Chapter M: Major infectious diseases (92)

Poland
Poland is an ancient nation that was conceived near the
middle of the 10th century. Its golden age occurred in the 16th
century. During the following century, the strengthening of the
gentry and internal disorders weakened the nation. In a series of
agreements between 1772 and 1795, Russia, Prussia, and Austria
partitioned Poland amongst themselves. Poland regained its
independence in 1918 only to be overrun by Germany and the Soviet
Union in World War II. It became a Soviet satellite state following
the war, but its government was comparatively tolerant and
progressive. Labor turmoil in 1980 led to the formation of the
independent trade union "Solidarity" that over time became a
political force and by 1990 had swept parliamentary elections and
the presidency. A "shock therapy" program during the early 1990s
enabled the country to transform its economy into one of the most
robust in Central Europe, but Poland still faces the lingering
challenges of high unemployment, underdeveloped and dilapidated
infrastructure, and a poor rural underclass. Solidarity suffered a
major defeat in the 2001 parliamentary elections when it failed to
elect a single deputy to the lower house of Parliament, and the new
leaders of the Solidarity Trade Union subsequently pledged to reduce
the Trade Union's political role. Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the
European Union in 2004. With its transformation to a democratic,
market-oriented country largely completed, Poland is an increasingly
active member of Euro-Atlantic organizations.

Portugal
Following its heyday as a global maritime power during the
15th and 16th centuries, Portugal lost much of its wealth and status
with the destruction of Lisbon in a 1755 earthquake, occupation
during the Napoleonic Wars, and the independence of its wealthiest
colony of Brazil in 1822. A 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy;
for most of the next six decades, repressive governments ran the
country. In 1974, a left-wing military coup installed broad
democratic reforms. The following year, Portugal granted
independence to all of its African colonies. Portugal is a founding
member of NATO and entered the EC (now the EU) in 1986.

Puerto Rico
Populated for centuries by aboriginal peoples, the
island was claimed by the Spanish Crown in 1493 following COLUMBUS'
second voyage to the Americas. In 1898, after 400 years of colonial
rule that saw the indigenous population nearly exterminated and
African slave labor introduced, Puerto Rico was ceded to the US as a
result of the Spanish-American War. Puerto Ricans were granted US
citizenship in 1917. Popularly-elected governors have served since
1948. In 1952, a constitution was enacted providing for internal
self government. In plebiscites held in 1967, 1993, and 1998, voters
chose not to alter the existing political status.

Qatar
Ruled by the al-Thani family since the mid-1800s, Qatar
transformed itself from a poor British protectorate noted mainly for
pearling into an independent state with significant oil and natural
gas revenues. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Qatari
economy was crippled by a continuous siphoning off of petroleum
revenues by the Amir, who had ruled the country since 1972. His son,
the current Amir HAMAD bin Khalifa al-Thani, overthrew him in a
bloodless coup in 1995. In 2001, Qatar resolved its longstanding
border disputes with both Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. As of 2007, oil
and natural gas revenues had enabled Qatar to attain the
second-highest per capita income in the world.

Romania
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia - for centuries
under the suzerainty of the Turkish Ottoman Empire - secured their
autonomy in 1856; they united in 1859 and a few years later adopted
the new name of Romania. The country gained recognition of its
independence in 1878. It joined the Allied Powers in World War I and
acquired new territories - most notably Transylvania - following the
conflict. In 1940, Romania allied with the Axis powers and
participated in the 1941 German invasion of the USSR. Three years
later, overrun by the Soviets, Romania signed an armistice. The
post-war Soviet occupation led to the formation of a Communist
"people's republic" in 1947 and the abdication of the king. The
decades-long rule of dictator Nicolae CEAUSESCU, who took power in
1965, and his Securitate police state became increasingly oppressive
and draconian through the 1980s. CEAUSESCU was overthrown and
executed in late 1989. Former Communists dominated the government
until 1996 when they were swept from power. Romania joined NATO in
2004 and the EU in 2007.

Russia
Founded in the 12th century, the Principality of Muscovy, was
able to emerge from over 200 years of Mongol domination (13th-15th
centuries) and to gradually conquer and absorb surrounding
principalities. In the early 17th century, a new Romanov Dynasty
continued this policy of expansion across Siberia to the Pacific.
Under PETER I (ruled 1682-1725), hegemony was extended to the Baltic
Sea and the country was renamed the Russian Empire. During the 19th
century, more territorial acquisitions were made in Europe and Asia.
Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 contributed to the
Revolution of 1905, which resulted in the formation of a parliament
and other reforms. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army
in World War I led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the
Russian Empire and to the overthrow in 1917 of the imperial
household. The Communists under Vladimir LENIN seized power soon
after and formed the USSR. The brutal rule of Iosif STALIN (1928-53)
strengthened Communist rule and Russian dominance of the Soviet
Union at a cost of tens of millions of lives. The Soviet economy and
society stagnated in the following decades until General Secretary
Mikhail GORBACHEV (1985-91) introduced glasnost (openness) and
perestroika (restructuring) in an attempt to modernize Communism,
but his initiatives inadvertently released forces that by December
1991 splintered the USSR into Russia and 14 other independent
republics. Since then, Russia has shifted its post-Soviet democratic
ambitions in favor of a centralized semi-authoritarian state whose
legitimacy is buttressed, in part, by carefully managed national
elections, former President PUTIN's genuine popularity, and the
prudent management of Russia's windfall energy wealth. Russia has
severely disabled a Chechen rebel movement, although violence still
occurs throughout the North Caucasus.

