Chapter III: Nouns

INFLECTION

=19.= Portuguese nouns have no case forms; they distinguish in form only between singular and plural.

PLURAL FORMATION

(See Exercise VII, page 127)

=20.= The plural is formed by adding =s= to the singular: =amigo=, _friend_, pl. =amigos=; =casa=, _house_, pl. =casas=.

To this rule there are the following exceptions:

1. Final =m= changes to =n= before the final =s=: =homem=, _man_, pl. =homens=.

2. Final =ix= and =ex= change to =ice= before the final =s=: =index=, pl. =indices=; =appendix=, pl. =appendices=.

3. Final =r= and =z= add =e= before the final =s=: =mar=, _sea_, pl. =mares=; =cruz=, _cross_, pl. =cruzes=.

4. Final =al=, =ol=, and =ul= are changed to =aes=, =oes=, and =ues=: =sal=, _salt_, pl. =saes=; =dedal=, _thimble_, pl. =dedaes=; =anzol=, _fish-hook_, pl. =anzoes=; =paul=, _swamp_, pl. =paues=.

Except that =consul=, =mal=, =cal=, =real= (_money_) have for plurals =consules=, =males=, =cales=, and =reis=.

5. Final =el= is changed to =eis=: =papel=, _paper_, pl. =papeis=; =annel=, _ring_, pl. =anneis=. =Mel=, _honey_, becomes either =meis= or =meles=.

6. Final =il=, when the word has the acute accent, is changed to =is=: =barril=, _barrel_, pl. =barris=; =funil=, _funnel_, pl. =funis=.

When, however, the word has the grave accent the final =il= is changed to =eis=: =dócil=, _docile_, pl. =doceis=; =fóssil=, _fossil_, pl. =fósseis=.

_a._ Nouns ending in =ão= form the plural in three ways:

1. Most nouns ending in =ão= change =ão= to =ões=: =acção=, =acções=.

2. A few add =s= to the singular: these are =mão=, =irmão=, =pagão=, =orfão=, =orgão=, =sotão=, =temporão=, =vão=, =zangão=.

3. A few others change =ão= to =ães=: =escrivão=, _notary_, pl. =escrivães=. These are =allemão=, =cão=, =capellão=, =capitão=, =catalão=, =charlatão=, =deão=, =ermitão=, =escrivão=, =guardião=, =pão=, =sacristão=, =tabellião=.

_b._ Nouns ending in =s= have the same form in the plural: =o pires=, =os pires=, _the saucers_; =o caes=, =os caes=, _the quays_. Except =Deus=, =cos=, and =simples= (_drug_) become =deuses=, =coses=, =simplices=.

_c._ When the accent of a word ending in =ão= is grave, the plural is always in =ãos=: =órgão=, _organ_, pl. =orgãos=; and similarly =benção=, _blessing_; =accordão=, _sentence of a court_; =sotão=, _attic_.

=21.= =Plurals Only.=--Many nouns are used only in the plural. Such are

=algemas=, fetters =alviçaras=, rewards =annaes=, annals =arredores=, environs =calças=, trousers =calendas=, calends =ceroulas=, drawers =confins=, confines =completas=, complin =exequias=, funeral rites =expensas=, costs =ferias=, holidays =manes=, shades =matinas=, matins =nonas=, nones =nupcias=, nuptials =trevas=, darkness =viveres=, provisions

=22.= =Compound Words.=--Compound words generally have the plural form for the final word when one of the components has an adverbial sense: =salvo-conducto=, pl. =salvo-conductos=; =linguas neo-latinas=, _neo-Latin languages_; =jornaes luso-brasileiros=, _Portuguese-Brazilian journals_; =guarda-sol=, _sunshade_, pl. =guarda-soes=; =contra-veneno=, _antidote_, pl. =contra-venenos=.

_a._ Compound words take the plural in both parts when they both represent functions belonging to the noun: =surdo-mudo=, _deaf-mute_, pl. =surdos-mudos=.

_b._ As in English some nouns are plural but are used only in a singular sense: =Montes Claros fica na planicie=, _Montes Claros is on the plain_.

