Chapter XXII: Appendix (12)

By means of the last census and the last year’s completed registration of deaths and births in England, I am enabled to show that there has been an increase of the population from births alone in those parts of the country where the proportionate mortality is the greatest.

Taking the 42 counties as I find them arranged in Mr. Porter’s paper on the census; dividing them into three parts, viz., the 14 counties where there has been the least proportionate mortality, the 14 counties where the proportion of mortality has been the greatest, and the 14 counties where the proportion of mortality has been intermediate, I find the results as to the proportionate increase of births to the increase of deaths to be as follows:—

┌────────────────┬──────────────┬─────────────────┬──────────┬────────┐ │ │ The annual │ │Proportion│ Excess │ │ │ average Rate │ Proportion of │of Births │in every│ │ │of Increase of│Births and Deaths│and Deaths│ 10,000 │ │ │Population has│to Population in │ to every │Persons │ │ │ been per │ the Year ended │ 10,000 │ of │ │ │10,000 persons│ June 30, 1840. │Persons in│ Births │ │ │ between 1831 │ │ same │ above │ │ │ and 1841. │ │ period. │Deaths. │ ├────────────────┼──────────────┼─────────────────┼──────────┼────────┤ │_a._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ │ counties where│ │deaths (1 in 54),│deaths 184│ │ │ the mortality │ 112 │deaths (1 in 34),│births 297│ 113│ │ has been _the │ │ │ │ │ │ least_ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │_b._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ │ counties where│ 121 │deaths (1 in 48),│deaths 208│ 94│ │ it has been │ │births (1 in 33),│births 302│ │ │ _intermediate_│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │_c._ The 14 │ │ │ │ │ │ counties where│ 183 │deaths (1 in 39),│deaths 259│ 89│ │ it has been │ │births (1 in 29),│births 348│ │ │ the _greatest_│ │ │ │ │ └────────────────┴──────────────┴─────────────────┴──────────┴────────┘

The following are the proportions of births and deaths to the population in 1840, and the total rate of increase of population between the years 1831 and 1841:—

Deaths per An. Births per An. Pop. Incr.
1 to 1 to per Cent.

Hereford 64 45 2·9

Dorset 61 34 9·7

Cornwall 59 30 13·4

Devon 58 36 7·8

Sussex 55 34 10·0

Southampton 55 37 12·9

Essex 53 35 8·6

Wilts 53 35 8·2

York, N. R. 53 38 7·2

Rutland 53 30 10·0

Suffolk 53 32 6·3

Bucks 52 33 6·4

Lincoln 52 31 14·2

Stafford 51 31 24·2

Norfolk 51 34 5·7

Cumberland 51 35 4·8

Gloucester 51 37 11·4

Salop 50 37 7·2

Oxford 50 32 6·1

Hertford 49 29 9·6

Kent 48 35 14·4

Somerset 48 33 7·8

Derby 47 35 14·7

Northampton 47 29 10·9

Warwick 47 31 19·4

Hunts 46 28 10·3

Cambridge 45 28 14·2

Surrey 45 33 19·7

Bedford 44 26 13·0

Northumbd. 44 29 12·2

Westmoreld. 43 35 2·5

York, E. R. 43 34 14·6

Durham 43 28 27·7

York, W. R. 43 27 18·2

Chester 43 34 18·5

Berks 42 28 10·2

Middlesex 42 35 16·0

Leicester 40 29 9·5

Monmouth 38 26 36·9

Nottingham 36 28 10·8

Worcester 33 20 10·4

Lancaster 32 26 24·7

We here find that in the 14 counties where proportionate mortality has been the least, the 184 deaths in 10,000 persons are made up by the 297 births; hence 113, or more than 1 per cent., is added by new births to the existing population. In the 14 intermediate counties where the deaths on every 10,000 persons increase to 208, there the deaths are again made up by 302 births, and 94, or close upon 1 per cent., are again added to the population. In the 14 counties where the increase of the population is the greatest, the deaths in every 10,000 persons are increased to 259, but here also we find that the births are again sufficient to make up for the deaths; they are 348, and increase the population by 89, or less than 1 per cent.

Hence, if the number of births in each 10,000 persons of the 14 counties where the mortality has been the greatest had taken place amongst every 10,000 persons of the counties where the mortality has been the least, then the increase of population in these latter by births, instead of being 113, would have been 164.[27]

I must again observe that the registration of births in the most populous town districts, where the mortality is greatest, is the least perfect. The excess of births over deaths may really be taken to be greater than shown in the returns from the districts where the mortality is the greatest.

The estimated increase of population in England in the year 1840, as compared with 1839, is 190,460. In the same period it appears that the births exceeded the deaths by 143,178. The difference between these two amounts, or 47,282, may be considered as the extent of emigration to England, together with the cases of births not registered. To whatever extent emigration takes place from England, there must of course have been a proportionate immigration from other places to make up the increase of population beyond the apparent increase from births.

It is observed in some of the worst conditioned of the town districts that the positive numbers of the natives of the aboriginal stock continually diminishes, and that the vacancy as well as the increase is made up by immigration from the healthier district. In a late enumeration of the settled inhabitants of the labouring classes in the lower parts of Westminster, it appeared that not more than one-third of them were natives of London. If inquiry had been made as to whether their parents were natives, it would probably have been found that still fewer had inhabited the district for more than one generation.