Rwanda
In 1959, three years before independence from Belgium, the
majority ethnic group, the Hutus, overthrew the ruling Tutsi king.
Over the next several years, thousands of Tutsis were killed, and
some 150,000 driven into exile in neighboring countries. The
children of these exiles later formed a rebel group, the Rwandan
Patriotic Front (RPF), and began a civil war in 1990. The war, along
with several political and economic upheavals, exacerbated ethnic
tensions, culminating in April 1994 in the genocide of roughly
800,000 Tutsis and moderate Hutus. The Tutsi rebels defeated the
Hutu regime and ended the killing in July 1994, but approximately 2
million Hutu refugees - many fearing Tutsi retribution - fled to
neighboring Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Since then, most
of the refugees have returned to Rwanda, but several thousand
remained in the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC;
the former Zaire) and formed an extremist insurgency bent on
retaking Rwanda, much as the RPF tried in 1990. Despite substantial
international assistance and political reforms - including Rwanda's
first local elections in March 1999 and its first post-genocide
presidential and legislative elections in August and September 2003
- the country continues to struggle to boost investment and
agricultural output, and ethnic reconciliation is complicated by the
real and perceived Tutsi political dominance. Kigali's increasing
centralization and intolerance of dissent, the nagging Hutu
extremist insurgency across the border, and Rwandan involvement in
two wars in recent years in the neighboring DRC continue to hinder
Rwanda's efforts to escape its bloody legacy.

Saint Barthelemy
Discovered in 1493 by Christopher COLUMBUS who
named it for his brother Bartolomeo, St. Barthelemy was first
settled by the French in 1648. In 1784, the French sold the island
to Sweden, who renamed the largest town Gustavia, after the Swedish
King GUSTAV III, and made it a free port; the island prospered as a
trade and supply center during the colonial wars of the 18th
century. France repurchased the island in 1878 and placed it under
the administration of Guadeloupe. St. Barthelemy retained its free
port status along with various Swedish appellations such as Swedish
street and town names, and the three-crown symbol on the coat of
arms. In 2003, the populace of the island voted to secede from
Guadeloupe and in 2007, the island became a French overseas
collectivity.

Saint Helena
Saint Helena is a British Overseas Territory consisting
of Saint Helena and Ascension Islands, and the island group of
Tristan da Cunha.
Saint Helena: Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in
1502, Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th
century. It acquired fame as the place of Napoleon BONAPARTE's exile
from 1815 until his death in 1821, but its importance as a port of
call declined after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. During
the Anglo-Boer War in South Africa, several thousand Boer prisoners
were confined on the island between 1900 and 1903.
Ascension Island: This barren and uninhabited island was discovered
and named by the Portuguese in 1503. The British garrisoned the
island in 1815 to prevent a rescue of Napoleon from Saint Helena. It
served as a provisioning station for the Royal Navy's West Africa
Squadron on anti-slavery patrol. The island remained under Admiralty
control until 1922, when it became a dependency of Saint Helena.
During World War II, the UK permitted the US to construct an
airfield on Ascension in support of trans-Atlantic flights to Africa
and anti-submarine operations in the South Atlantic. In the 1960s
the island became an important space tracking station for the US. In
1982, Ascension was an essential staging area for British forces
during the Falklands War. It remains a critical refueling point in
the air-bridge from the UK to the South Atlantic.
Tristan da Cunha: The island group consists of the islands of
Tristan da Cunha, Nightingale, Inaccessible, and Gough. Tristan da
Cunha is named after its Portuguese discoverer (1506); it was
garrisoned by the British in 1816 to prevent any attempt to rescue
Napoleon from Saint Helena. Gough and Inaccessible Islands have been
designated World Heritage Sites. South Africa leases a site for a
meteorological station on Gough Island.

Saint Kitts and Nevis
Carib Indians occupied the islands for
hundreds of years before the British began settlement in 1623. The
islands became an associated state of the UK with full internal
autonomy in 1967. The island of Anguilla rebelled and was allowed to
secede in 1971. Saint Kitts and Nevis achieved independence in 1983.
In 1998, a vote in Nevis on a referendum to separate from Saint
Kitts fell short of the two-thirds majority needed. Nevis continues
in its efforts to separate from Saint Kitts.

Saint Lucia
The island, with its fine natural harbor at Castries,
was contested between England and France throughout the 17th and
early 18th centuries (changing possession 14 times); it was finally
ceded to the UK in 1814. Even after the abolition of slavery on its
plantations in 1834, Saint Lucia remained an agricultural island,
dedicated to producing tropical commodity crops. Self-government was
granted in 1967 and independence in 1979.

Saint Martin
Although sighted by Christopher COLUMBUS in 1493 and
claimed for Spain, it was the Dutch who occupied the island in 1631
and set about exploiting its salt deposits. The Spanish retook the
island in 1633, but continued to be harassed by the Dutch. The
Spanish finally relinquished St. Martin to the French and Dutch, who
divided it amongst themselves in 1648. The cultivation of sugar cane
introduced slavery to the island in the late 18th century; the
practice was not abolished until 1848. The island became a free port
in 1939; the tourism industry was dramatically expanded during the
1970s and 1980s. In 2003, the populace of St. Martin voted to secede
from Guadeloupe and in 2007, the northern portion of the island
became a French overseas collectivity.

Saint Pierre and Miquelon
First settled by the French in the early
17th century, the islands represent the sole remaining vestige of
France's once vast North American possessions.

Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Resistance by native Caribs
prevented colonization on St. Vincent until 1719. Disputed between
France and the United Kingdom for most of the 18th century, the
island was ceded to the latter in 1783. Between 1960 and 1962, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines was a separate administrative unit of the
Federation of the West Indies. Autonomy was granted in 1969 and
independence in 1979.

Samoa
New Zealand occupied the German protectorate of Western Samoa
at the outbreak of World War I in 1914. It continued to administer
the islands as a mandate and then as a trust territory until 1962,
when the islands became the first Polynesian nation to reestablish
independence in the 20th century. The country dropped the "Western"
from its name in 1997.

