Chapter III: Iron (1)

BY E. C. HARDER AND F. T. EDDINGFIELD

USES OF IRON

The uses of iron ore are so well known that their enumeration is hardly necessary. From iron ore are manufactured cast iron, wrought iron, and steel. By the addition of one or more other elements, chiefly silicon, carbon, chromium, nickel, manganese, vanadium, sulphur, and phosphorus, in quantities less than 5 per cent. and usually less than 1 per cent., various qualities, such as hardness, toughness, elasticity, durability, brittleness, density, porosity, endurance, resistance to oxidation or corrosion, malleability, and fusibility, can be controlled and given to the cast iron or steel in the desired degree.

The uses of the products of iron ore are so common that the finding of objects which do not contain some of them is difficult. Besides being used as a metal, iron enters into the manufacture of paints (especially red, yellow, and blue), chemicals of various kinds, medicines, coloring matter in glass and pottery, and in the form of specular hematite it is made into jewelry. Considerable amounts of iron ore are also consumed annually for flux in the smelting of silver, copper, lead, and other metalliferous ores.

Iron and its products are more widely used than any other metal; and the yearly production of pig iron makes up 94 to 96 per cent. of the total amount of all the metals produced in the world, and in normal times averages about 80,000,000 tons annually.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Iron ores are associated with many different classes of rocks--sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic. Where associated with sedimentary rocks the ores may be the result of direct sedimentation or may be later replacements of sedimentary beds by magmatic or meteoric iron-bearing waters. Many iron-ore deposits associated with sedimentary rocks are formed by the enrichment of original iron-bearing beds, either by solution and transportation of iron compounds or by the removal of other associated mineral constituents.

Among those important iron-ore deposits of sedimentary origin that have undergone little or no further enrichment since deposition, except perhaps directly at the surface, are the iron ores of the Clinton type of the eastern United States, the Wabana iron ores of Newfoundland, the “minette” ores of the Lorraine district in northern France, Luxemburg, and southern Germany, the oolitic siderite beds of the Cleveland district in northern England, and the hematite ores of Minas Geraes in Brazil. The most important of the sedimentary iron ores that are the result of further enrichment since deposition are those of the Lake Superior district in the United States.

Iron ores associated with igneous rock are mostly of deep-seated origin, usually having been formed by solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the rocks with which the ores are associated. These ores are of two main classes: (1) Those associated with siliceous igneous rocks; and (2) those associated with basic igneous rocks. The ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks consist either of hematite or, more commonly, magnetite. They occur in granite, syenite, and monzonite, and in gneiss derived from these by metamorphism. Many important ore deposits in different countries belong to this class, among them being the magnetite and hematite deposits of Swedish Lapland and of central Sweden, the magnetite bodies of the Adirondacks and northern New Jersey in the eastern United States, various magnetite and hematite bodies in California and elsewhere in the western United States, the mixed hematite and magnetite deposits of the south coast of Cuba, most of the iron-ore bodies of Chile, and the newly developed iron ores of Manchuria. As a class, the iron ores associated with siliceous igneous rocks rank next in importance to iron ores of sedimentary origin.

Iron-ore deposits associated with basic igneous rocks are nearly all of a distinct type known as titaniferous magnetites. These ores consist of a mixture of magnetite and ilmenite in varying proportions, and therefore carry a variable amount of titanium. Many large ore deposits of this class are found in different parts of the world, among the larger ones being certain ore bodies in Wyoming, in the Adirondack region, and elsewhere in the United States, and several deposits in Norway and in northern and southern Sweden.

An important group of iron-ore deposits has resulted from mineral replacement along the contact of sedimentary rocks with igneous intrusives. These ores usually occur in limestones not far from intrusive masses of granite, monzonite, syenite or diorite, but they may be found within the igneous rocks themselves, near the contact. They are rarely associated with the more basic igneous rocks. These ores are known as igneous contact ores, and their origin is ascribed to iron-bearing solutions that accompanied or followed the intrusion of the igneous rocks with which the ores are associated. Such ores are extremely widespread, occurring in practically every continent. Locally, extensive deposits exist, as in the Cornwall district of Pennsylvania, in the western United States and British Columbia, in Chile, and in China and Japan. Igneous contact ores have furnished only a relatively small percentage of the world’s total production of iron ore, however.

There are also widespread replacement deposits in sedimentary rocks that are not associated with igneous rocks. These are believed to be formed by ordinary meteoric waters which dissolve disseminated iron minerals from certain beds or masses of rock, and redeposit the mineral elsewhere in a more concentrated form. Such ore deposits may be roughly tabular and resemble bedded deposits, or they may be very irregular. Most deposits of this type consist of siderite which has replaced limestone, but hematite and limonite deposits formed by replacement also exist. Among the important deposits of this group are the siderite ores of Bilbao, Spain, largely altered to limonite near the surface; the siderite ore of Eisenerz, Styria; and the hematite deposits near Hartville, Wyoming. Small deposits of siderite, hematite, and limonite of this type are found in many parts of the world.