Compound words united by =de= usually take the plural in the first part only: =flor-de-lis=, pl. =flores-de-lis=.

_c._ Plural nouns that take the article, however, are used in the plural: =os Alpes ficam na Suissa=, _the Alps are in Switzerland_; =os Estados Unidos fizeram guerra=, _the United States made war_.

=23.= =Varied Meanings.=--Some names change their meaning with the change of number. These correspond to similar changes that take place in the English language as illustrated by the words _iron_ and _irons_, _liberty_ and _liberties_.

SINGULAR MEANING PLURAL MEANING =bem= well, good =bens= property =côrte= court =côrtes= congress, tribunals =dote= dowery =dotes= accomplishments =ferro= iron =ferros= shackles =filho= son =filhos= children (_or_ sons) =honra= honor =honras= solemnities =letra= letter =letras= literature =liberdade= liberty =liberdades= impertinence =molhado= wet =molhados= groceries =pai= father =pais= parents =parte= part =partes= parties (_judicial_) =secco= dry =seccos= dry-goods =zelo= zeal =zelos= jealousy

GENDER OF NOUNS

(See Exercise VIII, page 128)

=24.= Gender is grammatical, and all nouns are either masculine or feminine.[19]

The gender of words is sometimes determined by meaning and at other times by termination.

There are no rules covering all cases, and there are many exceptions to those given below.

=25.= =Masculine.=--The following are _masculine_:

1. Nouns denoting males and their offices and occupations: =o homem=, _the man_; =o cavallo=, _the horse_; =juiz=, _judge_; =pai=, _father_.

+Note.+--In the names of animals having two genders the masculine
form is generally used to designate the species: =o lobo=, _the wolf_.

2. Nouns not implying sex distinction and ending in

=á= (=a= with acute accent) =sofá=, =tafetá=, =chá= (except =a pá=,
_shovel_ or _spade_).

=é= (except =chaminé=, =fé=, =galé=, =maré=, =ré=, =sé=).

=i= (except =lei=, _law_, =grei=, _flock_).

=o= (short or mute). This does not refer to the ending =ão=.

=ó= (accented =o=) for the most part. The following, however, are
feminine: =enxó=, _adz_; =mó=, _millstone_; =avó=, _grandmother_;
=filhó=, _cake_; =ilhó=, _eyelet_.

=l= (except =cal=, _lime_, =cathedral=, =moral=, =pastoral=).

=m= (except =ordem=, _order_, and those ending in =gem=).

=r= (except =colher=, _spoon_; =côr=, _color_; =dôr=, _pain_; =flôr=,
_flower_).

=s= (except those used only in the plural and ending in =as=:
=andas=, =arrhas=, =cocegas=, and a few in =es=: =preces=,
=ephemerides=).

3. Nouns ending in =ote= and =ume= are generally masculine.

Examples: =dote=, =chicote=, =lume=, =costume=, =betume=.

4. Infinitive verbs are masculine when used as substantives: =o andar do cavallo=, _the gait of the horse_.

5. Masculine are the names of seas, rivers, lakes, and mountains, of the letters of the alphabet, of the numbers, the months, the points of the compass, and the notes in music.

=26.= =Feminine.=--The following are _feminine_:

_a._ Nouns denoting females and their names and occupations: =a vacca=, _the cow_, =mãi=, _mother_, =costureira=, _seamstress_, =rainha=, _queen_.

_b._ +Note.+--In cases of sex distinction there are generally two forms, as =moço=, _young man_, =moça=, _young woman_, =poeta=, _poet_, =poetisa=, _poetess_. There are, however, some words which have the same form for both genders, such as =martyr=, =jovem=, and =tigre=, which may be either masculine or feminine.

_c._ In some cases there is no masculine form of a noun: =rã=, _frog_, =abelha=, _bee_, =formiga=, _ant_, =aguia=, _eagle_, =onça=, _panther_, =cobra=, _snake_, =truta=, _trout_, =mosca=, _fly_. When it becomes necessary in such cases to indicate sex, it is done by use of the word =macho=, _male_, or =femea=, _female_; =o salmão macho=, _the male salmon_, or =a onça femea=, _the female panther_; =o corvo macho=, _the male crow_.

