Chapter IV: The Portuguese in Africa (2)

Towards the close of the 18th century, however, occurred a great
revival. In fact, the period which then ensued was the only bright,
and to some extent glorious phase of Portuguese dominion in
South-east Africa. A remarkable man, Dr Francisco Jose Maria de
Lacerda e Almeida (a Brazilian), was made Governor of Zambezia at
his own request, and commenced the first scientific exploration of
southern Central Africa. His journey resulted in the discovery of
the Kazembe’s division of the Lunda empire, a country on the Luapula
and Lake Mweru. It is interesting to note that in 1796, only one
year after the British had seized Cape Town, Dr Lacerda predicted
that this action would lead to the creation of a great British
Empire in Africa, which would stretch up northwards like a wedge
between the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Moçambique. But Dr
Lacerda in time fell a victim to the fatigues of his explorations;
and Portuguese interest in East Africa waned before the
life-and-death struggle which was taking place with France in
Portugal itself. Long prior to this also, in the middle of the 18th
century, the Jesuits had been expelled from all Portuguese East
Africa; and with them had fallen what little civilization had been
created on the upper Zambezi. In fact, it may be said that after
Lacerda’s journey the province of Moçambique fell into a state of
inertia and decay, until Livingstone, by his marvellous journeys,
not only discovered the true course of the Zambezi river, but drew
the attention and interest of the whole world to the development of
tropical Africa.

On all old Portuguese maps, indeed on all Portuguese maps issued
prior to Livingstone’s journeys, there was but scanty recognition of
the Zambezi as a great river. It was usually referred to as the
“rivers of Sena,” the general impression being that it consisted of
a series of parallel streams. No doubt this idea arose from its
large delta; on one or two maps, however, the course of the Zambezi
is laid down pretty correctly from its confluence with the Kafue to
the sea; but the fact cannot be denied that its importance as a
waterway was quite unknown to the Portuguese, who usually reached it
overland from Quelimane and travelled by land along its banks in
preference to navigating its uncertain waters. The Shire was
literally unknown, except at its junction with the Zambezi. The name
of this river was usually spelt Cherim, but its etymology lies in
the Mañanja word _chiri_, which means “a steep bank.” Admiral W. F.
W. Owen, who conducted a most remarkable series of surveying cruises
along the West and East coasts of Africa in the early part of the
19th century, was the first to make the fact clearly known that a
ship of light draught might enter the mouth of the Zambezi from the
sea and travel up as far as Sena.

Livingstone’s great journey across the African continent in the
earlier fifties attracted the attention of the British nation and
Government to the possibilities of this region, so highly favoured
by nature in its rich soil and valuable productions. Livingstone was
appointed Consul at Quelimane, and placed at the head of a
well-equipped expedition intended to explore the Zambezi river and
its tributaries. Prior to this the Portuguese had abolished the
slave trade by law, though slavery did not cease as a legal status
till 1878, and had thrown open Portuguese East Africa to the
commerce of all nations; and undoubtedly these two actions were an
encouragement to the British Government to participate in the
development of Southeast Africa, especially as Livingstone’s
journeys had shown conclusively that the rule of the Portuguese did
not extend very far inland, nor to any great distance from the banks
of the lower Zambezi. The second Livingstone expedition may,
therefore, be regarded as the first indirect step towards the
foundation of the present Protectorate over British Central Africa
(Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia), which dependencies follow to a
great extent in their frontiers the delimitations suggested by Dr
Livingstone at the close of his second expedition.