Besides the classes of iron ores already mentioned, widely distributed iron ores occur as residual products derived from the weathering of either igneous or sedimentary rocks. These ores have been formed by the concentration of iron-bearing materials originally disseminated through the rocks whose weathered products they now constitute. They are mainly in the form of limonite and occur either as large bodies of relatively pure ore or as aggregates of irregular masses of various sizes imbedded in clays. To this class belong the brown iron ores associated with clay in the Appalachian region of the United States, the limonite ores of parts of Russia, and similar ores in Korea. In this class should also be included the extensive limonite deposits derived from the weathering of serpentine which have recently been developed along the north coast of Cuba, as well as the lateritic iron-ore deposits found in many tropical countries. Limonite ores associated with clays have been smelted since early ages, owing to their accessibility and the ease with which they could be smelted by crude methods. They have, however, furnished a decidedly minor percentage of the world’s production of iron ore.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The iron ore consumed by the world has been obtained principally from the four great iron-producing countries: United States, Germany, France and Great Britain.

Other countries that yield important quantities of iron ore are, in the order of their importance: Spain, Russia, Sweden, Luxemburg, Austria-Hungary, Cuba, Newfoundland, and Algeria. The normal annual output in each one of these countries is more than one million tons. Minor amounts of iron ore are produced in many other countries.

TABLE 11.--IRON-ORE OUTPUT OF PRINCIPAL PRODUCING COUNTRIES, 1910-1917, IN GROSS TONS[12]

--------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
Country | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 |
--------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+
North America: | | | |
Canada[13] | 231,623| 187,807| 192,753|
Cuba[13] | 1,462,498| 1,163,714| 1,397,797|
Newfoundland[13] | 1,108,762| 1,171,992| 1,251,968|
United States | 57,014,906| 43,876,552| 55,150,147|
South America: | | | |
Chile | ... | 28,150| 6,546|
Venezuela[14] | ... | ... | 12,100|
Europe: | | | |
Austria-Hungary | 4,592,572| 4,779,851| 4,997,311|
Belgium | 121,024| 148,130| 164,734|
France | 14,375,984| 16,376,967| 18,858,668|
Germany |[17]28,257,579|[17]29,408,812|[17]33,180,258|
Greece | 527,040| 493,106| 424,835|
Italy | 542,578| 367,900| 572,900|
Luxemburg | ([18]) | ([18]) | ([18]) |
Norway | 100,834| 217,051| 401,665|
Portugal | 3,307| 19,233| 28,947|
Russia | ([19]) | ([19]) | ([19]) |
Spain | 8,530,310| 8,635,523| [20]8,990,743|
Sweden | 5,465,234| 6,056,868| 6,595,044|
United Kingdom | 15,226,015| 15,519,424| 13,790,391|
Asia: | | | |
China | [21]130,472| [21]109,542| [21]201,561|
Chosen (Korea) | 104,627| 96,902| 121,224|
India | 54,626| 366,212| 580,029|
Japan | 132,921| 144,001| 168,479|
Philippine Islands| 148| 216 | 347|
Africa: | | | |
Algeria | 1,048,228| 1,057,087| 1,171,252|
Morocco | 186,149| ([16]) | ([16]) |
Madagascar | ([23]) | ([23]) | 22|
Natal | 50| | |
Togoland | ([16]) | 394| ([16]) |
Tunis | 327,756| 397,638| 470,866|
Australia: | 157,821| 122,361| 113,989|
--------------------+--------------+--------------+--------------+

--------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+
Country | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 |
--------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+
North America: | | | |
Canada[13] | 274,673| 218,620| 355,457|
Cuba[13] | 1,582,431| 821,110| 827,448|
Newfoundland[13] | 1,433,858| 566,000| 775,403|
United States | 61,980,437| 41,439,761| 55,526,490|
South America: | | | |
Chile | 13,878| 62,506| 144,783|
Venezuela[14] | 57,225| 2,400| |
Europe: | | | |
Austria-Hungary | 5,233,055| 3,939,248|[15]1,218,367|
Belgium | 147,048| 81,063| 4,646|
France | 21,572,835| ([16]) | ([16]) |
Germany | 26,771,598| ([16]) | ([16]) |
Greece | 308,640| 294,573| 154,951|
Italy | 593,618| 695,124| 669,262|
Luxemburg | 7,215,514| 4,926,980| 6,040,765|
Norway | 535,869| 641,790| 706,379|
Portugal | 48,392| 6,532 | ([16]) |
Russia | 7,947,191| ([16]) | ([16]) |
Spain | 9,703,177| 6,710,357| 5,527,552|
Sweden | 7,357,845| 6,482,904| 6,774,909|
United Kingdom | 15,997,328| 14,867,582| 14,235,012|
Asia: | | | |
China |[22]416,342|[22]488,258| 537,047|
Chosen (Korea) | 139,370| 179,062| 206,510|
India | 370,845| 441,674| 390,270|
Japan | 168,897| 134,193| 133,933|
Philippine Islands| 546 | 392| ([16]) |
Africa: | | | |
Algeria | 1,327,320| 1,097,101| 805,547|
Morocco | ... | ... | ... |
Madagascar | | | |
Natal | ... | ... | ... |
Togoland | | | |
Tunis | 584,649| 244,528| 281,304|
Australia: | [24]90,712| 177,938| 370,887|
--------------------+-----------+-----------+-------------+