Simple enumerations of the numbers of a population are of themselves but imperfect means for judging of its progression in strength. That is best shown in the increased proportions of the adults, who are of the age and strength and skill for productive industry, in the extended period during which each adult labourer occupies his post.

M. Mallet bears testimony that the experience of Geneva is confirmatory of the important rule, that the strength of a people does not depend on the absolute number of its population, but on the relative number of those who are of the age and strength for labour. It is proved that the real and productive value of the population has there increased in a much greater proportion than the increase in the absolute number of the population. The absolute number of the population has only doubled, in the instance of Geneva, during three centuries; but the value of the population has more than doubled upon the purely numerical increase of the population. In other words, a population of 27,000, in which the probability of life is 40 years for each individual, is more than twice as strong for the purposes of production as a population of 27,000 in which the probability or value of life is only 20 years for each individual.

The important general fact of the proportion of adult physical strength to the increased duration of life, or improved sanitary condition of the individuals, is verified by the examinations of the individuals of different classes. M. Villermé states that, the difference of strength between classes such as those in which we have seen that the value of life differs, is well known to the officers engaged in recruiting the army, but no one had collected the facts to determine the precise difference. The time allowed to M. Villermé only enabled him to do so at Amiens. The result was, that the men of from 20 to 21 years of age were found the more frequently unfit for the trade of arms from their stature, constitution, and health, as they belonged to the poorer classes of the manufacturing labourers. In order to obtain 100 men fit for military service, it was necessary to have as many as 343 men of the poorer classes; whilst 193 conscripts sufficed of the classes in better circumstances. Analogous facts were observed in the greater part of the towns in France in which he conducted his official investigations.[28]

In the evidence of recruiting officers, collected under the Factory Commission of Inquiry, it was shown that fewer recruits of the proper strength and stature for military service are obtainable now than heretofore from Manchester. I have been informed that of those labourers now employed in the most important manufactories, whether natives or migrants to that town, the sons who are employed at the same work are generally inferior in stature to their parents. Sir James M’Grigor, the Director-general of the Army Medical Board, stated to me the fact, that “A corps levied from the agricultural districts in Wales, or the northern counties of England, will last longer than one recruited from the manufacturing towns from Birmingham, Manchester, or near the metropolis.” Indeed, so great and permanent is the deterioration, that out of 613 men enlisted, almost all of whom came from Birmingham and five other neighbouring towns, only 238 were approved for service.

The chances of life of the labouring classes of Spitalfields are amongst the lowest that I have met with, and there it is observed of weavers, though not originally a large race, that they have become still more diminutive under the noxious influences to which they are subject. Dr. Mitchell, in his report on the condition of the hand-loom weavers, adduces evidence on this point. One witness well acquainted with the class states, “They are decayed in their bodies; the whole race of them is rapidly descending to the size of Liliputians. You could not raise a grenadier company amongst them all. The old men have better complexions than the young.” Another witness who says there were once men as well made in the weaver trade as any other, “recollects the Bethnal Green and Spitalfields regiment of volunteers during the war as good-looking bodies of men, but doubts if such could be raised now.” Mr. Duce concurs in the fact of the deterioration of their size and appearance within the last 30 years, and attributes it to bad air, bad lodging, bad food, “which causes the children to grow up an enfeebled and diminutive race of men.” (_Vide_ Evidence of the Medical Officers of the District, _ante_.)

This depressing effect of adverse sanitary circumstances on the labouring strength of the population, and on its duration, is to be viewed with the greatest concern, as it is a depressing effect on that which most distinguishes the British people, and which it were a truism to say constitutes the chief strength of the nation—the bodily strength of the individuals of the labouring class. The greater portion of the wealth of the nation is derived from the labour obtained by the application of this strength, and it is only those who have had practically the means of comparing it with that of the population of other countries who are aware how far the labouring population of this country is naturally distinguished above others. There is much practical evidence to show that this is not a mere illusion of national vanity, and in proof of this I might adduce the testimony of some of the most eminent employers of large numbers of labourers, whose conclusions are founded on experience in directing the work of labourers from the chief countries in Europe, _e. g._, Mr. William Lindley, the civil engineer, engaged in the superintendence of the formation of the new railway between Hamburgh and Berlin, found it expedient to import as the foremost labourers for the execution of that work a number of the class of English labourers called navigators. These were recently employed in pile-driving at wages of 5_s._ per diem, or more than double the amount of wages paid to the German labourers. The German directors were surprised, and remonstrated at the enormously high wages paid to the English labourers; when the engineer directed their attention to the quantity of work performed within a given time, and showed that the wages produced more than amongst the native labourers. English labourers of the same class have been imported to take the foremost labour in the execution of the railways in progress from Havre to Paris, their work at very high wages being found cheaper than the work even of the Norman labourers. Skill and personal strength are combined in an unusually high degree in this class of workmen, but the most eminent employers of labour agree that it is strength of body, combined with strength of will, that gives steadiness and value to the artisan and common English labourer.