A jealous feeling, however, arose at the time of Livingstone’s
explorations between Portuguese and British; and considerable
pressure was brought to bear on the British Government to abandon
the results of Livingstone’s discovery. These representations,
together with other discouraging results of British enterprise in
East and West Africa, induced the British Government during the
later sixties and earlier seventies to hold aloof from any idea of
British rule in the interior of the continent. Meantime the
Portuguese were making praiseworthy efforts to develop these
long-neglected possessions. Great improvements were effected, and a
wholly modern aspect of neatness and order was given to the towns of
Quelimane and Moçambique, which in many respects compared a few
years ago favourably with other European settlements on the East
coast of Africa. Large sums were spent on public works; indeed, in
the year 1880, not less than £157,000 was provided by the
mother-country for the erection of public buildings in Portuguese
East and West Africa; and at this period the handsome hospital in
the town of Moçambique was erected, together with a good deal of
substantial road and bridge making. A good many more military posts
were founded; and Zumbo, on the central Zambezi, at the confluence
with the Luangwa, was reoccupied. Nevertheless, Livingstone’s work,
and especially his death, inevitably drew the British to Zambezia.
In 1875 the first pioneers of the present missionary societies
travelled up the Zambezi and arrived in the Shire highlands. In 1876
the settlement of Blantyre was commenced, and the foundations of
British Central Africa were laid. These actions impelled the
Portuguese to greater and greater efforts to secure the dominion to
which they aspired—a continuous belt of empire stretching across the
continent from Angola to Moçambique; and an expenditure exhausting
for the mother-country was laid out on costly expeditions productive
not always of definite or satisfactory results. This policy
culminated in the effort of Serpa Pinto to seize by force the Shire
highlands, despite the resistance offered by the Makololo
chiefs[73], who had declared themselves under British protection.
Thence arose the intervention of the British Government and a long
discussion between the two powers, which eventually bore results in
a fair delimitation of the Portuguese and British spheres of
influence, and the annulling of any inimical feeling between England
and Portugal in their African enterprises. Moçambique proper (_i.e._
the provinces N.E. of the Zambezi) has proved a costly dependency to
the mother-country. From the year 1508 to 1893 there was always
annually an excess of expenditure over revenue, sometimes as much as
an annual deficit of £50,000. In the year 1893, for the first time
since the creation of the colony, a small surplus was remitted to
Lisbon. It is questionable whether this possession will ever prove
profitable to Portugal. At the present day nearly two-thirds of the
trade is in the hands of non-Portuguese (Indians and Europeans). The
bulk of the wholesale commerce between Ibo and Quelimane is carried
on by German, Dutch, and French firms; and the retail trade is
conducted by British Indians, or by natives of Goa and other
Portuguese Indian possessions.

The Chartered Company of “Nyassa” has a virtual monopoly of the
hinterland trade between Lake Nyasa and the Ibo coast, and
administers the country between the Lurio river on the south and the
Ruvuma on the north. In Portuguese Zambezia exists the Zambezia
company with a number of minor concessionaires; and most of these
hold _prazos_ or leases of prescribed areas, in which they have
exclusive trading rights and a virtual mastery over the natives, who
are consequently at times rebellious when exactions of labour in
lieu of or in addition to taxes are levied on them. There is and has
been very little real Portuguese colonization of the Moςambique and
Zambezia provinces. The vicious spirit of the old slave trade days
still taints the local administration. The Angoshe region between
Moςambique Island and the northern vicinity of the Quelimane river
is almost independent of Portuguese authority under powerful
Arab-Negro Muhammadan “Sultans,” who until quite recently shipped
over many dau-loads of slaves to Madagascar.

The chief article of trade in the Moςambique province is
ground-nuts—the oily seeds of the _Arachis hypogæa_, a species of
leguminous plant, the seed-pods of which grow downwards into the
soil. These ground-nuts produce an excellent and palatable oil which
is hardly distinguishable in taste from olive oil, and indeed
furnishes a considerable part of the so-called olive oil exported
from France. This, perhaps, is the reason why the ground-nuts find
their way finally to Marseilles. The india-rubber of Moçambique is
of good quality and fetches a high price in the market. Other
exports are oil-seeds derived from a species of sesamum, copra, wax,
ivory and sugar. Some copper and malachite are exported from the
Nyassa company’s territories north of the Lurio. A few enterprising
people started coffee plantations on the mainland near Moçambique
some years ago; but the local Portuguese authorities immediately put
on heavy duties and taxes, so that the coffee-planting industry was
soon killed. The same thing may be said about the coco-nut palm. At
one time it was intended to plant this useful tree in large numbers
along a coast singularly adapted for its growth; but, owing to the
fact that the local Portuguese Government imposed a yearly tax on
each palm, the cultivation of the coco-nut was given up. The ivory
comes chiefly from Ibo and Cape Delgado, and also from Quelimane,
and is derived from elephants still existing in the Zambezi basin
and in the eastern parts of Nyasaland. Nevertheless, most of the
products above alluded to, with the exception of ivory, are only
furnished by the fertile coast belt; for beyond the twenty-mile
strip of cultivated land which extends more or less down the whole
coast of Moçambique, the interior of the country is dry and arid
except in certain favoured river valleys, and in the splendid
mountain region of Namuli, between Angoshe and the upper Shire
river.