--------------------+----------+-----------
Country | 1916 | 1917
--------------------+----------+-----------
North America: | |
Canada[13] | 245,693| 192,210
Cuba[13] | 712,716| 553,485
Newfoundland[13] | 903,625| 788,820
United States |75,167,672| 75,288,851
South America: | |
Chile | 55,281| 4,921
Venezuela[14] | |
Europe: | |
Austria-Hungary | ([16]) | ([16])
Belgium | 29,951| 16,732
France | ([16]) | ([16])
Germany | ([16]) | ([16])
Greece | 83,647| 62,366
Italy | 927,406| 978,174
Luxemburg | 6,643,689| 4,436,682
Norway | 865,700| ([16])
Portugal | ([16]) | ([16])
Russia | ([16]) | ([16])
Spain | 5,762,733| 5,461,857
Sweden | 6,876,278| 6,119,263
United Kingdom |13,494,658| 14,845,734
Asia: | |
China | 274,078| 299,465
Chosen (Korea) | 241,412| ([16])
India | 411,758| 413,273
Japan | 156,263| ([16])
Philippine Islands| ([16]) | ([16])
Africa: | |
Algeria | 923,598| 1,048,722
Morocco | ... | ...
Madagascar | |
Natal | ... | ...
Togoland | |
Tunis | 361,593| 596,261
Australia: | 390,108|[25]328,310
--------------------+----------+-----------

[12] BURCHARD, E. F., “Iron Ore, Pig Iron and Steel”: U. S. Geol.
Survey “Mineral Resources,” 1915 and 1917, with additions and
revisions. (The above figures are, so far as possible, based on
official reports and, where these are lacking, on the technical
press.)

[13] Shipments.

[14] Exports to United States.

[15] For Hungary only.

[16] Statistics not available.

[17] Includes Luxemburg.

[18] Included in Germany.

[19] Russia produced 2,936,024 long tons of pig iron in 1910;
3,536,417 long tons in 1911, and 4,131,890 long tons in 1912.

[20] Includes 1,563 long tons of argentiferous iron ore.

[21] Exports.

[22] From Tayeh deposits only.

[23] Madagascar produced about 8 long tons of iron in 1910 and 1.5
long tons in 1911.

[24] For South Australia and Queensland.

[25] For South Australia only.

TABLE 12.--PIG IRON MANUFACTURED IN PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES IN 1850, 1890, 1900, AND 1910 TO 1916, IN GROSS TONS[26]

-------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
Country | 1850 | 1890 | 1900 | 1910 |
-------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+
United States | 563,755| 9,202,703|13,789,242|27,303,567|
Germany | 350,000| 4,584,882| 8,381,373|14,559,509|
Great Britain |2,300,000| 7,904,214| 8,959,691|10,217,022|
France | 405,653| 1,931,188| 2,669,966| 3,974,478|
Russia | 227,555| 912,561| 2,889,789| 2,992,058|
Austria-Hungary | 250,000| 910,685| 1,472,695| 2,153,788|
Belgium | 144,452| 775,385| 1,001,872| 1,822,821|
Canada | ... | 19,439| 86,090| 740,210|
Sweden | 150,000| 483,155| 518,263| 594,385|
Spain | ... | 176,598| 289,315| 367,423|
Italy | ... | 14,094| 23,569| 347,657|
Japan | ... | ... | ... | 186,794|
Other countries[27]| 10,000| 80,000| 100,000| 200,000|
+---------+----------+----------+----------+
Total |4,401,415|26,994,904|40,181,865|65,459,712|
-------------------+---------+----------+----------+----------+

-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
Country | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914[27] |
-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
United States |23,649,547|29,726,937|30,966,152|23,332,244|
Germany |15,404,648|17,586,521|19,004,022|14,162,147|
Great Britain | 9,718,638| 8,889,124|10,481,917| 9,005,898|
France | 4,309,498| 4,870,913| 5,227,378| 3,500,000|
Russia | 3,531,807| 4,133,000| 4,474,757| 4,190,000|
Austria-Hungary | 2,056,839| 2,276,141| 2,335,170| 1,500,000|
Belgium | 2,072,836| 2,307,853| 2,318,767| 1,500,000|
Canada | 824,368| 912,878| 1,015,118| 705,972|
Sweden | 624,367| 688,757| 728,103| 629,608|
Spain | 402,209| 396,872| 418,061| 400,000|
Italy | 298,144| 373,960| 420,011| 379,028|
Japan | 200,000| 200,709| 236,491| 295,428|
Other countries[27]| 250,000| 350,000| 250,000| 200,000|
+----------+----------+----------+----------+
Total |63,342,901|72,713,565|77,876,347|59,800,325|
-------------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

-------------------+----------+----------
Country | 1915[27] | 1916[28]
-------------------+----------+----------
United States |29,916,213|39,434,797
Germany |11,603,874|13,000,000
Great Britain | 8,793,659| 9,047,983
France | 4,000,000| 5,000,000
Russia | 3,638,000| 4,300,000
Austria-Hungary | 1,929,000| 2,000,000
Belgium | 500,000| 1,000,000
Canada | 825,420| 1,069,541
Sweden | 755,000| 750,000
Spain | 421,000| 440,000
Italy | 389,000| 454,923
Japan | 312,957| 379,574
Other countries[27]| 200,000| 500,000
+----------+----------
Total |63,284,123|77,000,000
-------------------+----------+----------

[26] “Metal Statistics,” 1914 to 1918, with some additions and
changes.