Nor is such experience confined to one branch of industry. In the heaviest works of the manufactories on the continent the strength and energy of the English artisan puts him in advance of all others.

_Mr. J. Thomson_, of Clitheroe, in treating of a question affecting the branch of industry, cotton-printing, in England, observes:—

“This limited production, in proportion to the hands employed,” in
France, “has a deeper source than in styles which may be varied, and
simplified, and changed at pleasure. It is to be found in the
character and habits of the people, which cannot be changed or moulded
at the will of a task-master; nor can an English day’s work be had in
France for an English day’s wages. In 1814, I saw France before she
had time to profit by the industrial skill and improvements of
England; again in 1817, and in 1824, when I examined with anxious
care, during a prolonged stay, the grounds of the prevailing
apprehension, that our manufacturing greatness was declining, and that
the cheap labour of France would more than compensate her many
disadvantages. I returned home with the conviction, since, and now
again confirmed, that the labour of Alsace, the best and cheapest in
France, is dearer than the labour of Lancashire. I would not aver that
an English workman would perform twice the work of a workman of the
same class in France, but of this I feel assured, from frequent
personal observation of their habits, and from long and confidential
intercourse with their intelligent and enlightened manufacturers, that
the advantage is _more than twofold_ on the side of England, and that
the true result is not to be obtained by comparisons between
individuals, or even classes of workmen, but in the comparative
aggregate industry of large establishments, or a whole population.

“Of this difference the intelligent witnesses, who gave evidence in
1835, before the French Commission of Inquiry into their prohibitory
system, were fully aware, and with some allowances for that natural,
excusable, and perhaps commendable nationality on such a subject, they
did justice to the superior persevering energy of the English workman,
whose enduring, untiring, savage industry, surpasses that of every
other manufacturing country I have visited, Belgium, Germany, and
Switzerland not excepted.”

The noxious agencies not only impair the strength of the labouring community, but, as will be further shown, they tend also to shorten the period of its exercise. This effect will be more apparent when considering merely the pecuniary burdens of the excess of orphanage and premature widowhood, apart from the loss of protection and the misery which it causes. I shall here only observe, as to the depressing effects assumed from the admitted tendencies of an increase of population, that the fact is, that hitherto, in England, wages, or the means of obtaining the necessaries of life for the whole mass of the labouring community, have advanced, and the comforts within the reach of the labouring classes have increased with the late increase of population. This may be verified by reference to various evidence, and amongst others to that contained in Sir F. Eden’s examinations of the wages and modes of subsistence of the agricultural labourers in his day, and we have evidence of this advance even in many of the manufacturing districts now in a state of severe depression. For example, an eminent manufacturer in Lancashire, stated to me in November ultimo—“That the same yarn which cost my father 12_d._ per lb. to make in 1792, all by machinery, now costs only 2_d._ per lb.; paying _then_ only 4_s._ 4_d._ per hand wages weekly, _now_ 8_s._ 8_d._ or more; yet those wages amounted _then_ to 5½_d._ per lb., and notwithstanding the higher wages, _now_, to only 1_d._ per lb.”

The prices of provisions were, during the first period, as high as now, and the cost of clothing 30 or 40 per cent. higher.

V.—PECUNIARY BURDENS CREATED BY THE NEGLECT OF SANITARY MEASURES.

The more closely the subject of the evils affecting the sanitary condition of the labouring population is investigated the more widely do their effects appear to be ramified. The pecuniary cost of noxious agencies is measured by data within the province of the actuary, by the charges attendant on the reduced duration of life, and the reduction of the periods of working ability or production by sickness; the cost would include also much of the public charge of attendant vice and crime which come within the province of the police, as well as the destitution which comes within the province of the administrators of relief. Of the pecuniary effects, including the cost of maintenance during the preventible sickness, any estimate approximating to exactness could only be obtained by very great labour, which does not appear to be necessary.

To whatever extent the probable duration of the life of the working-man is diminished by noxious agencies, I repeat a truism in stating that to some extent so much productive power is lost; and in the case of destitute widowhood and orphanage, burdens are created and cast either on the industrious survivors belonging to the family, or on the contributors to the poor’s rates during the whole of the period of the failure of such ability. With the view to judge of the extent to which such burdens are at present cast upon the poor’s rates, I have endeavoured to ascertain the average age at which death befell the heads of those families of children who with the mothers have been relieved on the ground of destitution, in eight of the unions where the average age of the mortality prevalent amongst the several classes of the community has been ascertained.

The workmen who belong to sick-clubs and benefit-societies generally fix the period of their own superannuation allowances at from 60 to 65 years of age. I see no reason to doubt that by the removal of noxious agencies not essential to their trades; by sanitary measures affecting their dwellings, combined with improvements in their own habits, the period of ability for productive labour might be extended to the whole of the labouring class.