Portuguese influence, though not always Portuguese rule, was carried
southward to the northern shore of Delagoa Bay at the end of the
17th century. Here the settlement of Lourenςo Marquez was founded as
a trading station. At the beginning of the 18th century this
Portuguese station was abandoned; and the Cape Dutch came and built
a factory there, which however was destroyed by the English in 1727.
Nevertheless Portugal continued to assert her claims to Lourenço
Marquez; and when, in 1776, an Englishman named Bolts (formerly in
the employ of the English East India Company), who had entered the
service of Maria Theresa in order to found an Austrian Company to
trade with the East Indies from Flanders, came thither with a large
following composed of Austrian-Italian subjects, and made treaties
with the chiefs of Delagoa Bay, the Portuguese protested and
addressed representations to the Austrian Government. These
protestations would have been of but little avail had not a terrible
outbreak of fever carried off almost all the European settlers. The
Austrian claim was therefore abandoned; and the Portuguese continued
at intervals to make their presence felt there by a quasi-military
commandant or a Government trading establishment. When Admiral
Owen’s expedition visited Delagoa Bay between 1822 and 1824, they
found a small Portuguese establishment on the site of the present
town of Lourenço Marquez[74]. Realizing the importance of this
harbour, and finding no evidence of Portuguese claims to its
southern shore, Captain Owen concluded treaties with the King of
Tembe by which the southern part of Delagoa Bay was ceded to Great
Britain. The Portuguese made an indirect protest by removing the
British flag during Captain Owen’s absence, but the flag was
rehoisted in 1824. Owen’s action, however, was not followed up by
effective occupation, though on the other hand the Portuguese did
nothing to reassert their authority over the south shore of the bay
until, in the sixties, the growing importance of South Africa led
the British to reassert their claims. The matter was submitted to
arbitration, and Marshal MacMahon, the President of the French
Republic, was chosen as arbitrator. His verdict—a notoriously
biassed one—not only gave the Portuguese the south shore of Delagoa
Bay, but even more territory than they actually laid claim to.
Britain had to some extent prepared herself for an unfavourable
verdict by a prior agreement providing that whichever of the two
disputing powers came to possess the whole or part of Delagoa Bay
should give the other the right of pre-emption.

Reading the vast mass of evidence brought forward and preserved in
Blue Books, it seems to the present writer that any dispassionate
judge would arrive at these conclusions: That the Portuguese claim
to the northern shore of Delagoa Bay was valid; but that over the
southern shore of this important inlet they had exercised no
occupation and raised no claim until the arrival of Admiral Owen and
his treaty-making; and that even after the action taken by Admiral
Owen, they did nothing beyond removing the flag he had raised, and
effected nothing in the way of occupation or treaty-making on their
own account. Owen’s procedure was not repudiated by the British
Government, who besides had other rights over the territory in
question inherited from the Dutch. Owen’s intervention was not, it
is true, succeeded by immediate occupation; and the British case
would have been a very weak one judged by the severe rules of the
Berlin Convention of 1884. But then, if Portuguese territory in East
Africa had been delimited by the same severe rules, it would have
been reduced to a few fortified settlements. Great Britain had a
fair claim to the south shore of Delagoa Bay; and the award of
Marshal MacMahon was a prejudiced one, said to have been mainly due
to the influence of his wife, who was ardently in favour of the
Portuguese for a variety of reasons.

In 1887-9 a railway was constructed under a concession by the
Portuguese between Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay) and the Transvaal
border by a group of English and American capitalists, with results
which are set forth in Chapter VII. This railway was seized and
extended by the Portuguese in 1889.

Subsequently to the Delagoa Bay award, the Portuguese made
determined efforts to explore and conquer the South-east coast of
Africa and the countries along the lower Zambezi. To the extreme
north of their Moçambique possessions they had a dispute with the
Sultan of Zanzibar as to the possession of Tungi Bay and the south
shore of the mouth of the river Ruvuma. After their disastrous
struggle with the Arabs in the 17th and 18th centuries, the
Portuguese had defined the northern limit of their East African
possessions as Cape Delgado; and Cape Delgado would have given them
the whole of Tungi Bay, though not the mouth of the Ruvuma. It is
evident that the Sultan of Zanzibar was trespassing as a ruler when
he claimed Tungi Bay, though not when he claimed the mouth of the
Ruvuma. Portugal, losing patience at the time of the division of the
Zanzibar Sultanate between England and Germany, made an armed
descent on Tungi Bay in 1889, and has since held it, though the
Germans withdrew from her control the Ruvuma mouth, which they
claimed as an inheritance of the Sultan of Zanzibar.