San Marino
The third smallest state in Europe (after the Holy See
and Monaco), San Marino also claims to be the world's oldest
republic. According to tradition, it was founded by a Christian
stonemason named Marinus in A.D. 301. San Marino's foreign policy is
aligned with that of Italy; social and political trends in the
republic also track closely with those of its larger neighbor.

Sao Tome and Principe
Discovered and claimed by Portugal in the late
15th century, the islands' sugar-based economy gave way to coffee
and cocoa in the 19th century - all grown with plantation slave
labor, a form of which lingered into the 20th century. While
independence was achieved in 1975, democratic reforms were not
instituted until the late 1980s. The country held its first free
elections in 1991, but frequent internal wrangling between the
various political party's precipitated repeated changes in
leadership and two failed coup attempts in 1995 and 2003. The recent
discovery of oil in the Gulf of Guinea promises to attract increased
attention to the small island nation.

Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is the birthplace of Islam and home to
Islam's two holiest shrines in Mecca and Medina. The king's official
title is the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The modern Saudi
state was founded in 1932 by ABD AL-AZIZ bin Abd al-Rahman AL SAUD
(Ibn Saud) after a 30-year campaign to unify most of the Arabian
Peninsula. A male descendent of Ibn Saud, his son ABDALLAH bin Abd
al-Aziz, rules the country today as required by the country's 1992
Basic Law. Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saudi Arabia
accepted the Kuwaiti royal family and 400,000 refugees while
allowing Western and Arab troops to deploy on its soil for the
liberation of Kuwait the following year. The continuing presence of
foreign troops on Saudi soil after the liberation of Kuwait became a
source of tension between the royal family and the public until all
operational US troops left the country in 2003. Major terrorist
attacks in May and November 2003 spurred a strong on-going campaign
against domestic terrorism and extremism. King ABDALLAH has
continued the cautious reform program begun when he was crown
prince. To promote increased political participation, the government
held elections nationwide from February through April 2005 for half
the members of 179 municipal councils. In December 2005, King
ABDALLAH completed the process by appointing the remaining members
of the advisory municipal councils. The king instituted an
Inter-Faith Dialogue initiative in 2008 to encourage religious
tolerance on a global level; in February 2009, he reshuffled the
cabinet, which led to more moderates holding ministerial and
judicial positions, and appointed the first female to the cabinet.
The country remains a leading producer of oil and natural gas and
holds more than 20% of the world's proven oil reserves. The
government continues to pursue economic reform and diversification,
particularly since Saudi Arabia's accession to the WTO in December
2005, and promotes foreign investment in the kingdom. A burgeoning
population, aquifer depletion, and an economy largely dependent on
petroleum output and prices are all ongoing governmental concerns.

Senegal
The French colonies of Senegal and the French Sudan were
merged in 1959 and granted their independence as the Mali Federation
in 1960. The union broke up after only a few months. Senegal joined
with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia in
1982, but the envisaged integration of the two countries was never
carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. The Movement of
Democratic Forces in the Casamance (MFDC) has led a low-level
separatist insurgency in southern Senegal since the 1980s, and
several peace deals have failed to resolve the conflict.
Nevertheless, Senegal remains one of the most stable democracies in
Africa. Senegal was ruled by a Socialist Party for 40 years until
current President Abdoulaye WADE was elected in 2000. He was
reelected in February 2007, but complaints of fraud led opposition
parties to boycott June 2007 legislative polls. Senegal has a long
history of participating in international peacekeeping.

Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes was formed in
1918; its name was changed to Yugoslavia in 1929. Various
paramilitary bands resisted Nazi Germany's occupation and division
of Yugoslavia from 1941 to 1945, but fought each other and ethnic
opponents as much as the invaders. The military and political
movement headed by Josip TITO (Partisans) took full control of
Yugoslavia when German and Croatian separatist forces were defeated
in 1945. Although Communist, TITO's new government and his
successors (he died in 1980) managed to steer their own path between
the Warsaw Pact nations and the West for the next four and a half
decades. In 1989, Slobodan MILOSEVIC became president of the Serbian
Republic and his ultranationalist calls for Serbian domination led
to the violent breakup of Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. In 1991,
Croatia, Slovenia, and Macedonia declared independence, followed by
Bosnia in 1992. The remaining republics of Serbia and Montenegro
declared a new Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in April 1992
and under MILOSEVIC's leadership, Serbia led various military
campaigns to unite ethnic Serbs in neighboring republics into a
"Greater Serbia." These actions led to Yugoslavia being ousted from
the UN in 1992, but Serbia continued its - ultimately unsuccessful -
campaign until signing the Dayton Peace Accords in 1995. MILOSEVIC
kept tight control over Serbia and eventually became president of
the FRY in 1997. In 1998, an ethnic Albanian insurgency in the
formerly autonomous Serbian province of Kosovo provoked a Serbian
counterinsurgency campaign that resulted in massacres and massive
expulsions of ethnic Albanians living in Kosovo. The MILOSEVIC
government's rejection of a proposed international settlement led to
NATO's bombing of Serbia in the spring of 1999 and to the eventual
withdrawal of Serbian military and police forces from Kosovo in June
1999. UNSC Resolution 1244 in June 1999 authorized the stationing of
a NATO-led force (KFOR) in Kosovo to provide a safe and secure
environment for the region's ethnic communities, created a UN
interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) to foster
self-governing institutions, and reserved the issue of Kosovo's
final status for an unspecified date in the future. In 2001, UNMIK
promulgated a constitutional framework that allowed Kosovo to
establish institutions of self-government and led to Kosovo's first
parliamentary election. FRY elections in September 2000 led to the
ouster of MILOSEVIC and installed Vojislav KOSTUNICA as president. A
broad coalition of democratic reformist parties known as DOS (the
Democratic Opposition of Serbia) was subsequently elected to
parliament in December 2000 and took control of the government. DOS
arrested MILOSEVIC in 2001 and allowed for him to be tried in The
Hague for crimes against humanity. (MILOSEVIC died in March 2006
before the completion of his trial.) In 2001, the country's
suspension from the UN was lifted. In 2003, the FRY became Serbia
and Montenegro, a loose federation of the two republics with a
federal level parliament. Widespread violence predominantly
targeting ethnic Serbs in Kosovo in March 2004 caused the
international community to open negotiations on the future status of
Kosovo in January 2006. In May 2006, Montenegro invoked its right to
secede from the federation and - following a successful referendum -
it declared itself an independent nation on 3 June 2006. Two days
later, Serbia declared that it was the successor state to the union
of Serbia and Montenegro. A new Serbian constitution was approved in
October 2006 and adopted the following month. After 15 months of
inconclusive negotiations mediated by the UN and four months of
further inconclusive negotiations mediated by the US, EU, and
Russia, on 17 February 2008, the UNMIK-administered province of
Kosovo declared itself independent of Serbia.