_d._ Nouns not implying sex distinction ending in:

=a= or =ã=. Except =dia=, _day_, =mappa=, _map_, and words from
the Greek ending in =ma=: =aroma=, =clima=, _climate_, =diploma=,
=dogma=, =emblema=, =idioma=, =poema=, =thema=, =problema=,
=symptoma=, =epigramma=.

=ade=, as =caridade=, _charity_.

=ude=, as =virtude=. Except =alaude=, =ataude=, =açude=, =almude=,
=grude=.

=gem=. Except =pagem=, _page_, and =selvagem=, _savage_, which may be
of either gender.

=ie=, as =planicie=.

=27.= =Common Terminations.=--The following terminations are common to both genders: Words ending in

{ Masc. =alcatraz=, =ananaz=, =anthraz=, =cabaz=, =cartaz=,
=az= { =gaz=, =lilaz=, =rapaz=.
{ Fem. =paz=, =tenaz=.

{ Masc. =arnez=, =convez=, =freguez=, =jaez=, =mez=, =pez=,
{ =revez=, =xadréz=.
=ez= { Fem. =altivez=, =honradez=, =fez=, =mudez=, =pequenhez=,
{ =rapidez=, =redondez=, =rez=, =solidez=, =surdez=,
{ =tez=, =timidez=, =torquez=, =vez=.

{ Masc. =almofariz=, =giz=, =matiz=, =nariz=, =paiz=, =pleuriz=,
=iz= { =tapiz=, =verniz=.
{ Fem. =buiz=, =cerviz=, =cicatriz=, =codorniz=, =matriz=,
{ =perdiz=, =raiz=, =sobrepelliz=.

{ Masc. =albernoz=, =algoz=, =aljaroz=, =arroz=, =cadoz=, =coz=,
=oz= { =retroz=.
{ Fem. =foz=, =noz=, =voz=.

{ Masc. =alcaçuz=, =alcatruz=, =arcabuz=, =capuz=, =cuzcuz=,
=uz= { =lapuz=, =obuz=.
{ Fem. =cruz=, =luz=.

{ Masc. =broche=, =café=, =carcere=, =codice=, =corte=, =dente=,
{ =epitome=, =tapete=, =traquete=, =valle=, =vertice=.
=e= { Fem. =arte=, =ave=, =chave=, =corte=, =crise=, =fé=, =fome=,
{ =libré=, =lide=, =nave=, =neve=, =ponte=, =ralé=,
{ =rede=, =saude=, =sé=, =sebe=, =sede=, =sege=,
{ =torre=, =torrente=.

{ I. Augmentatives, even though derived
{ from feminine original. Examples:
{ =caixão= (=caixa=), =portão= (=porta=), =mulherão=
{ (=mulher=).
{ Masc. { II. Those in =ão= and not derived from
{ { words of the third declension of the
{ { Latin: =coração=, =grão=, =sabão=, =siphão=,
=ão= { { =trovão=.
{ { Words so ending derived from words of the
{ { third declension in the Latin: =acção=,
{ { =constituição=, =dicção=, =execução=, =feição=,
{ Fem. { =instituição=, =legião=, =lentidão=, =mansidão=,
{ =multidão=, =opinião=, =rebellião=, =região=,
{ =resolução=, =servidão=, =solidão=, =união=. (But
{ =pão= from _panis_ and =sermão= from _sermo_
{ are both masculine.)

=28.= =Nouns of Opposite Sex.= (See Exercise IX, page 129.)--Nouns denoting individuals of opposite sex may be either _related_, _unrelated_, or _identical_. They are

_a._ _Related_ when the feminine form is derived from the masculine either

I. By adding =a= to the masculine form:

=auctor=, author =auctora=, authoress =cantor=, singer (_male_) =cantora=, singer (_female_) =inglez=, Englishman =ingleza=, Englishwoman =senhor=, gentleman =senhora=, lady

+Note.+--A few nouns in =r= have two feminine forms, as =lavrador=,
=lavradora=, or =lavradeira=; =cantor=, =cantora=, or =cantatriz=.
There is also a tendency to change final =or= to =eira=, as
=trabalhador=, =trabalhadeira=.