The actual duration of the ability for labour will vary with the nature of the work, though there can be little doubt that the variations under proper precautions would be much less than those which now take place. From the information received in respect to the employment of tailors in large numbers, it is evident that the average period of the working ability of that class might be extended at least ten years by improvements as to the places of work alone. The experience which might serve to indicate the extent of practicable improvement is at present narrow and scattered. The chief English insurance tables, such as the Northampton and Carlisle tables, are made up apparently from the experience of a population, subject probably to a greater or less extent to the noxious influences which are shown to be removable. By the Carlisle table, however, the probability of life to every person who has attained the age of twenty-one—the age for marriage—would be 40 years, or 40·75. By the Swedish tables, which are frequently applied to the insurance of the labouring classes, it would be 38·0. The observations that have been made on the subject, show that marriage improves rather than diminishes the probability of life. Where the duration of life is reduced by the nature of the employment below the usual average, by so much the widowhood may be considered as increased, as also the orphanage of their children. As labouring men generally marry early in life, their wives have ceased to bear children before they have reached fifty, so that the great mass of orphanage may be assigned to the consequence of premature death. The following table shows the average ages at which the deaths occurred of the fathers of the widows’ orphan children who are in receipt of relief in the following unions. The average includes the cases of all who died at whatever ages, whether above or below sixty:—

┌─────────────────────┬────────┬───────┬────────┬───────┬───────┬───────┐ │ Unions. │ Number │ │ Number │ │ │ │ │ │ of │ │ of │ │ │ │ │ │Husbands│ │Husbands│ │ │ │ │ │ dying │Average│ dying │Average│ │ │ │ │ under │Age at │ above │Age at │ Total │Average│ │ │ 60. │Death. │ 60. │Death. │Deaths.│ Age. │ ├─────────────────────┼────────┼───────┼────────┼───────┼───────┼───────┤ │Manchester │ 718│ 42│ 432│ 69│ 1150│ 52│ │Whitechapel │ 351│ 44│ 239│ 69│ 590│ 54│ │Bethnal Green │ 250│ 44│ 195│ 69│ 445│ 55│ │Strand │ 157│ 42│ 63│ 66│ 220│ 49│ │Oakham & Uppingham │ 136│ 45│ 118│ 71│ 257│ 57│ │Alston-with-Garrigill│ 69│ 45│ 20│ 66│ 89│ 50│ │Bath │ 66│ 38│ 1│ 60│ 67│ 39│ └─────────────────────┴────────┴───────┴────────┴───────┴───────┴───────┘

This premature widowhood and orphanage is the source of the most painful descriptions of pauperism—the most difficult to deal with; it is the source of a constant influx of the independent into the pauperised and permanently dependent classes. The widow, where there are children, generally remains a permanent charge; re-marriages amongst those who have children are very rare; in some unions they do not exceed one case in twenty or thirty. By the time the children are fit for labour and cease to require the parents’ attention, the mothers frequently become unfit for earning their own livelihood, or habituated to dependence, and without care to emerge from it. Even where the children are by good training and education fitted for productive industry, when they marry, the early familiarity with the parochial relief makes them improvident, and they fall back upon the poor’s rates on the lying-in of their wives, on their sickness, and for aid on every emergency. In every district the poor’s rolls form the pedigrees of generations of families thus pauperized. The total number of orphan children on account of whose destitution relief was given from the poor’s rates in the year ended Lady-day, 1840, was 112,000.

The numbers of widows chargeable to the poor’s rates was in those unions at that period 43,000. The following abstract of the returns from the eight unions selected exhibit the proportions who become chargeable at different periods of the head of the family.

_Premature Deaths: Age of Widowhood in various Unions._

┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐
│ Ages. │Manchester Union.║ Whitechapel ║ Bethnal Green. │
│ │ ║ Union. ║ │
├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤
│ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │
│ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │
│ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│
│ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 20–25 │ 11│ 20║ 7│ 12║ 2│ 3│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 25–30 │ 56│ 126║ 17│ 40║ 9│ 19│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 30–35 │ 108│ 317║ 31│ 85║ 25│ 89│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 35–40 │ 108│ 333║ 42│ 114║ 40│ 137│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 40–45 │ 126│ 361║ 63│ 201║ 40│ 153│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 45–50 │ 112│ 302║ 61│ 178║ 44│ 105│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 50–55 │ 100│ 183║ 78│ 137║ 45│ 107│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 55–60 │ 97│ 138║ 51│ 37║ 45│ 54│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 60–65 │ 147│ 148║ 87│ 46║ 53│ 35│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 65–70 │ 96│ 60║ 48│ 18║ 52│ 17│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 70–75 │ 87│ 55║ 54│ 8║ 57│ 7│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 75–80 │ 60│ 22║ 25│ 4║ 24│ 8│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 80–85 │ 35│ 4║ 17│ 2║ 7│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 85–90 │ 5│ ║ 7│ 3║ 2│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 90–95 │ 1│ ║ 2│ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 100–105 │ 1│ ║ │ ║ │ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ Totals │ 1150│ 2069║ 590│ 885║ 445│ 734│
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ previous │ 199│ ║ 80│ ║ │ │
│ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
└───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘

┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────╥─────────────────┐
│ Ages. │ Strand Union. ║ Oakham & ║ Alston with │
│ │ ║Uppingham Unions.║ Garrigill. │
├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤
│ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │
│ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │
│ │ who │Children║ who │Children║ who │Children│
│ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 20–25 │ 1│ 4║ │ ║ 1│ 2│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 25–30 │ 11│ 19║ 12│ 25║ 5│ 12│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 30–35 │ 23│ 70║ 8│ 36║ 4│ 16│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 35–40 │ 20│ 69║ 19│ 71║ 6│ 24│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 40–45 │ 35│ 81║ 24│ 68║ 12│ 58│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 45–50 │ 23│ 58║ 19│ 50║ 18│ 84│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 50–55 │ 24│ 34║ 30│ 60║ 9│ 30│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 55–60 │ 20│ 17║ 24│ 36║ 14│ 11│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 60–65 │ 25│ 17║ 26│ 15║ 13│ 4│
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 65–70 │ 15│ 13║ 26│ 13║ 1│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 70–75 │ 13│ ║ 32│ 10║ 4│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 75–80 │ 5│ 2║ 22│ 4║ 1│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 80–85 │ 5│ ║ 11│ 6║ 1│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 85–90 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 90–95 │ │ ║ 1│ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ 100–105 │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ Totals │ 220│ 384║ 254│ 394║ 89│ 241│
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│No. │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ receiving│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ Relief │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ previous │ 37│ ║ 11│ ║ 27│ │
│ to │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ husband’s│ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
│ death │ │ ║ │ ║ │ │
└───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘

┌───────────┬─────────────────╥─────────────────┐
│ Ages. │ Bath Union. ║ Total. │
│ │ ║ │
├───────────┼────────┬────────╫────────┬────────┤
│ │ No. of │ No. of ║ No. of │ No. of │
│ │Husbands│ Orphan ║Husbands│ Orphan │
│ │ who │Children║ who │Children│
│ │ Died. │ ║ Died. │ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 20–25 │ │ ║ 22│ 41│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 25–30 │ 9│ 28║ 119│ 269│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 30–35 │ 13│ 52║ 212│ 665│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 35–40 │ 12│ 52║ 247│ 800│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 40–45 │ 18│ 84║ 318│ 1006│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 45–50 │ 9│ 37║ 286│ 814│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 50–55 │ 4│ 15║ 290│ 566│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 55–60 │ 1│ 6║ 252│ 299│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 60–65 │ 1│ 4║ 352│ 269│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 65–70 │ │ ║ 238│ 121│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 70–75 │ │ ║ 247│ 80│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 75–80 │ │ ║ 137│ 40│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 80–85 │ │ ║ 76│ 12│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 85–90 │ │ ║ 14│ 3│
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 90–95 │ │ ║ 4│ │
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 95–100 │ │ ║ │ │
│ │ │ ║ │ │
│ 100–105 │ │ ║ 1│ │
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│ Totals │ 67│ 278║ 2815│ 4985│
├───────────┼────────┼────────╫────────┼────────┤
│No. │ │ ║ │ │
│ receiving│ │ ║ │ │
│ Relief │ │ ║ │ │
│ previous │ │ ║ │ │
│ to │ │ ║ │ │
│ husband’s│ │ ║ │ │
│ death │ │ ║ │ │
└───────────┴────────┴────────╨────────┴────────┘

Total Deaths below 60 years of age ... 1746

Of the whole number it appears that upwards of 1764 became chargeable by premature deaths. If the same rule obtains in the other unions, which could only be ascertained by a very long and expensive inquiry, then nearly 27,000 cases of premature widowhood, and more than 100,000 cases of orphanage may be ascribed to removable causes. The chief effects or the chief of the diseases which appear as consequents to the circumstances under which the labouring population of the several districts have been described as living, and under which the fathers of the orphan children above enumerated have died, are set forth in the following table:—

Table of the Chief Causes of Death producing Widowhood and Orphanage in
the under-mentioned Unions and Parishes.

┌──────────────┬──────────┬───────────┬───────┬───────┬─────────┐ │ │ │ │Bethnal│ │ Oakham │ │DISEASES, &c. │Manchester│Whitechapel│ Green │Strand │ and │ │ │ Union. │ Union. │Parish.│Union. │Uppingham│ │ │ │ │ │ │ Unions. │ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ No of │ │ │ Deaths. │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Deaths. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │Respiratory │ 500│ 212│ 147│ 95│ 69│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Endemic and │ 146│ 65│ 73│ 28│ 34│ │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Digestive │ 60│ 16│ 10│ 10│ 14│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nervous │ 74│ 41│ 38│ 17│ 25│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Violent Deaths│ 94│ 44│ 20│ 16│ 23│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Old Age │ 84│ 104│ 46│ 13│ 47│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Other │ 129│ 68│ 104│ 32│ 36│ │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Undescribed │ 63│ 40│ 7│ 9│ 6│ ├──────────────┼──────────┼───────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┤ │ Total │ 1150│ 590│ 445│ 220│ 254│ └──────────────┴──────────┴───────────┴───────┴───────┴─────────┘