Seychelles
A lengthy struggle between France and Great Britain for
the islands ended in 1814, when they were ceded to the latter.
Independence came in 1976. Socialist rule was brought to a close
with a new constitution and free elections in 1993. President
France-Albert RENE, who had served since 1977, was re-elected in
2001, but stepped down in 2004. Vice President James MICHEL took
over the presidency and in July 2006 was elected to a new five-year
term.

Sierra Leone
Democracy is slowly being reestablished after the civil
war from 1991 to 2002 that resulted in tens of thousands of deaths
and the displacement of more than 2 million people (about one-third
of the population). The military, which took over full
responsibility for security following the departure of UN
peacekeepers at the end of 2005, is increasingly developing as a
guarantor of the country's stability. The armed forces remained on
the sideline during the 2007 presidential election, but still look
to the UN Integrated Office in Sierra Leone (UNIOSIL) - a civilian
UN mission - to support efforts to consolidate peace. The new
government's priorities include furthering development, creating
jobs, and stamping out endemic corruption.

Singapore
Singapore was founded as a British trading colony in 1819.
It joined the Malaysian Federation in 1963 but separated two years
later and became independent. Singapore subsequently became one of
the world's most prosperous countries with strong international
trading links (its port is one of the world's busiest in terms of
tonnage handled) and with per capita GDP equal to that of the
leading nations of Western Europe.

Slovakia
The dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the close
of World War I allowed the Slovaks to join the closely related
Czechs to form Czechoslovakia. Following the chaos of World War II,
Czechoslovakia became a Communist nation within Soviet-dominated
Eastern Europe. Soviet influence collapsed in 1989 and
Czechoslovakia once more became free. The Slovaks and the Czechs
agreed to separate peacefully on 1 January 1993. Slovakia joined
both NATO and the EU in the spring of 2004 and the euro area on 1
January 2009.

Slovenia
The Slovene lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire
until the latter's dissolution at the end of World War I. In 1918,
the Slovenes joined the Serbs and Croats in forming a new
multinational state, which was named Yugoslavia in 1929. After World
War II, Slovenia became a republic of the renewed Yugoslavia, which
though Communist, distanced itself from Moscow's rule. Dissatisfied
with the exercise of power by the majority Serbs, the Slovenes
succeeded in establishing their independence in 1991 after a short
10-day war. Historical ties to Western Europe, a strong economy, and
a stable democracy have assisted in Slovenia's transformation to a
modern state. Slovenia acceded to both NATO and the EU in the spring
of 2004.

Solomon Islands
The UK established a protectorate over the Solomon
Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of World War
II occurred on this archipelago. Self-government was achieved in
1976 and independence two years later. Ethnic violence, government
malfeasance, and endemic crime have undermined stability and civil
society. In June 2003, then Prime Minister Sir Allan KEMAKEZA sought
the assistance of Australia in reestablishing law and order; the
following month, an Australian-led multinational force arrived to
restore peace and disarm ethnic militias. The Regional Assistance
Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) has generally been effective
in restoring law and order and rebuilding government institutions.

Somalia
Britain withdrew from British Somaliland in 1960 to allow
its protectorate to join with Italian Somaliland and form the new
nation of Somalia. In 1969, a coup headed by Mohamed SIAD Barre
ushered in an authoritarian socialist rule that managed to impose a
degree of stability in the country for a couple of decades. After
the regime's collapse early in 1991, Somalia descended into turmoil,
factional fighting, and anarchy. In May 1991, northern clans
declared an independent Republic of Somaliland that now includes the
administrative regions of Awdal, Woqooyi Galbeed, Togdheer, Sanaag,
and Sool. Although not recognized by any government, this entity has
maintained a stable existence and continues efforts to establish a
constitutional democracy, including holding municipal,
parliamentary, and presidential elections. The regions of Bari,
Nugaal, and northern Mudug comprise a neighboring self-declared
autonomous state of Puntland, which has been self-governing since
1998 but does not aim at independence; it has also made strides
toward reconstructing a legitimate, representative government but
has suffered some civil strife. Puntland disputes its border with
Somaliland as it also claims portions of eastern Sool and Sanaag.
Beginning in 1993, a two-year UN humanitarian effort (primarily in
the south) was able to alleviate famine conditions, but when the UN
withdrew in 1995, having suffered significant casualties, order
still had not been restored. A two-year peace process, led by the
Government of Kenya under the auspices of the Intergovernmental
Authority on Development (IGAD), concluded in October 2004 with the
election of Abdullahi YUSUF Ahmed as President of the Transitional
Federal Government (TFG) of Somalia and the formation of an interim
government, known as the Somalia Transitional Federal Institutions
(TFIs). The TFIs included a 275-member parliamentary body, known as
the Transitional Federal Assembly (TFA). President YUSUF resigned
late in 2008 while United Nations-sponsored talks between the TFG
and the opposition Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia (ARS)
were underway in Djibouti. In January 2009, following the creation
of a TFG-ARS unity government, Ethiopian military forces, which had
entered Somalia in December 2006 to support the TFG in the face of
advances by the opposition Council of Islamic Courts (CIC), withdrew
from the country. The TFA was increased to 550 seats with the
addition of 275 ARS members of parliament. The expanded parliament
elected Sheikh SHARIF Sheikh Ahmed, the former CIC and ARS chairman
as president on 31 January 2009, in Djibouti. Subsequently,
President SHARIF appointed Omar Abdirashid ali SHARMARKE, son of a
former president of Somalia, as prime minister on 13 February 2009.
The TFIs are based on the Transitional Federal Charter (TFC), which
outlines a five-year mandate leading to the establishment of a new
Somali constitution and a transition to a representative government
following national elections. However, in January 2009 the TFA
amended the TFC to extend TFG's mandate until 2011. While its
institutions remain weak, the TFG continues to reach out to Somali
stakeholders and work with international donors to help build the
governance capacity of the TFIs and work toward national elections
in 2011.