[27] Partly estimated.

[28] Largely estimated.

More than two-fifths of the total annual output of iron ore in the world has come from the United States, and of the American production more than 80 per cent. is generally produced in the Lake Superior district. This district is, therefore, by far the most important iron-ore district in the world, producing annually more than 30 per cent. of the world’s total of iron ore.

Germany and France have been next in importance to the United States as iron ore-producing countries, about 80 per cent. of the ore mined in these two countries being obtained from the Lorraine iron fields situated on the border. The annual output of these fields, which includes also the ores of Luxemburg, has been about 25 per cent. of the world’s production. The Lorraine district and the Lake Superior district together, therefore, produce somewhat more than one-half of the total iron ore annually mined in the world.

The iron ore produced in Great Britain is obtained mainly from the Cleveland district of northern England, this district furnishing about 40 per cent. of the British total, equivalent to about 2.6 per cent. of the world’s annual production. In comparison, the Birmingham district of Alabama and the Krivoi-Rog district of southern Russia, which are next in importance to the Lorraine and Lake Superior districts, furnish about 3.5 per cent. and 3.2 per cent., respectively, of the world’s annual production.

TABLE 13.--PRODUCTION AND MOVEMENT OF IRON ORE AND PRODUCTION OF PIG IRON, 1913[29]

Gross Tons

--------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------
|Production| | | Apparent |Production
| of | Iron ore | Iron ore |consumption| of
| iron ore | imports | exports | (in part | pig iron
| | | | stocks) |
--------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------
United Kingdom|15,997,328| 8,028,532| 21,223| 24,004,637|10,260,315
Canada | 307,634| 2,110,828| 126,124| 2,292,338| 1,015,118
Belgium | 149,450| 4,400,000| ...| 4,549,450| 2,484,690
France |19,160,407| 1,410,424|10,066,627| 10,504,264| 5,311,316
Italy | 603,116| 7,666| 20,000| 590,772| 426,755
Russia | 8,077,000| ...| 565,000| 7,512,000| 4,557,000
Austria | 3,039,324| 942,312| 106,071| 3,875,565| 1,757,864
Hungary | 2,059,000| ...| 700,000| 1,359,000| 623,000
Germany | | | | |
(including | | | | |
Luxemburg) |35,941,285|14,019,045| 2,613,158| 47,347,172|19,291,920
Spain | 9,861,668| ...| 8,907,202| 954,466| 424,774
Sweden | 7,475,571| ...| 6,440,000| 1,035,571| 730,257
United States |61,980,437| 2,594,770| ...| 64,575,207|30,966,152
Algeria | 1,349,000| ...| 1,350,000| |
Chile | 70,000| ...| 65,000| |
Cuba | 1,500,000| ...| 1,582,431| |
Newfoundland | 1,605,900| ...| 1,605,920| |
--------------+----------+----------+----------+-----------+----------

[29] Advisory Council, Dept. of Sci. and Indust. Research: “Report on
the sources and production of iron and other metalliferous ores used
in the iron and steel industry,” London, 1918, p. 12.

Table 11 shows the world’s production of iron ore from 1910 to 1917.

Table 12 shows the production of pig iron in 1850, 1890, 1900, and 1910 to 1916.

Table 13 shows the production and movement of iron ore and the production of pig iron for the year 1913.

POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL CONTROL

=United States.=--The principal iron ores of the United States are the extensive pre-Cambrian hematite deposits of the Lake Superior region; the bedded fossiliferous ores of the Clinton type of Alabama and other southern states; the magnetite deposits of New York, northern New Jersey, and southeastern Pennsylvania; the limonite ores of the eastern and southern states; and the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of the West. The United States is the largest producer of iron ore in the world, and annually yields more than two-fifths of the world’s supply. More than 80 per cent. of the output comes from the Lake Superior district and most of the remainder from Alabama, New York, and Pennsylvania. In 1917 there were mined in the United States 75,000,000 tons of iron ore, of which 63,000,000 came from the Lake Superior region, 7,000,000 from Alabama, 1,000,000 from New York, and about 500,000 each from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Tennessee, Virginia, and Wyoming; in 1918 the total production was 69,000,000 tons, of which 60,000,000 came from the Lake Superior district, 6,000,000 from Alabama, 900,000 from New York, 500,000 from Pennsylvania, and 400,000 each from Tennessee, Virginia, New Jersey and Wyoming.