II. By changing final =o= or =e= to =a=, as

=hospede=, guest (_male_) =hospeda=, guest (_female_) =mano=, brother =mana=, sister =mestre=, teacher (_male_) =mestra=, teacher (_female_) =moço=, young man =moça=, young woman =parente=, kinsman =parenta=, kinswoman

III. By changing the terminal to =inha=, =essa=, =eza=, =neza=, =ola=:

=barão=, baron =baroneza=, baroness =conde=, count =condessa=, countess =gallo=, cock =gallinha=, hen =hespanhol=, Spaniard =hespanhola=, Spanish woman =principe=, prince =princeza=, princess

_b._ _Related but irregular_ forms of nouns of opposite sex are the following:

MASCULINE FEMININE =avô=, grandfather =avó=, grandmother =dom=, sir, lord =dona=, lady =frade=, friar (_ant. freire_) =freira=, nun =ladrão=, thief =ladra=, woman thief =perú=, turkey-cock =perua=, turkey-hen =rapaz=, lad =rapariga=, girl =rei=, king =rainha=, queen =réo=, defendant =ré=, female defendant

_c._ _Unrelated_ when not derived from the same word:

=boi=, ox =vacca=, cow =cavallo=, horse =egua=, mare =genro=, son-in-law =nora=, daughter-in-law =pai=, father =mãi=, mother

_d._ _Identical_ when the same word may be of either gender:

=camarada= (_m._ or _f._), companion. =jovem= (_m._ or _f._), a young man _or_ young woman =guia=, guide =sentinella=, sentinel

=29.= =Closely Similar Related Nouns.=--The Portuguese contains many nouns that are related in form and meaning, yet distinct in sex and significance. Following are some of these words:

MASCULINE

=bago= } =barco= } =bodo= } =caneco= } =cantharo= } =carreiro= } =cerco= } =cesto= } =cevo= } =chuço= } =cimo= } =cinto= } =corno= } =encosto= } =fabrico=[20]} =folho= } =fosso= } =friso= } =fruto= } =gorro= } The feminine forms =grito= } differ only in ending =horto= } in =a= instead of =o=. =jarro= } =lanço= } =lenho= } =madeiro= } =marujo= } =modo= } =pago= } =poço= } =ponto= } =porto= } =ramo= } =ribeiro= } =rio= } =sacco= } =saio= } =sapato= } =tacho= } =taleigo= } =trilho= } =troco= } =vallo= } =veio= }

In each case these nouns contain the same fundamental idea, but the sense of the feminine form is more general, while that of the masculine is more specific. For example =fruta= is used for fruit in general, while =fruto= refers to one kind of fruit; =madeiro= is one kind of =madeira= (_wood_), and =bago= is one kind of a =baga= (_berry_).[21]

=30.= =Similar Unrelated Nouns.=--There are other words that bear a similar resemblance to each other, but which have no genetic relations and have widely different meanings. Such are:

MASCULINE MEANING FEMININE MEANING =banho= bath =banha= lard =barro= clay =barra= bar (_of stream_) =caso= case =casa= house =espinho= thorn =espinha= spinal column (_but_ =espinhas= =de peixe=, fish-bones) =escolho= cliff =escolha= choice =peito= breast =peita= bribe =prato= plate =prata= silver =queixo= jaw =queixa= complaint =solo= soil =sola= sole leather

The same word sometimes occurs as a noun, adjective, or verb; in such cases the nature of the word is indicated by the context.