South Africa
Dutch traders landed at the southern tip of modern day
South Africa in 1652 and established a stopover point on the spice
route between the Netherlands and the East, founding the city of
Cape Town. After the British seized the Cape of Good Hope area in
1806, many of the Dutch settlers (the Boers) trekked north to found
their own republics. The discovery of diamonds (1867) and gold
(1886) spurred wealth and immigration and intensified the
subjugation of the native inhabitants. The Boers resisted British
encroachments but were defeated in the Boer War (1899-1902);
however, the British and the Afrikaners, as the Boers became known,
ruled together under the Union of South Africa. In 1948, the
National Party was voted into power and instituted a policy of
apartheid - the separate development of the races. The first
multi-racial elections in 1994 brought an end to apartheid and
ushered in black majority rule under the African National Congress
(ANC). ANC infighting, which has grown in recent years, came to a
head in September 2008 after President Thabo MBEKI resigned. Kgalema
MOTLANTHE, the party's General-Secretary, succeeded as interim
president until general elections scheduled for 2009.

South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands
The islands, which have
large bird and seal populations, lie approximately 1,000 km east of
the Falkland Islands and have been under British administration
since 1908 - except for a brief period in 1982 when Argentina
occupied them. Grytviken, on South Georgia, was a 19th and early
20th century whaling station. Famed explorer Ernest SHACKLETON
stopped there in 1914 en route to his ill-fated attempt to cross
Antarctica on foot. He returned some 20 months later with a few
companions in a small boat and arranged a successful rescue for the
rest of his crew, stranded off the Antarctic Peninsula. He died in
1922 on a subsequent expedition and is buried in Grytviken. Today,
the station houses scientists from the British Antarctic Survey.
Recognizing the importance of preserving the marine stocks in
adjacent waters, the UK, in 1993, extended the exclusive fishing
zone from 12 nm to 200 nm around each island.

Southern Ocean
A large body of recent oceanographic research has
shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC), an ocean current
that flows from west to east around Antarctica, plays a crucial role
in global ocean circulation. The region where the cold waters of the
ACC meet and mingle with the warmer waters of the north defines a
distinct border - the Antarctic Convergence - which fluctuates with
the seasons, but which encompasses a discrete body of water and a
unique ecologic region. The Convergence concentrates nutrients,
which promotes marine plant life, and which in turn allows for a
greater abundance of animal life. In the spring of 2000, the
International Hydrographic Organization decided to delimit the
waters within the Convergence as a fifth world ocean - the Southern
Ocean - by combining the southern portions of the Atlantic Ocean,
Indian Ocean, and Pacific Ocean. The Southern Ocean extends from the
coast of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude, which
coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit and which approximates the
extent of the Antarctic Convergence. As such, the Southern Ocean is
now the fourth largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific
Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but larger than the Arctic
Ocean). It should be noted that inclusion of the Southern Ocean does
not imply recognition of this feature as one of the world's primary
oceans by the US Government.

Spain
Spain's powerful world empire of the 16th and 17th centuries
ultimately yielded command of the seas to England. Subsequent
failure to embrace the mercantile and industrial revolutions caused
the country to fall behind Britain, France, and Germany in economic
and political power. Spain remained neutral in World Wars I and II
but suffered through a devastating civil war (1936-39). A peaceful
transition to democracy following the death of dictator Francisco
FRANCO in 1975, and rapid economic modernization (Spain joined the
EU in 1986) gave Spain a dynamic and rapidly growing economy and
made it a global champion of freedom and human rights. The
government continues to battle the Basque Fatherland and Liberty
(ETA) terrorist organization, but its major focus for the immediate
future will be on measures to reverse the severe economic recession
that started in mid-2008.

Spratly Islands
The Spratly Islands consist of more than 100 small
islands or reefs. They are surrounded by rich fishing grounds and
potentially by gas and oil deposits. They are claimed in their
entirety by China, Taiwan, and Vietnam, while portions are claimed
by Malaysia and the Philippines. About 45 islands are occupied by
relatively small numbers of military forces from China, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Brunei has established a
fishing zone that overlaps a southern reef but has not made any
formal claim.