The following table shows the approximate reserves of iron ore in the principal districts of the United States:

TABLE 14.--IRON-ORE RESERVES OF THE UNITED STATES IN GROSS TONS[30]

Millions
of tons.
Lake Superior District (hematite) 3,500
Birmingham District (fossil hematite) 355
Tennessee and Virginia (fossil hematite) 100
Adirondack District (non-titaniferous magnetite) 40
Adirondack District (titaniferous magnetite) 90
Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New York (magnetite) 15
Southeastern Pennsylvania (magnetite) 40
Appalachian region (magnetite) 50
Northeastern Texas (limonite) 260
Western United States (magnetite and hematite) 100
Other Districts 150
-----
Total 4,700

[30] Kemp, J. F.: “The Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm,
1910 (with minor revisions).

The greatest single iron and steel industry in the United States is that of the United States Steel Corporation, which controls the following iron- and steel-producing companies: Carnegie Steel Co., Illinois Steel Co., Indiana Steel Co., American Steel & Wire Co., American Sheet & Tinplate Co., National Tube Co., The National Tube Co. of Ohio, Minnesota Steel Co., The Lorain Steel Co., Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co., and the Shelby Steel Tube Co., with a total of 124 blast furnaces, having an annual capacity of about 18,000,000 tons of pig iron. Most of the blast furnaces are in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, and Alabama.

With the United States Steel Corporation is connected the Oliver Iron Mining Co., which produces about 43 per cent. of the iron ore mined annually in the Lake Superior district, this being equivalent to nearly 37 per cent. of all the iron ore mined annually in the United States. The Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Co. is the chief producer of iron ore in Alabama.

Next in importance to the United States Steel Corporation as a producer of iron and steel is the Bethlehem Steel Corporation, with its subsidiaries, the Bethlehem Steel Co., Pennsylvania Steel Co., Maryland Steel Co., Jurugua Iron Co., Spanish-American Iron Co., and Bethlehem Iron Mines Co.

The works of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation have a total pig iron-producing capacity of 3,060,000 tons annually from 23 blast furnaces. Seven of the furnaces are in South Bethlehem, Pa., seven in Steelton, Pa., four in Lebanon, Pa., three in Cornwall, Pa., and four in Sparrow’s Point, Md. The Bethlehem Steel Corporation owns large iron-ore deposits in Cuba and Chile. Most of the ore consumed in its furnaces at present comes from Cuba, from the Lake Superior district, and from Cornwall, Pa.

Third in importance of the iron- and steel-producing companies of the United States is the recently organized Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co., controlling Worth Brothers, Midvale Steel Co., Remington Arms Co., Cambria Steel Co., and others. The combined pig iron-producing capacity of the 14 blast furnaces controlled by the Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co. is 2,420,000 tons of pig iron. Three of the blast furnaces are at Coatesville, Pa., and eleven are at Johnstown, Pa. This company owns important iron-ore deposits in Cuba and in the Lake Superior district.

Four other large companies produce more than a million tons of pig iron annually, these being the Republic Iron & Steel Co., with an estimated total capacity from its 11 blast furnaces in Ohio and Alabama of 1,430,000 tons of pig iron, and of 2,500,000 tons of ore from its mines in the Lake Superior district and in Alabama; the Lackawanna Steel Co., with an annual capacity in 1918 from its nine blast furnaces at Lackawanna, N. Y., of 1,440,000 tons of pig iron; the Jones & Laughlin Co., of Pittsburgh, with a capacity of 1,920,000 tons from 11 blast furnaces; and the McKinney Steel Co., with eight furnaces in Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, and an annual capacity of 1,205,000 tons of pig iron. The last three companies named have extensive iron mines in the Lake Superior district.

Important iron and steel companies producing somewhat less than a million tons of pig iron annually are: the Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co., with an annual capacity of 990,000 tons of pig iron from six blast furnaces, all of which are at Youngstown, Ohio; the recently organized Steel & Tube Co. of America, having six blast furnaces in and near Chicago, with an annual pig-iron capacity of 900,000 tons; the Colorado Fuel & Iron Co., an important western iron and steel producer, which has six blast furnaces near Pueblo, Colo., with an annual capacity of 625,000 tons of pig iron, and has iron-ore mines in New Mexico, Wyoming, and Colorado; and the Schloss-Sheffield Steel & Iron Co. of Alabama, with seven blast furnaces and a pig-iron capacity of 530,000 tons. Many other plants with smaller capacity are scattered through eastern and central United States. So far as is known, practically the entire iron and steel business of the United States is in the hands of American capital.

=Germany.=--The “minette” ore of the German Lorraine district before the war constituted by far the largest iron-ore reserve of Germany and is the chief source of present supply. Next in importance of the German ore reserves are the brown hematites occurring north of the Harz, and third and fourth in importance, respectively, are the deposits of the Lahn and Dill districts in the Rhineland, and those of Siegerland. All of these districts are in western and southwestern Germany and all of them, except Lorraine, are in the region lying east of the Rhine in Hanover, Westphalia, Hesse-Nassau, and Rhenish Prussia.