The establishment of the British South African Company in 1889 and
the consequent development of Mashonaland and Matebeleland subjected
the Portuguese territories south of the Zambezi to a searching
scrutiny on the part of these merchant adventurers, who laid hands
on behalf of Great Britain on all territory where the Portuguese
could not prove claims supported by occupation or ruling influence.
The strongest temptation existed to ignore Portuguese claims on the
Pungwe river and to push a way down to the sea at Beira; but a
spirit of justice prevailed, and no real transgression of Portuguese
rights was sanctioned by the British Government, or indeed attempted
by the Company. In June, 1891, after several unsuccessful attempts,
a convention was arrived at between England and Portugal, which
defined tolerably clearly the boundaries of British and Portuguese
territories in South-east, South-west, and South-central Africa.
Rights of way were obtained under fair conditions both at Beira and
at Chinde (Zambezi Delta[75]). Since 1891 a friendly feeling has
been growing up between the British and the Portuguese.

The Portuguese have been making steady efforts to bring under
control their richly endowed East African province. For some time
after their settlement with Great Britain they were menaced in the
south by the power of Gungunyama, a Zulu king who ruled over the
Gaza country, and had been in the habit of raiding the interior
behind the Portuguese settlements of Lourenço Marquez and Inhambane.
The Portuguese warred against him for three years without
satisfactory results, until Major Mouzinho de Albuquerque, by a bold
stroke of much bravery, marched into Gungunyama’s camp with a
handful of Portuguese soldiers and took the king prisoner. For this
gallant action he was eventually promoted to be Governor-General of
Portuguese East Africa, and then did something towards bringing
under subjection the turbulent Makua tribes opposite Moçambique.

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PORTUGUESE AFRICA

Plate III.

EXPLANATORY NOTE

[green] _Area of Portuguese Possessions in 1820_ [tan] ” ” ” _1912_ [red] _Possessions lost or exchanged_

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The greater portion of their trans-Zambezian possessions along the
East coast and immediately south of the lower Zambezi and north of
Inhambane and the Sabi River was in 1891 handed over to the
administration of a Chartered Company,—which although theoretically
Portuguese derives its capital mainly from English, French and
Belgian sources, and is mainly managed by Englishmen. This
“Moçambique Company” since its institution has done much to open up
the country; the railway construction however is chiefly due to the
British South African Company, who have constructed a line of
railway from the capital, Beira, to the eastern frontier of Southern
Rhodesia. In addition, under the auspices of the Moçambique Company,
a northern line is being constructed to the Zambezi and across that
river to join the Shire Highlands railway at Port Herald. When this
is finished, Beira, instead of Chinde or Quelimane, will become the
seaport of British Nyasaland.

South of the Sabi River and up to the frontiers of British South
Africa the country is directly ruled by Portugal, the large town of
Lourenço Marquez (Delagoa Bay) being now the supreme capital of the
State of East Africa, as the Moçambique provinces are called. Here
resides the Governor-General, with subordinate officials at
Moçambique, Quelimane, Sena, Zumbo, Tete, Chinde and Inhambane.

The recent revolution in Portugal (1910), and the change from a
monarchy to a republic, have slightly affected the Portuguese
African possessions for the better. Long-standing abuses are being
enquired into, and some remedies are being applied. Yet the
resources of little Portugal are grievously strained in men and
money to maintain rule, law, and order in these vast African
possessions—possessions which stretch from North-west to South-east
Africa and include an area of 794,000 square miles. In 1898, when
the unsettled state of Africa and the rivalry between Britain,
Germany, and France made it advisable to forecast an allotment of
the Portuguese colonies, should they slip from the grasp of Portugal
or be offered for sale, an agreement was entered into between
Britain and Germany partitioning the Portuguese African possessions
into spheres of influence. But it is understood that at a later date
Great Britain, on renewing her old alliance with Portugal,
guaranteed her the undisturbed possession of her colonial dominions.

-----

Footnote 48:

From the Arabic _Al-gharb_ the ‘west,’ the ‘sunset.’ The title of
the Kings of Portugal was “King of Portugal and the Algarves, on
this side and on the other side of the sea in Africa, etc.”

Footnote 49:

This battlefield was on the banks of the river Lukkus, not very
far from the coast port of Al-Araish, the Roman _Lixus_.

Footnote 50:

It was finally ceded to Spain by Portugal in 1668.