Sri Lanka
The first Sinhalese arrived in Sri Lanka late in the 6th
century B.C. probably from northern India. Buddhism was introduced
in about the mid-third century B.C., and a great civilization
developed at the cities of Anuradhapura (kingdom from circa 200 B.C.
to circa A.D. 1000) and Polonnaruwa (from about 1070 to 1200). In
the 14th century, a south Indian dynasty established a Tamil kingdom
in northern Sri Lanka. The coastal areas of the island were
controlled by the Portuguese in the 16th century and by the Dutch in
the 17th century. The island was ceded to the British in 1796,
became a crown colony in 1802, and was united under British rule by
1815. As Ceylon, it became independent in 1948; its name was changed
to Sri Lanka in 1972. Tensions between the Sinhalese majority and
Tamil separatists erupted into war in 1983. Tens of thousands have
died in the ethnic conflict that continues to fester. After two
decades of fighting, the government and Liberation Tigers of Tamil
Eelam (LTTE) formalized a cease-fire in February 2002 with Norway
brokering peace negotiations. Violence between the LTTE and
government forces intensified in 2006 and the government regained
control of the Eastern Province in 2007. In May 2009, the government
announced that its military had finally defeated the remnants of the
LTTE and that its leader, Velupillai PRABHAKARAN, had been killed.

Sudan
Military regimes favoring Islamic-oriented governments have
dominated national politics since independence from the UK in 1956.
Sudan was embroiled in two prolonged civil wars during most of the
remainder of the 20th century. These conflicts were rooted in
northern economic, political, and social domination of largely
non-Muslim, non-Arab southern Sudanese. The first civil war ended in
1972 but broke out again in 1983. The second war and famine-related
effects resulted in more than four million people displaced and,
according to rebel estimates, more than two million deaths over a
period of two decades. Peace talks gained momentum in 2002-04 with
the signing of several accords. The final North/South Comprehensive
Peace Agreement (CPA), signed in January 2005, granted the southern
rebels autonomy for six years. After which, a referendum for
independence is scheduled to be held. A separate conflict, which
broke out in the western region of Darfur in 2003, has displaced
nearly two million people and caused an estimated 200,000 to 400,000
deaths. The UN took command of the Darfur peacekeeping operation
from the African Union on 31 December 2007. As of early 2009,
peacekeeping troops were struggling to stabilize the situation,
which has become increasingly regional in scope, and has brought
instability to eastern Chad, and Sudanese incursions into the
Central African Republic. Sudan also has faced large refugee
influxes from neighboring countries, primarily Ethiopia and Chad.
Armed conflict, poor transport infrastructure, and lack of
government support have chronically obstructed the provision of
humanitarian assistance to affected populations.

Suriname
First explored by the Spaniards in the 16th century and
then settled by the English in the mid-17th century, Suriname became
a Dutch colony in 1667. With the abolition of slavery in 1863,
workers were brought in from India and Java. Independence from the
Netherlands was granted in 1975. Five years later the civilian
government was replaced by a military regime that soon declared a
socialist republic. It continued to exert control through a
succession of nominally civilian administrations until 1987, when
international pressure finally forced a democratic election. In
1990, the military overthrew the civilian leadership, but a
democratically elected government - a four-party New Front coalition
- returned to power in 1991 and has ruled since; the coalition
expanded to eight parties in 2005.

Svalbard
First discovered by the Norwegians in the 12th century, the
islands served as an international whaling base during the 17th and
18th centuries. Norway's sovereignty was recognized in 1920; five
years later it officially took over the territory.

Swaziland
Autonomy for the Swazis of southern Africa was guaranteed
by the British in the late 19th century; independence was granted in
1968. Student and labor unrest during the 1990s pressured King
MSWATI III, the world's last absolute monarch, to grudgingly allow
political reform and greater democracy, although he has backslid on
these promises in recent years. A constitution came into effect in
2006, but political parties remain banned. The African United
Democratic Party tried unsuccessfully to register as an official
political party in mid 2006. Talks over the constitution broke down
between the government and progressive groups in 2007. Swaziland
recently surpassed Botswana as the country with the world's highest
known HIV/AIDS prevalence rate.

Sweden
A military power during the 17th century, Sweden has not
participated in any war in almost two centuries. An armed neutrality
was preserved in both World Wars. Sweden's long-successful economic
formula of a capitalist system interlarded with substantial welfare
elements was challenged in the 1990s by high unemployment and in
2000-02 by the global economic downturn, but fiscal discipline over
the past several years has allowed the country to weather economic
vagaries. Sweden joined the EU in 1995, but the public rejected the
introduction of the euro in a 2003 referendum.

Switzerland
The Swiss Confederation was founded in 1291 as a
defensive alliance among three cantons. In succeeding years, other
localities joined the original three. The Swiss Confederation
secured its independence from the Holy Roman Empire in 1499. A
constitution of 1848, subsequently modified in 1874, replaced the
confederation with a centralized federal government. Switzerland's
sovereignty and neutrality have long been honored by the major
European powers, and the country was not involved in either of the
two World Wars. The political and economic integration of Europe
over the past half century, as well as Switzerland's role in many UN
and international organizations, has strengthened Switzerland's ties
with its neighbors. However, the country did not officially become a
UN member until 2002. Switzerland remains active in many UN and
international organizations but retains a strong commitment to
neutrality.

Syria
Following World War I, France acquired a mandate over the
northern portion of the former Ottoman Empire province of Syria. The
French administered the area as Syria until granting it independence
in 1946. The new country lacked political stability, however, and
experienced a series of military coups during its first decades.
Syria united with Egypt in February 1958 to form the United Arab
Republic. In September 1961, the two entities separated, and the
Syrian Arab Republic was reestablished. In November 1970, Hafiz
al-ASAD, a member of the Socialist Ba'th Party and the minority
Alawite sect, seized power in a bloodless coup and brought political
stability to the country. In the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Syria lost
the Golan Heights to Israel. During the 1990s, Syria and Israel held
occasional peace talks over its return. Following the death of
President al-ASAD, his son, Bashar al-ASAD, was approved as
president by popular referendum in July 2000. Syrian troops -
stationed in Lebanon since 1976 in an ostensible peacekeeping role -
were withdrawn in April 2005. During the July-August 2006 conflict
between Israel and Hizballah, Syria placed its military forces on
alert but did not intervene directly on behalf of its ally Hizballah.