The Lorraine district is on the French border and forms a part of the large ore field of Luxemburg and northern France. The deposits, of sedimentary origin and Jurassic age, comprise extensive beds of oolitic limonite varying in thickness up to 20 feet, interlayered with marl and limestone. Seven principal beds of ore are found within a thickness of sediments ranging from 75 to 150 feet, the most important being known as the Grey seam. The tonnage[31] of “minette” ore available in the German Lorraine district is estimated at 1,830 million[32] as compared with 300 million in Luxemburg and 2,975 million[33] in northern France. The “minette” ores average 30 to 40 per cent. in metallic iron content and 0.3 to 0.7 per cent. or more in phosphorus.

[31] The ore reserves in this chapter are given in metric tons unless
otherwise stated.

[32] EINECKE, G., and KOHLER, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,”
Stockholm, 1910.

[33] NICOU, L., idem.

The deposits of the Salzgitter and Ilsede districts north of the Harz Mountains are beds of brown ironstone conglomerate with an average thickness of 20 to 30 feet, consisting of limonite pebbles in a clayey or calcareous cement. These deposits cover many square miles, the reserves being estimated at 248 million tons. The ores contain 30 to 40 per cent. of iron and average 0.7 to 0.8 per cent. in phosphorus.

The ores of the Lahn and Dill region are mainly red hematites, that lie in an extensive sedimentary bed. They contain about 48 per cent. of iron, 0.2 to 0.3 per cent. phosphorus, and are high in silica. The reserves are estimated at about 135 million tons.

In Siegerland the iron ores are mainly carbonate, carrying 38 to 40 per cent. metallic iron and 6 to 9 per cent. manganese. They form irregular deposits abundantly scattered through the region, the available reserves being estimated at about 100 million tons.

The total iron-ore reserves of Germany (not including those of Luxemburg) actually available have been estimated at 2,540 million tons, and the probable further reserves at 1,067 million tons. Of these amounts, however, Lorraine has by far the largest part, so that the transfer of this province to France reduces Germany’s available reserves to 28 per cent. of the pre-war figure, and her further probable reserves to one-half, altogether reducing her iron-ore resources to one-third of the former amount.

As far as is known, the German iron and steel business is in the hands of German capitalists, who, besides, have important iron-ore holdings in France, Spain, Sweden, and elsewhere. Among the important iron-ore and pig-iron producing firms in Germany are Gutehoffnungshütte, de Wendel & Co., Krupp, Gebrüder Stumm, Aschener Hütten Aktien Verein, Rombacher Hüttenwerke, Thyssen & Cie., and others. All of these firms had large ore reserves in the Lorraine district when the war began.

=France.=--The iron ores of France are divided into three distinct groups: the “minette” ores of the Briey, Longwy, Crusnes, and Nancy districts; the Silurian ores in Normandy; and the vein deposits of the eastern Pyrenees.

The “minette” ores of northern France form part of the great basin of “minette” ores of France, Luxemburg, and Germany already mentioned. In 1913 they furnished about 91 per cent. of the total production of France. The iron ores of Normandy and Brittany are of sedimentary origin and are composed of hematite or carbonate or a mixture of both. The carbonate becomes more abundant with depth. The iron-ore deposits of the eastern Pyrenees consist of both hematite and siderite and are of high grade, constituting the only considerable source of Bessemer ore in France. The iron content of the ores of Normandy and Brittany ranges from 30 per cent. to 50 per cent.; that of the Pyrenees ores from 51 per cent. to 57 per cent. The latter range includes calcined siderite.

The production of iron ore from French Lorraine was about 19,500,000 tons in 1913; that of Normandy and Brittany about 1,500,000 tons, and that of the eastern Pyrenees about 500,000, making a total production of more than 21,000,000 tons for France.

The following table shows the relative output of iron ore from the different iron fields of France and Germany during the last three normal years before the war:

TABLE 15.--PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE IN FRANCE AND GERMANY, 1911 TO 1913

Metric tons

---------------------------------+----------+----------+----------
District | 1911 | 1912 | 1913
---------------------------------+----------+----------+----------
German Lorraine |17,734,576|20,050,245|21,135,554
Luxemburg | 6,059,797| 6,553,930| 7,331,050
French Lorraine, including Briey,| | |
Longwy and Nancy |14,878,000|17,235,125|19,499,166
Germany, outside of Lorraine | 6,968,000| 7,167,000| 7,472,000
France, outside of Lorraine | 1,584,000| 1,925,000| 1,686,000
---------------------------------+----------+----------+----------

The available reserves in the different districts of the French “minette” ore field are estimated as follows:[34]

TABLE 16.--ORE RESERVES IN FRENCH “MINETTE” FIELD

Million tons
Briey 2,000
Crusnes 500
Longwy 275
Nancy 200
-----
Total 2,975

[34] NICOU, L.: “Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

The list of operating companies in France shows a considerable number of German companies among the predominating French. German or probably German companies produced in 1913 six and a half million tons of iron ore, or one-third of the whole production. In the Normandy and Brittany region two German companies made 11 per cent. of the whole production; and in the eastern Pyrenees one German company produced 20 per cent. Altogether, German capital controlled over one-third of the iron and steel industry of France in 1913. The rest seems to have been in the hands of French capital.