┌──────────────┬─────────┬───────┬─────────────────────────┐ │ │ Alston │ │ │ │DISEASES, &c. │ with │ Bath │ Total. │ │ │Garrigill│Union. │ │ │ │ Parish. │ │ │ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┬────────┬────────┤ │ │ No of │ No of │ No of │Average │ No. of │ │ │ Deaths. │Deaths.│Deaths.│ Age of │Orphans.│ │ │ │ │ │Decease.│ │ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ │Respiratory │ 47│ 40│ 1110│ 51│ 2218│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Epidemic, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Endemic and │ 9│ 4│ 359│ 46│ 862│ │ Contagious │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Digestive │ 5│ 3│ 118│ 54│ 180│ │ Organs │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nervous │ 3│ 5│ 203│ 55│ 296│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Violent Deaths│ 13│ 5│ 215│ 46│ 508│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Old Age │ 5│ │ 299│ 74│ 56│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Other │ 7│ 8│ 384│ 54│ 694│ │ Diseases[29]│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Undescribed │ │ 2│ 127│ 47│ 171│ ├──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼────────┼────────┤ │ Total │ 89│ 67│ 2815│ 53│ 4985│ └──────────────┴─────────┴───────┴───────┴────────┴────────┘

As an example of the mode in which the causes of premature deaths fall, and of the burdens they entail in many districts, I submit a return of the whole of the cases of widowhood on the pauper rolls of the parish of Alston and Garrigill, Cumberland, the parish in which are situate the lodging-houses described in the evidence collected by _Dr. Mitchell_.

ALSTON WITH GARRIGILL PARISH.

Number of Widows, and Children dependent upon them, in receipt of
Relief in the above Parish; Age of Husband at Death; and the alleged
Cause of Death.