Footnote 51:

It had however been known to Italian and Norman navigators a
century earlier. Indeed it is increasingly probable that the
Portuguese as discoverers of West Africa had been preceded a
hundred years earlier by the Genoese, the Catalans and Majorcans,
and the Norman French of Dieppe. A remarkable map of the continent
of Africa was painted in Italy, about 1351, and is now in the
Medicean Library at Florence. It is known as the Laurentian
Portolano and gives the most correct general outline of the whole
continent which had as yet been depicted. For the first time the
great Bight of the Gulf of Guinea is shown, together with the
tongue-like projection southwards of Central and Southern Africa.
There is even the indication of a river where the Congo emerges
into the South Atlantic.

Footnote 52:

Only a long inlet in the Desert coast. At the head of this inlet
was the little island of Kerné (still called Herné by the Moors)
which was once a trading station of the Carthaginians.

Footnote 53:

Nowadays known as Elmina.

Footnote 54:

As will be seen in another chapter, there are traditions of Norman
merchants from Dieppe having established forts or trading stations
along the West African coast in the later years of the 14th
century, especially at “La Mine d’Or”—Elmina—where the Normans
possibly preceded the Portuguese.

Footnote 55:

Mr E. G. Ravenstein deduces 1485 as the date from the details
shown in the coat of arms in the inscription. This inscription was
only discovered on the high rock, near the Mpozo confluence, by a
Swedish missionary in 1906. The inscription begins “Aqi chegaram
os navios do esclarecido Rey Dom Joam ho seg° de Portugall,” and
is followed by the names of Diogo Cam (Cão) and others. See the
_Geographical Journal_ for June, 1908.

Footnote 56:

They described the Arab settlements on the South-East African
coasts and alleged that certain Arab ships had been driven by
stress of weather past the Cape of Good Hope, and had brought back
word of the northward trend of the west coast.

Footnote 57:

The Canary Islands, inhabited by a race of Berber origin, had been
rediscovered (for Greek and Roman geographers knew of them) by
Normans and Genoese in the 14th century. Previous to that they had
already been brought into touch with the Moors of the Moroccan
coast, though they were never Islamized but remained in some
respects in the primitive, stone-age condition which the Berbers
of the mainland had quitted two thousand years before. The men
often went naked; but the race in some respects exhibited a
characteristic Neolithic civilization and was far removed from
savagery. The archipelago was partially conquered by a Norman
adventurer, Jean de Betancourt or Bethencourt; and his title after
passing through many hands was finally claimed by Portugal.
Portugal, however, transferred her rights to Castile in 1479.

Footnote 58:

It is necessary to discriminate in spelling between the river
Congo and Congoland generally and the little kingdom of Kongo
between Stanley Pool and the Atlantic coast. This important native
state, whose legendary founder was a mighty hunter armed with an
iron spear (Kongo) gave its name to the great river, which was
also styled Zaire by the Portuguese from the native term Nzadi.

Footnote 59:

The original name of this tribe, which came from the southern
Congo basin, was “Imbangola.” _Jaga_ was apparently like the Jinga
of old Angola merely the title of their clan-chieftains, _Jok_ or
_Kiokwe_ (as they are called in Lunda) was a nickname meaning
“Hyena.” Their descendants seem still to reside on the river
Kwango behind Angola under the name of Imbangala. The Ba-yaka of
the Northern Kwango are quite distinct.

Footnote 60:

Grandson of the explorer, Bartolomeu.

Footnote 61:

Such wheat as is cultivated in Africa north of 15° N. Latitude is
similar to the European and Egyptian kinds; the wheat introduced
by the Arabs and Portuguese into Zambezia is red wheat, apparently
from India.

Footnote 62:

Duarte Lopes, who records this fact in his description of the
Congo region at the end of the 16th century, gives incidentally or
directly other interesting scraps of information, such as, that
the coco-nut palm was _found_ by the Portuguese growing on the
West coast of Africa. This palm, we know, originated in the
Pacific Archipelagoes or on the Pacific coast of tropical America.
It is possible to imagine that its nuts may have been carried over
the sea to Southern India and thence to Madagascar and the coast
of East Africa, but, inasmuch as the coco-nut palm cannot grow
further south than Delagoa Bay owing to the cooling of the climate
it is not very clear how it reached the tropical West African
coast, unless it was introduced by Europeans. Lopes mentions the
banana for the first time under the name “banana,” a name which
seems to be derived from the Vai and other languages of the Sierra
Leone-Liberia coast. Hitherto this fruit had only been known
vaguely to Europe as the Indian fig or by its Arab name, which was
latinized into _Musa_. The long banana or plantain was of ancient
and widespread cultivation throughout tropical Africa, but the
small banana with stubby fruit seems to have been a recent
introduction from India which has penetrated into few parts of the
interior.