Taiwan
In 1895, military defeat forced China to cede Taiwan to
Japan. Taiwan reverted to Chinese control after World War II.
Following the Communist victory on the mainland in 1949, 2 million
Nationalists fled to Taiwan and established a government using the
1946 constitution drawn up for all of China. Over the next five
decades, the ruling authorities gradually democratized and
incorporated the local population within the governing structure. In
2000, Taiwan underwent its first peaceful transfer of power from the
Nationalist to the Democratic Progressive Party. Throughout this
period, the island prospered and became one of East Asia's economic
"Tigers." The dominant political issues continue to be the
relationship between Taiwan and China - specifically the question of
Taiwan's eventual status - as well as domestic political and
economic reform.

Tajikistan
The Tajik people came under Russian rule in the 1860s and
1870s, but Russia's hold on Central Asia weakened following the
Revolution of 1917. Bolshevik control of the area was fiercely
contested and not fully reestablished until 1925. Much of
present-day Sughd province was transferred from the Uzbek SSR to the
newly formed Tajik SSR in 1929. Ethnic Uzbeks form a substantial
minority in Sughd province. Tajikistan became independent in 1991
following the breakup of the Soviet Union, and experienced a civil
war between regional factions from 1992-97. There have been no major
security incidents in recent years, although the country remains the
poorest in the former Soviet sphere. Attention by the international
community since the beginning of the NATO intervention in
Afghanistan has brought increased economic development and security
assistance, which could create jobs and strengthen stability in the
long term. Tajikistan is in the early stages of seeking World Trade
Organization membership and has joined NATO's Partnership for Peace.

Tanzania
Shortly after achieving independence from Britain in the
early 1960s, Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form the nation of
Tanzania in 1964. One-party rule came to an end in 1995 with the
first democratic elections held in the country since the 1970s.
Zanzibar's semi-autonomous status and popular opposition have led to
two contentious elections since 1995, which the ruling party won
despite international observers' claims of voting irregularities.

Thailand
A unified Thai kingdom was established in the mid-14th
century. Known as Siam until 1939, Thailand is the only Southeast
Asian country never to have been taken over by a European power. A
bloodless revolution in 1932 led to a constitutional monarchy. In
alliance with Japan during World War II, Thailand became a US treaty
ally following the conflict. A military coup in September 2006
ousted then Prime Minister THAKSIN Chinnawat. The interim government
held elections in December 2007 that saw the former pro-THAKSIN
People's Power Party (PPP) emerge at the head of a coalition
government. The anti-THAKSIN People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD)
in May 2008 began street demonstrations against the new government,
eventually occupying the prime minister's office in August. Clashes
in October 2008 between PAD protesters blocking parliament and
police resulted in the death of at least two people. The PAD
occupied Bangkok's international airports briefly, ending their
protests in early December 2008 following a court ruling that
dissolved the ruling PPP and two other coalition parties for
election violations. The Democrat Party then formed a new coalition
government with the support of some of THAKSIN's former political
allies, and ABHISIT Wetchachiwa became prime minister. Since January
2004, thousands have been killed as separatists in Thailand's
southern ethnic Malay-Muslim provinces increased the violence
associated with their cause.

Timor-Leste
The Portuguese began to trade with the island of Timor
in the early 16th century and colonized it in mid-century.
Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an
1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the
island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945,
but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in
World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal
on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian
forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July
1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful
campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during
which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 individuals lost their lives.
On 30 August 1999, in a UN-supervised popular referendum, an
overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for
independence from Indonesia. Between the referendum and the arrival
of a multinational peacekeeping force in late September 1999,
anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the
Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth
campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400
Timorese and forcibly pushed 300,000 people into western Timor as
refugees. The majority of the country's infrastructure, including
homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and
nearly 100% of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20
September 1999, the Australian-led peacekeeping troops of the
International Force for East Timor (INTERFET) deployed to the
country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002,
Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.
In late April 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's
security when a military strike led to violence and a near breakdown
of law and order in Dili. At the request of the Government of
Timor-Leste, an Australian-led International Stabilization Force
(ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste in late May. In August, the UN
Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in
Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police presence of
over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restored stability, allowing
the Government of Timor-Leste to hold presidential and parliamentary
elections in April and June 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere.
In February 2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack
against the president and prime minister. The ringleader was killed
in the attack and the majority of the rebels surrendered to the
government in April 2008.

Togo
French Togoland became Togo in 1960. Gen. Gnassingbe EYADEMA,
installed as military ruler in 1967, ruled Togo with a heavy hand
for almost four decades. Despite the facade of multiparty elections
instituted in the early 1990s, the government was largely dominated
by President EYADEMA, whose Rally of the Togolese People (RPT) party
has maintained power almost continually since 1967 and maintains a
majority of seats in today's legislature. Upon EYADEMA's death in
February 2005, the military installed the president's son, Faure
GNASSINGBE, and then engineered his formal election two months
later. Democratic gains since then allowed Togo to hold its first
relatively free and fair legislative elections in October 2007.
After years of political unrest and fire from international
organizations for human rights abuses, Togo is finally being
re-welcomed into the international community.