The most important iron-producing firms in the Lorraine field in recent years have been those of de Wendel & Co., Gutehoffnungshütte, Société des Hauts Fourneaux et Fonderies de Pont-a-Moussons, Société des Forges et Acieries de la Marine et d’Homecourt, Société Anonyme des Acieries de Longwy, Société des Acieries de Micheville, and Société des Mines d’Ammermont Dommery. The first two firms are chiefly German and have controlled lands not only in German Lorraine, but also in French Lorraine. Thus, the iron-ore lands of the Lorraine district will, even after the cessation of the territory to France, be owned largely by German-controlled firms. Politically, however, France will have control of the output.

=Great Britain.=--The iron ores mined in Great Britain come chiefly from the Cleveland Hills in Yorkshire and from Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Cumberland, Staffordshire, Leicestershire, Scotland, and Lancashire, in order of importance. More than one-third of the total production is derived from the Cleveland Hills. The ore from the Cleveland Hills, Lincolnshire, Northamptonshire, Leicestershire, and Scotland is bedded oolitic siderite of Middle and Lower Jurassic age; that from Cumberland and Lancashire is hematite, exceptionally low in phosphorus, found in pockets in Carboniferous and Silurian limestones; and that in Staffordshire is siderite of the “black band” and “clay band” varieties found in the Coal Measures.

The following table shows the production of iron ore in the United Kingdom in 1915:

TABLE 17.--PRODUCTION OF IRON ORE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1915

Long tons
Cleveland Hills 4,746,293
Lincolnshire 3,149,079
Northamptonshire 2,517,150
Cumberland 1,323,408
Staffordshire 703,231
Leicestershire 685,137
Scotland 375,241
Lancashire 333,086
Other Great Britain and Ireland 402,387
----------
Total 14,235,012

A large part of the iron ore in Great Britain can not now be worked profitably, and much of the ore that was merchantable a few years ago could not now be worked, on account of increased cost of transportation, labor, and particularly of fuel. The actual reserves of ore of present merchantable grade are estimated at 1,300 million tons; the total reserves have been estimated by H. Louis at 39,500 million tons.[35]

[35] LOUIS, H.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

In 1915 the United Kingdom produced 14,000,000 tons of iron ore. In the same year nearly 7,000,000 tons were imported, of which 4,000,000 came from Spain and between one-half and one million from Algeria and Norway each, making a total of over 20,000,000 tons smelted in the United Kingdom. The total production of pig iron was nearly 9,000,000 tons, of which nearly 7,000,000 tons were produced in England, 1,000,000 tons in Scotland, and nearly 1,000,000 tons in Wales. Ireland produces no pig iron. The iron and steel industry of Great Britain, so far as information is available, is in the hands of British subjects.

Eckel[36] reviews the British iron-ore situation as follows:

The position of Great Britain as regards iron-ore resources is
peculiar--perhaps more curious than satisfactory. The matter may be
summarized by saying that England has still several hundred million
tons of high-grade ore which would be salable anywhere; that she has
in addition perhaps double that quantity of low-grade ore, workable
because of its nearness to coal and markets; and that England,
Scotland, and Wales have thousands of millions of tons of ore now
unworkable, but which may be serviceable in the future provided that
at that future date there is still any other good reason for making
steel in Great Britain. This last limitation may not be palatable,
but it is really the crux of the whole question, and it seems to
have been overlooked by the British geologists who have discussed
the subject. People do not make iron out of low-grade ores simply to
use up the ores; and with an increasing coke cost and a narrowing
export market it is a very serious question whether the bulk of these
British carbonates will ever be used. The duration of the British
steel industry will be fixed by its coal supply, and not by its
supply of local ores; for so long as coke and markets justify it, ore
can be imported to good advantage. If other conditions do not justify
the importation of ore, they will certainly not justify the use of
these hypothetical reserve tonnages.

[36] ECKEL, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and
Control,” p. 320, 1914.

=Spain.=--Spain is rich in iron-ore reserves, but the iron and steel manufacturing industry has had little development. The annual production of iron ore in Spain during the last years before the war amounted to about 9,000,000 tons, of which more than 8,000,000 tons were exported. The consumption of iron ore by Spanish blast furnaces has been in the neighborhood of 800,000 tons annually.

The principal iron ores of Spain lie in the northwestern part, in the provinces of Viscaya, Oviedo, Lugo, and Santander; in the northeastern part, in the provinces of Teruel and Guadalajara; and in the southeastern part, in the provinces of Granada, Almeria, Murcia, Sevilla, and Huelva.

The iron ores of the Bilbao district of Viscaya are all of Bessemer grade, and for many years large amounts have been exported to England for use in Bessemer plants to supplement ores from the Cleveland and other districts of England. Because of their excellence, they have been in continuous demand, and the English iron and steel industry has depended to a considerable extent upon these and other high-grade ores of Spain. In more recent years, Germany has also become interested in the Bilbao iron fields, and in the last years before the war Germany took more than one-third of the total Spanish production, including large amounts of ore from southern Spain as well. Spanish interests own important deposits in southeastern Spain and in the Bilbao district.

