only effected with considerable difficulty and serious damage to the steamer, owing to the rate of the current—6 miles per hour at Abid and 3 miles per hour at Sherif Yagub—as well as to the extreme sharpness of the bends, at which there were often rocks and large overhanging trees.

TABLE OF DISTANCES ON THE BLUE NILE.

------------------+------------------+--------------------------
| Intermediate. | Total from Khartoum.
Place. +------+-----------+------------+-------------
|Miles.|Kilometres.| Miles. | Kilometres.
------------------+------+-----------+------------+-------------
Khartoum (Palace) | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0
| | | |
Soba | 14 | 22½ | 14 | 22½
| | | |
Eilafun | 4 | 6½ | 18 | 29
| | | |
El Masid | 20 | 32 | 38 | 61
| | | |
Kamlin | 23 | 37 | 61 | 98
| | | |
Rufaa | 33½ | 53 | 94½ | 151
| | | |
Abu Haraz | 23 | 37 | 117½ | 188½
| | | |
Mouth of Rahad | 5 | 8 | 122½ | 197
| | | |
Wad Medani | ½ | 1 | 123 | 198
| | | |
Mouth of Dinder | 40 | 64 | 163 | 262
| | | |
Wad El Abbas | 30 | 48 | 193 | 310½
| | | |
Sennar | 20 | 32 | 213 | 342½
| | | |
Senga | 53 | 85 | 266 | 428
| | | |
Karkoj | 21 | 34 | 287 | 462
| | | |
Abu Naama | 22 | 35½ | 309 | 497½
| | | |
Roseires | 73 | 117½ | 382 | 615
| | | |
Famaka | 52 | 83½ | 434 | 698½
------------------+------+-----------+------------+-------------

[Footnote 62: _Vide_ p. 98.]

[Footnote 63: _Vide_ p. 98. t Total rainfall, January—October, 1904, 23·1 inches.]

[Footnote 64: This description refers to the state of Gedaref up to the end of 1899. Conditions have now improved.]

[Footnote 65: For description of country east of Atbara, _vide_ pp. 99-101.]

[Footnote 66: The Takruris speak of the Abyssinians as “Makada”—this is a name generally used for them throughout the Sudan and means “slaves.” The Abyssinians naturally resent the appellation and have complained officially about it. They retaliate by calling the Takruris, who originally came from Darfur, “Far,” _i.e._ Rats, the real name of people of Darfur being, of course, For.]

[Footnote 67: Total rainfall, January to October, 1904, 34·6 inches.]

[Footnote 68: _Vide_ also p. 19, and “Itinerary of the Blue Nile,” Vol. II.; also Sir W. Garstin’s “Report on the Basin of the Upper Nile,” Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904]

[Footnote 69: Its course through the lake is said to be plainly discernible.]

[Footnote 70: _Vide_ Foreign Office Blue Book, Egypt No. 2, 1904.]

[Footnote 71: The following table of discharges (Sir W. Garstin’s) shows to a certain degree the relative importance of other rivers in the Sudan:—

Discharge per second.
----------------------
Maximum. Minimum.

Bahr El Jebel (Mouth) 300 m.c. 300 m.c.

Bahr El Zeraf (Mouth) 140 m.c. 50 m.c.

Bahr El Ghazal (Mouth) 30 m.c. 15 m.c.

Sobat (Mouth) 900 m.c. 50 m.c.

White Nile (Khartoum) 1,600 m.c. 300 m.c.

Atbara (Mouth) 3,000 m.c. nil.

Gash (Kassala) 100 m.c. (?) nil.

Nile (Berber) 14,000 m.c. (?)

]

[Footnote 72: Total rainfall at Roseires, April to October, 1904, 27·8 inches.]

[Footnote 73: 1 Kantar = 100 lbs.]

CHAPTER V.

* * * * *

CENTRAL SUDAN.

(Country between the White Nile and Abyssinia, bounded by the Blue
Nile and Sobat.)