┌───────┬─────────┬───────────────┬──────┬─────────┬──────────────────┐ │Initals│Number of│ Occupation of │Age at│ Years’ │Assigned Cause of │ │ of │Children │ deceased │Death.│ loss by │ Death. │ │Widows.│dependent│ Husband. │ │premature│ │ │ │ at the │ │ │ Death. │ │ │ │ time of │ │ │ │ │ │ │Husband’s│ │ │ │ │ │ │ Death. │ │ │ │ │ ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ │ R. W. │ │Miner │ 83 │ │Decay of nature. │ │ M. S. │ │Tailor │ 78 │ │Natural decay. │ │ M. B. │ │Miner │ 73 │ │Not stated. │ │ M. R. │ │Miner │ 72 │ │Decay of nature. │ │ S. M. │ │Miner │ 72 │ │Decay of nature. │ │ M. T. │ │Mason │ 72 │ │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from age. │ │ A. V. │ │Miner │ 67 │ │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ mines. │ │ M. L. │ │Miner │ 64 │ │Influenza. │ │ A. M. │ │Miner │ 63 │ │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ │ M. S. │ │Miner │ 63 │ │Natural decline. │ │ J. P. │ │Labourer │ 62 │ │Consumption. │ │ H. T. │ 2 │Mason │ 62 │ │Asthma. │ │ S. H. │ 2 │Miner │ 60 │ │Rupture of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ │ J. R. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ │ H. L. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma. │ │ J. P. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Consumption. │ │ M. T. │ 2 │Miner │ 60 │ │Bursting │ │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ │ A. C. │ │Joiner │ 60 │ │Jaundice. │ │ E. K. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ │ E. H. │ │Miner │ 60 │ │Cholera. │ │ D. J. │ │Glazier │ 59 │ 1 │Affection of the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ liver. │ │ N. D. │ 4 │Butcher │ 59 │ 1 │Apoplexy. │ │ M. T. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Inflammation of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lungs. │ │ H. A. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ │ J. B. │ │Miner │ 59 │ 1 │Asthma │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ditto. │ │ E. T. │ │Labourer │ 58 │ 2 │Accident by a │ │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-waggon. │ │ M. P. │ │Miner │ 58 │ 2 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ │ H. T. │ │Miner │ 57 │ 3 │Consumption │ │ │ │ │ │ │ accelerated by │ │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ M. P. │ 1 │Turner │ 57 │ 3 │Consumption. │ │ H. S. │ 3 │Miner │ 57 │ 3 │Influenza, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ terminating in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ dropsy. │ │ M. J. │ 3 │Blacksmith │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma. │ │ S. M. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Inflammation of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lungs from cold.│ │ R. W. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ M. R. │ │Miner │ 55 │ 5 │Asthma from │ │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ mines │ │ J. W. │ 2 │Miner │ 51 │ 6 │Pleurisy. │ │ A. F. │ │Miner │ 54 │ 6 │Asthma and rupture│ │ │ │ │ │ │ of blood-vessel.│ │ J. L. │ 2 │Miner │ 53 │ 7 │Chronic disease of│ │ │ │ │ │ │ rheumatism. │ │ N. H. │ 2 │Miner │ 53 │ 7 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ │ A. S. │ │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ bursting │ │ │ │ │ │ │ blood-vessel. │ │ M. W. │ 6 │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ │ E. W. │ 5 │Miner │ 52 │ 8 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines, which│ │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ consumption. │ │ J. S. │ 6 │Miner │ 51 │ 9 │Paralysis. │ │ H. P. │ 9 │Quarryman │ 49 │ 11 │Asthma by working │ │ │ │ │ │ │ in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ H. P. │ 5 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Typhus fever. │ │ E. H. │ 6 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Killed in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ M. A. │ 7 │Miner │ 48 │ 12 │Consumption by bad│ │ │ │ │ │ │ air in the pit. │ │ J. C. │ 8 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Asthma produced by│ │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ S. E. │ 6 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Consumption │ │ │ │ │ │ │ produced from a │ │ │ │ │ │ │ continuance of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ influenza. │ │ M. T. │ 8 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Consumption and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma. │ │ E. B. │ 3 │Miner │ 47 │ 13 │Affection of the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ head, caused │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from an accident│ │ │ │ │ │ │ received in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ mine. │ │ D. R. │ │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ │ E. B. │ 5 │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Rheumatic fever, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ which produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ inflammation of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the brain. │ │ M. S. │ 5 │Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Killed in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mine. │ │ M. R. │ 1 │Joiner │ 46 │ 14 │Dropsy. │ │ M. F. │ 7 │Coal Miner │ 46 │ 14 │Explosion of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ fire-damp in a │ │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-mine. │ │ L. T. │ 3 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Asthma, which │ │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated with │ │ │ │ │ │ │ dropsy. │ │ H. P. │ 3 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Scarlet fever. │ │ H. Y. │ 5 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Consumption, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ accelerated by │ │ │ │ │ │ │ working in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ M. S. │ 2 │Miner │ 45 │ 15 │Inflammation of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ bowels. │ │ M. S. │ 5 │Joiner │ 45 │ 15 │Consumption. │ │ A. S. │ 6 │Miner │ 44 │ 16 │Dropsy. │ │ A. B. │ 6 │Miner │ 44 │ 16 │Asthma from │ │ │ │ │ │ │ working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ lead-mines. │ │ F. C. │ 5 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ │ M. D. │ 4 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Consumption │ │ │ │ │ │ │ produced from │ │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma, caused │ │ │ │ │ │ │ by working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the mines. │ │ H. M. │ 7 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Asthma, which │ │ │ │ │ │ │ terminated in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ consumption. │ │ A. P. │ 7 │Superintendent.│ 43 │ 17 │A fall from the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ “horse” in the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ engine-shaft. │ │ P. W. │ 4 │Miner │ 43 │ 17 │Pleurisy. │ │ E. W. │ 8 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Consumption and │ │ │ │ │ │ │ asthma produced │ │ │ │ │ │ │ from working in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ the lead-mines. │ │ J. H. │ 4 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Consumption. │ │ J. J. │ 5 │Miner │ 42 │ 18 │Pleurisy. │ │ A. J. │ 2 │Miller │ 42 │ 18 │Found drowned. │ │ M. R. │ │Shoemaker │ 40 │ 20 │Injury from fall │ │ │ │ │ │ │ of a cart. │ │ E. R. │ 7 │Joiner │ 38 │ 22 │Affection of the │ │ │ │ │ │ │ liver. │ │ J. B. │ 5 │Miner │ 38 │ 22 │Consumption. │ │ A. P. │ 7 │Miner │ 37 │ 21 │Asthma. │ │ E. W. │ 3 │Miner │ 36 │ 24 │Accident in mine, │ │ │ │ │ │ │ which terminated│ │ │ │ │ │ │ in consumption. │ │ E. H. │ 3 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Killed in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-pit. │ │ M. L. │ 2 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Water of the head.│ │ A. S. │ 4 │Miner │ 35 │ 25 │Income on leg. │ │ S. H. │ 7 │Miner │ 34 │ 26 │Accident in │ │ │ │ │ │ │ coal-mine. │ │ J. H. │ 4 │Cordwainer │ 30 │ 30 │Typhus fever. │ │ S. H. │ 3 │Cartman │ 30 │ 30 │Accidental. │ │ E. A. │ 2 │Miner │ 30 │ 30 │Consumption. │ │ M. J. │ 3 │Teacher │ 29 │ 31 │Consumption. │ │ M. R. │ 3 │Miner │ 29 │ 31 │Affection of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ urinary organs. │ │ A. W. │ 2 │Miner │ 28 │ 32 │Cholera. │ │ M. W. │ 3 │Miner │ 27 │ 33 │Inflammation of │ │ │ │ │ │ │ bowels. │ │ A. H. │ 1 │Pitman │ 25 │ 35 │Accident at │ │ │ │ │ │ │ colliery. │ │ J. M. │ 2 │Miner │ 21 │ 39 │Small-pox. │ ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ │ 89 │ 242 │ │ 4418 │ │ │ ├───────┼─────────┼───────────────┼──────┼─────────┼──────────────────┤ │ │ │Average age at │ 45 │ │Total No. of │ │ │ │death of each │ │ │ orphans by death│ │ │ │below 60 years │ │ │ caused below 60 │ │ │ │of age. │ │ │ years of age. } │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 236 │ └───────┴─────────┴───────────────┴──────┴─────────┴──────────────────┘

A complete analysis of the whole of the causes contributory to the premature mortality displayed in this group of cases would be a work of much labour, and would in nowise affect the soundness of the conclusions derivable from other sources, that a large amount, and probably the great mass of it, is preventible.