Footnote 63:

Philip II of Spain had the best claim to the Portuguese throne
after the death without heirs of the Cardinal-King Henrique. But
the Portuguese disliked union with Spain and would have preferred
to elect a Portuguese king.

Footnote 64:

In 1621 Pope Paul V sent a mission to the King of Kongo at São
Salvador; and thenceforward, until 1717, the Kongo kingdom was
evangelized by Italian and Belgian Capuchins, and after 1673 by
Belgian Recollets friars. But in 1717 the Capuchins were expelled
by the king’s people. In 1760 Catholic missions were resumed in
Congoland (Loango and Kongo) by French, Italian and Portuguese
missionaries; but these too came to an end by 1800, and for some
eighty years the Kongo kingdom relapsed into complete barbarism.

Footnote 65:

This place was named after the Baron de Mossamedes, a Portuguese
Governor of Angola, afterwards Minister for the Colonies.

Footnote 66:

This fort, by the abortive Congo Treaty of 1884, was to have been
made over to England. Although the Portuguese never in any sense
ruled over or controlled Dahomé, their indirect influence and
their language were prominent at the Dahomean court because
certain Brazilians had during the first half of this century
established themselves on the coast and in the interior as
influential merchants and slave traders. Their descendants now
form a Portuguese-speaking Brazilian caste in Dahomé.

Footnote 67:

Most prominent features, and some countries on the west and south
coasts of Africa from the Senegal round to the Cape of Good Hope
and Moçambique, bear Portuguese names: Cape _Verde_ is “The Green
Cape,” Sierra Leone (_Serra Leoa_) is “The Lionlike Mountains,”
Cape _Palmas_ “The Palm-trees Cape,” Cape Coast is _Cabo Corso_
“The cruising Cape,” _Lagos_ is “The Lakes,” Calabar (_Calabarra_)
is “The bar is silent,” Cameroons is _Camaroẽs_ “prawns,” Gaboon
is _Gabāo_ “The Hooded Cloak” (from the shape of the estuary),
_Corisco_ is “Lightning,” Cape _Frio_ is “The Cold Cape” and
_Angra Pequena_ is “The Little Cove,” and so on. All the prominent
points on the Liberian coast, and most of the Niger mouths, have
Portuguese names.

Footnote 68:

This is a little coral islet about 2 miles long by ¼ mile broad,
situated between 2 and 3 miles from the coast (a shallow bay), in
15 degrees south latitude, where the East African coast approaches
nearest to Madagascar. It commands the Moçambique Channel. Its
native name was probably originally Musambiki. By the neighbouring
East African tribes it is now called Muhibidi, Msambiji, and
Msambiki. It has sometimes been the only parcel of land remaining
in Portuguese hands during the vicissitudes of their East African
empire.

Footnote 69:

A corruption of _Mwene-mutapa_. According to some authorities this
title meant “Lord Hippopotamus,” the hippopotamus on the Zambezi
above Tete being looked upon as a _Totem_ or sacred animal
indicative of the royal clan; but in my personal opinion
_Mwene-mutapa_ is really “Lord of the Mine, or gold mining,”
_mutapo_ or _mtapo_ being a shallow pit dug in clay or sand for
mining, or washing gold.

Footnote 70:

Where they have not yet brought under subjection the Muhammadan
Makua and the Arab half-castes of Angoshe. The chief native foes
of the Portuguese in East Africa at the close of the 16th century
were the Ba-zimba, one of those Zulu-like marauding tribes like
the modern Angoni, which would range over hundreds of miles in a
few months and commit devastations that left their effects for
nearly a century.

Footnote 71:

Except Mombasa, which was retaken and held between 1728 and 1729.

Footnote 72:

Zumbo was given up (though it was never much more than a Jesuit
Mission Station) in 1740.

Footnote 73:

These Makololo chiefs were formerly headmen of Livingstone’s
second expedition, left behind by him on the Cataract Shire to
stiffen the resistance of the timid natives against the Muhammadan
slave raiders.

Footnote 74:

The modern and existing town of that name was not founded till
1867.

Footnote 75:

The use of the Chinde mouth of the Zambezi gives free water
communication between the outer world and Nyasaland, by way of the
Zambezi and Shire rivers.