=31.= There are still other words that are spelled precisely alike, but differ from each other in gender and in meaning. Following are some of these words:

MASCULINE MEANING FEMININE MEANING =o capital= principal (_money_) =a capital= chief city =o chrisma= ointment =a chrisma= sacrament of confirmation =o cura= curate =a cura= cure =o guarda= warder =a guarda= care =o lingua= interpreter =a lingua= tongue =o lente= lecturer =a lente= lens =o sota= groom =a sota= queen (_at cards_)

QUALIFYING SUFFIXES

(See Exercise X, page 130)

=32.= Suffixes are extensively and effectively used to modify and extend the meaning of nouns and adjectives, and even of verbs. In these cases the meaning of the parent word is carried over in some modified form to the new word. It should be noted, however, that these suffixes do not have, as a rule, such exact meanings as do the prefixes. Most of the suffixes are directly from the Latin, while =ista=, =isme=, =ite=, and =izar= are from the Greek. Only the more important of them can be mentioned here.

+Examples+

ORIGINAL
TERMINATION WORD MEANING WITH SUFFIX MEANING
=-ada= =limão= lemon =limonada= lemonade
=marmelo= quince =marmelada=[22] marmalade
=mulher= woman =mulherada= a lot of women
=baixo= low =baixada= low ground
=faca= knife =facada= a knife cut
=-agem= =homem= man =homenagem= homage
=vassalo= vassal =vassalagem= vassalage
=-al= =café= coffee =cafezal= field of coffee
(The =z= in =cafezal= is for the sake of euphony.)
=banana= banana =bananal= field of bananas
=milho= corn =milhoral= field of corn
=-ado= =consul= consul =consulado= consulate
=-cida= =rei= king =regicida= king-killer
=formiga= ant =formicida= ant-killer
=-aria= =cavallo= horse =cavallaria= cavalry
=porco= hog =porcaria= filth
=-ario=[23] =botica= apothecary’s =boticario= apothecary
shop
=-eiro-a=[24]=mina= mine =mineiro= miner
=chá= tea =chaleira= teakettle
(_or_ kettle)
(The =l= in =chaleira= is for euphony.)
=-ense= =Brasil= Brazil =brasiliense= Brazilian
=-ez= =França= France =francez= French
=-eza= =rico= rich =riqueza= riches
=pobre= poor =pobreza= poverty
=-ude= =quieto= (_adj._) quiet =quietude= (_n._) quietude
=-udo= This suffix expresses abundance or intensity, as
=cabeça= head =cabeçudo= big-headed,
pig-headed
=beiço= lip =beiçudo= thick-lipped
=-or= =orar= to orate =orador= orator
=falar= to talk =falador= talker
=trabalhar= to work =trabalhador= laborer

=33.= Many other suffixes are so nearly like forms in English that they will be recognized, such as those ending in =ficar= corresponding to the English _fy_: =clarificar=, _to clarify_, =purificar=, _to purify_, =classificar=, _to classify_; others ending in =mente= corresponding to the English ending _ly_, as =grandemente=, _grandly_, =claramente=, _clearly_, =escuramente=, _darkly_; and in =ista= corresponding to the English _ist_, as =capitalista=, _a capitalist_, =dentista=, =socialista=, etc. Many words ending in =orio= correspond approximately to English words ending in _ory_: =consistorio=, =repertorio=. Many endings in =ico= correspond to the English ending _ic_, as =artistico=, =symbolico=; many in =avel=, =evel=, and =ivel= correspond to the English endings _able_ and _ible_, as =notavel=, =veneravel=, =indelevel=, =risivel=, =terrivel=. The termination =ivo= often corresponds to the English _ive_, as =instructivo=, =executivo=.

=34.= The infinitives of verbs are often used as plural nouns: =dizer=, _to say_, =os dizeres=, _the sayings_; =poder=, _to be able_, =os poderes=, _the powers_.

+Augmentatives+

=35.= =Augmentatives= are formed by the addition of the suffixes =ão=, =arão=, =aça=, =anha=, =az=, =azio=, and =ona= as here illustrated.

ORIGINAL MEANING AUGMENTATIVE MEANING =casa= house =casarão= big house =monte= hill, heap =montanha= mountain =mulher= woman =mulheraça= big woman =porta= door =portão= gate =rapaz= boy =rapagão= big fellow =rato= rat =ratão= big rat =nariz= nose =narigão= big nose

_a._ An additional augmentative effect is produced by giving a masculine ending to a feminine noun: =mulherão=, _an enormous woman_ or _an amazon_.