It would, for instance, be difficult to decide the precise term of years of life cut short by the effects of the lodging-houses, in producing or aggravating other tendencies to consumption; but the information possessed by persons who have made themselves acquainted with the effects of impure air enables them to pronounce with certainty that the habitual exposure of a body of men to such noxious influences must be attended by a diminution of several years of the definite standard of life. Of the 31 deaths of miners below 60 years of age, from diseases of the respiratory organs, enumerated in the above return, a part of the causes may be attributable to their occupation, a part to the external circumstances of residence and connected habits. Now we have examples of the separate advantages attendant on the removal of both causes of disease I adduce the following information, obtained through Sir John Walsham, with relation to the effects of an improvement in the external circumstances of the workmen as to residences.

_Captain Harland_, the chairman of the Reeth union, York (North Riding), in a communication to Sir John Walsham, states, that he has been anxious to ascertain as correctly as possible, first, the average duration of life among the mining population of the respective parishes in that district, and how far it appeared to be affected by their general habits as well as by the state of their domiciles; and he gives the following results:—

“By a careful examination of the parish registers, I find that in the
last seven years there have died in—

The parish of Marrick 15 miners; average age, 47⅗ years.

The parish of Arkendale 70 miners; average age, 45‑19/35 years.

The chapelry of Muker, in the 39 miners; average age, 45‑29/39 years.
parish of Grinton

The remainder of the parish of 40 miners; average age, 54‑39/40 years.
Grinton, _viz._ Grinton Reeth
and Meblecks

Total, 164; general average, 48‑13/164 years.

“The prevailing diseases throughout the whole district are bronchial
affections and rheumatism, which may generally be attributed to
exposure to cold and rain after leaving the close, warm atmosphere of
the mine.

“The miners’ dwellings in Marrick are small thatched cottages,
situated very near their work; they are consequently less exposed to
wet and cold on their way home, but (although dry and kept tolerably
clean) from the want of room and proper ventilation, the inmates are
more liable to contagious disorders than the more comfortably lodged
miners in the parish of Grinton. In Arkendale the houses are of a
somewhat better description, but the drainage is imperfect; the habits
of the people filthy and intemperate; cutaneous disorders very common;
and they are frequently the victims of typhus and other malignant
fevers.

“In the parish of Grinton the houses are of a decidedly superior
description. Forty years ago they were mostly thatched with ling or
heath; a thatched house is now rarely seen. The miners are all
comfortably lodged, generally well clothed, clean, and orderly in
their habits; and I have no doubt to these causes may be attributed
the great difference between the mortality in this parish and that of
Arkendale in the same period.

“In Muker the mortality, in proportion to its population, has been
nearly the same as in Arkendale; but many of the miners work
occasionally in coal-mines, are more exposed to storms, by reason of
their work being at a greater distance from their dwellings; and those
dwellings are also of a description inferior to those of the other
townships in the parish of Grinton. From these circumstances I infer
that the average duration of a lead-miner’s life, and his greater
freedom from disease, have increased in proportion to the increased
airiness and increased convenience of his dwelling.”

I have already referred to the example cited by Dr. Barham of the health of the miners in one mine, the Dolcoath mine, in the parish of Camborne, in Cornwall, where great attention is paid to obviate agencies injurious to the miners. Care is there taken in respect to ventilation in the mines. “The ventilation in Dolcoath is particularly good, and the men are healthier than in most other mines; there are more old miners.” Care is taken for the prevention of accidents. “Our ladders,” says one of the witnesses examined by Dr. Barham, “are about two fathoms and a half in length, generally with staves one foot apart. We use oak staves; old ship oak we find the best. We formerly used the hafts of the picks and other tools, but found these unsafe, the wood being sleepy and flawed, and sometimes breaking off in a moment, without having shown any outward sign of unsoundness. Iron staves, besides being at times very slippery, are apt to be corroded, so as to cut the hand. We have had no accidents on our footways for a long time.” They have introduced the safety fuse, and the witness says:—“Very few accidents now arise from explosions;” “they used to happen frequently formerly.” Care is taken of the miners on quitting the mines; hence, instead of issuing on the bleak hill side, and receiving beer in a shed, to prevent chill and exhaustion, they issue from their underground labour into a warm room, where well-dried clothes are ready for them, and warm water, and even baths are supplied from the steam furnace, and, in the instance of this mine, a provision of hot beef-soup instead of beer is ready for them in another room. The honour of having made this change is stated to be due to the Right Hon. Lady Basset, on the suggestion of Dr. Carlyon. “Hence in this mine,” says Dr. Barham, “we may fairly attribute to the combination of beneficial arrangements just noticed that in Dolcoath, where 451 individuals are employed underground, only two have died within the last three years of miners’ consumption, a statement which could not, I believe, be made with truth nor be nearly approached in respect of an equal number of miners during the same term in any other Cornish district.” The sick-club of the mine “is comparatively rich, having a fund of 1500_l._”

When “care” is mentioned as taken for sanitary measures, it is to be remembered that it is care only at the outset, and that when in habitual action the care required is really less, and the measures should be characterized as means for avoiding care and trouble and diminishing pecuniary loss.