Tokelau
Originally settled by Polynesian emigrants from surrounding
island groups, the Tokelau Islands were made a British protectorate
in 1889. They were transferred to New Zealand administration in
1925. Referenda held in 2006 and 2007 to change the status of the
islands from that of a New Zealand territory to one of free
association with New Zealand did not meet the needed threshold for
approval.

Tonga
Tonga - unique among Pacific nations - never completely lost
its indigenous governance. The archipelagos of "The Friendly
Islands" were united into a Polynesian kingdom in 1845. Tonga became
a constitutional monarchy in 1875 and a British protectorate in
1900; it withdrew from the protectorate and joined the Commonwealth
of Nations in 1970. Tonga remains the only monarchy in the Pacific.

Trinidad and Tobago
First colonized by the Spanish, the islands came
under British control in the early 19th century. The islands' sugar
industry was hurt by the emancipation of the slaves in 1834.
Manpower was replaced with the importation of contract laborers from
India between 1845 and 1917, which boosted sugar production as well
as the cocoa industry. The discovery of oil on Trinidad in 1910
added another important export. Independence was attained in 1962.
The country is one of the most prosperous in the Caribbean thanks
largely to petroleum and natural gas production and processing.
Tourism, mostly in Tobago, is targeted for expansion and is growing.
The government is coping with a rise in violent crime.

Tunisia
Rivalry between French and Italian interests in Tunisia
culminated in a French invasion in 1881 and the creation of a
protectorate. Agitation for independence in the decades following
World War I was finally successful in getting the French to
recognize Tunisia as an independent state in 1956. The country's
first president, Habib BOURGUIBA, established a strict one-party
state. He dominated the country for 31 years, repressing Islamic
fundamentalism and establishing rights for women unmatched by any
other Arab nation. In November 1987, BOURGUIBA was removed from
office and replaced by Zine el Abidine BEN ALI in a bloodless coup.
BEN ALI is currently serving his fourth consecutive five-year term
as president; the next elections are scheduled for October 2009.
Tunisia has long taken a moderate, non-aligned stance in its foreign
relations. Domestically, it has sought to defuse rising pressure for
a more open political society.

Turkey
Modern Turkey was founded in 1923 from the Anatolian remnants
of the defeated Ottoman Empire by national hero Mustafa KEMAL, who
was later honored with the title Ataturk or "Father of the Turks."
Under his authoritarian leadership, the country adopted wide-ranging
social, legal, and political reforms. After a period of one-party
rule, an experiment with multi-party politics led to the 1950
election victory of the opposition Democratic Party and the peaceful
transfer of power. Since then, Turkish political parties have
multiplied, but democracy has been fractured by periods of
instability and intermittent military coups (1960, 1971, 1980),
which in each case eventually resulted in a return of political
power to civilians. In 1997, the military again helped engineer the
ouster - popularly dubbed a "post-modern coup" - of the then
Islamic-oriented government. Turkey intervened militarily on Cyprus
in 1974 to prevent a Greek takeover of the island and has since
acted as patron state to the "Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,"
which only Turkey recognizes. A separatist insurgency begun in 1984
by the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) - now known as the People's
Congress of Kurdistan or Kongra-Gel (KGK) - has dominated the
Turkish military's attention and claimed more than 30,000 lives.
After the capture of the group's leader in 1999, the insurgents
largely withdrew from Turkey mainly to northern Iraq. In 2004, KGK
announced an end to its ceasefire and attacks attributed to the KGK
increased. Turkey joined the UN in 1945 and in 1952 it became a
member of NATO; it holds a non-permanent seat on the UN Security
Council from 2009-10. In 1964, Turkey became an associate member of
the European Community. Over the past decade, it has undertaken many
reforms to strengthen its democracy and economy; it began accession
membership talks with the European Union in 2005.

Turkmenistan
Eastern Turkmenistan for centuries formed part of the
Persian province of Khurasan; in medieval times Merv (today known as
Mary) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an
important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia between 1865 and
1885, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic in 1924. It achieved
independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. Extensive
hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves could prove a boon to this
underdeveloped country if extraction and delivery projects were to
be expanded. The Turkmenistan Government is actively seeking to
develop alternative petroleum transportation routes to break
Russia's pipeline monopoly. President for Life Saparmurat NYYAZOW
died in December 2006, and Turkmenistan held its first
multi-candidate presidential electoral process in February 2007.
Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a vice premier under NYYAZOW, emerged as
the country's new president.

Turks and Caicos Islands
The islands were part of the UK's Jamaican
colony until 1962, when they assumed the status of a separate crown
colony upon Jamaica's independence. The governor of The Bahamas
oversaw affairs from 1965 to 1973. With Bahamian independence, the
islands received a separate governor in 1973. Although independence
was agreed upon for 1982, the policy was reversed and the islands
remain a British overseas territory.

Tuvalu
In 1974, ethnic differences within the British colony of the
Gilbert and Ellice Islands caused the Polynesians of the Ellice
Islands to vote for separation from the Micronesians of the Gilbert
Islands. The following year, the Ellice Islands became the separate
British colony of Tuvalu. Independence was granted in 1978. In 2000,
Tuvalu negotiated a contract leasing its Internet domain name ".tv"
for $50 million in royalties over a 12-year period.

Uganda
The colonial boundaries created by Britain to delimit Uganda
grouped together a wide range of ethnic groups with different
political systems and cultures. These differences prevented the
establishment of a working political community after independence
was achieved in 1962. The dictatorial regime of Idi AMIN (1971-79)
was responsible for the deaths of some 300,000 opponents; guerrilla
war and human rights abuses under Milton OBOTE (1980-85) claimed at
least another 100,000 lives. The rule of Yoweri MUSEVENI since 1986
has brought relative stability and economic growth to Uganda. During
the 1990s, the government promulgated non-party presidential and
legislative elections. In January 2009, Uganda assumed a
nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2009-10 term.