_b._ The augmentatives sometimes convey an idea of ridicule or irony. For example, =ratão= is used as a slang expression for _a queer fellow_.

+Diminutives+

(See Exercise XI, page 131)

=36.= =Diminutives= are formed by the use of the following suffixes:

SUFFIX ORIGINAL MEANING DIMINUTIVE MEANING =-inho-a= =livro= book =livrinho= little book =-zinho-a= =mão= hand =mãozinha= little hand =-eto-a= =folha= leaf =folheto= pamphlet =-ito-a= =mosca= fly =mosquito= gnat =-ote= =camara= room =camarote= cabin (_on ship_) =-ola= =fazenda= estate =fazendola= a small farm =-ulo-a= =corpo= body =corpusculo= molecule =-ino-a= =pequeno= small =pequenino= very small (boy) =-ete= =pobre= poor =pobrete= rather poor =-ilho= =cinto= belt =cintilho= hat-band =-im= =camara= room =camarim= dressing room (_of theater_) =-ella= =costa= side =costella= rib =-ejo= =lugar= place =lugarejo= small town =-isco= =chuva= rain =chuvisco= drizzling rain

=37.= A still further arbitrary diminutive effect is produced by a repetition or drawing out of the syllables of the usual diminutives, as =pequenininho= or =pequeninozinho=, _very, very small_.

=38.= Another class of diminutives includes certain proper names. These, however, do not always imply smallness, but they are used as terms of endearment or compassion and as nicknames. The names for =José= are: =Zé=, =Zezé=, =Zéca=, =Zezinho=, =Josezinho=, =Zequinho=, =Júca=, =Juquinha=, =Jóca=, =Cazuzo=, =Zuza=, =Zuca=, =Zuzu=; for =Francisco= are used: =Chico=, =Chiquinho=, =Chichi=, =Francisquinho=, and =Francisquito=; for =Anna= are used: =Anninha=, =Anninhas=, =Annazinha=, =Naninha=, =Nicota=, =Annicota=, =Annica=, =Annóca=, =Nanóca=, =Anniquita=, =Naná=, =Ná=, and =Nazinha=; for =João= they are =Janjão=, =Joãozinho=, =Jóca=, =Joanninho=, =Noca=; for =Maria= they are =Mariquinha=, =Maroca=, =Mariasinha=, =Marica=, =Mariquita=.

FOOTNOTES:

[19] _Neuter Gender._--Strictly speaking there is no neuter gender in Portuguese, but certain words have been called neuter (and also common gender) by some grammarians. Such forms are the impersonal definite pronouns =isso=, =isto=, =aquillo=, and =tudo=. The cardinal numerals also have no gender except =um úma=, =dois duas=, and those compounded of =cento= as =duzentos-as=, =trezentos-as=.

[20] The accent in this case is also changed from =fabríco= to =fábrica=.

[21] Julio Ribeiro in his _Grammatica Portugueza_, page 84, says that the feminine form of several of these words indicates always an increase of volume or size.

[22] This word has been adopted into the English language with a meaning very different from its original one which was a preparation from the quince.

[23] =-ario= is the erudite form of =-eiro=; many of the words so ending correspond to the English termination _ary_, as =secretario=, =sanctuario=, =vocabulario=.

[24] This ending is especially useful and is easily managed. It corresponds in part to the English ending _er_ as illustrated in the words _bank_, _banker_, but it has a wider application in Portuguese, as for example: =pedra=, _stone_, =pedreira=, _stone quarry_, =pedreiro=, _quarryman_, and sometimes _stone mason_; =sapato=, _shoe_, =sapateiro=, _shoemaker_. The common names of many trees are similarly derived from the names of their fruits: =pécego=, _peach_, =pecegueiro=, _peach-tree_; =coco=, _the coco-nut_, =coqueiro=, _the coco-palm_.