Most of the ore of southeastern Spain is of high grade, being rich in iron and low in phosphorus. Nearly all of it is of Bessemer quality, and some is very low in phosphorus; the latter is exported extensively for use in the manufacture of low-phosphorus pig iron. The United States has been largely dependent in past years upon Spain for this grade of ore, more than 100,000 tons being imported annually.

Spain has a number of blast furnaces and steel plants, the principal ones being at Bilbao, in the Province of Viscaya. More than 300,000 tons of pig iron are produced annually in Viscaya, this being approximately three-fourths of the total output of pig iron in Spain.

=European Russia.=--In European Russia[37] the principal deposits of iron ore are distributed over four chief districts: Ural Mountains, central Russia, southern Russia and the Caucasus.

[37] BOGDANOWITSCH, K.: “The Iron Resources of the World,” Stockholm,
1910.

In the Ural Mountains for the greater part the ores are associated with igneous rocks. The most important deposits are in the neighborhood of Gora Blagodat, in the northern Ural regions, and near Gora Mongnitnaja, in the southern Urals. The ores are mainly magnetite and limonite and come from an extremely large number of small mines. In central Russia, over widely scattered areas, are deposits of calcareous ores, clay ironstones, and bog ores. Many of the deposits are thin and can not be profitably worked. The only reserves in southern Russia of any importance are divided among three centers: Krivoi-Rog, the Donetz basin, and the Kertsch peninsula. By far the most important deposits are the magnetite-hematite ores in the region of Krivoi-Rog. The ironstones of the Coal Measures in the Donetz basin and the limonite of the Kertsch peninsula are of secondary importance. The mines of Krivoi-Rog are extensively worked, and their reserves are estimated at some 86 million tons of commercial ore. The mines are controlled mainly by the following three companies: the Briansk company; Krivoi-Rog Iron Ore Co.; and the Providence company.

The following table shows the production of iron ore in different parts of Russia in 1912:

TABLE 18.--OUTPUT OF IRON ORE IN RUSSIA

Long tons
Southern Russia 5,679,000
Ural 1,817,000
Central Russia 286,000
Other Russia and Siberia 6,000
---------
Total 7,788,000

The ore reserves of Russia may be summarized by districts as follows:

IRON-ORE RESERVES IN RUSSIA

Millions of tons
Ural 282
Central Russia 789
Southern Russia 536
Caucasus 14
-----
Total 1,621

Eckel[38] reviews the iron-ore situation in Russia as follows:

On their face the ore reserves noted seem satisfactory enough, and
until the data are examined more critically it is difficult to
explain why the relatively large furnishing capacity of the Moscow
and other central Russian districts is so far out of line with the
comparatively small ore production of that area. As a matter of fact,
however, the large total ore reserves credited to central Russia are
in reality less important than they seem, owing both to grade of
ore and thinness of the ore bodies. From an international viewpoint
the ore deposits of southern Russia are the ones which require most
attention; for these are so located as to be of importance to foreign
competitors, while the total reserve tonnage is high, and the grade
of much of the ore is excellent.

[38] ECKEL, E. C.: “Iron Ores, Their Occurrence, Valuation and
Control,” 1914, p. 326.

Actual available ore reserves of merchantable grade in Russia are estimated at 865 million tons.

Before the Revolution the greater part of the Russian iron and steel industries was controlled by syndicates.[39] The oldest of these consisted of manufacturers of medium sheets (1902); then followed manufacturers of joists and =~U~=-iron (1903), axles and tires (1904), iron tubes (1906), rails (1907), and bar iron and hoops. These six syndicates were afterwards combined into one, officially styled the Association for the Sale of Products of the Metallurgical Works of Russia, but generally known as “Prodameta,” from its telegraphic address. There were separate syndicates for wire, wire nails, and roofing sheets. The “Prodameta” consisted, at last advices, of nineteen works, of which sixteen are in southern Russia, and one each in Petrograd, Moscow, and the Ural region. The “Prodameta” expired at the end of 1915, but was provisionally prolonged for one year, and again at the end of 1916 it was extended for a similar period. The aggregate capital of the eighteen works was 198,400,000 roubles, and their net profit for 1915-16 was 76,200,000 roubles.

[39] Ironmonger Metal Market Year-Book, London, 1918.

=Sweden.=--The iron-ore fields of Sweden are among the most important in Europe and have for the last ten or fifteen years furnished a large output, which has gone mainly to England and Germany. A relatively small amount of iron ore is used in Swedish iron-smelting works. The iron mines of central Sweden have been actively worked since about the beginning of the twelfth century, whereas those of Swedish Lapland have been developed recently. At present about one-half the output of iron ore in Sweden comes from Swedish Lapland, and the other half from central Sweden.

Swedish Lapland is estimated to have iron-ore reserves amounting to 1,128 million tons. The ores are mostly magnetite associated with igneous rocks and show wide difference in phosphorus content. Certain deposits or parts of deposits are composed of ores that are moderately low in phosphorus, whereas others are high enough to obtain a special bonus from German steel plants that produce high-phosphorus slag for fertilizer purposes. Practically all the ores of Swedish Lapland are exported. In recent years the total production has amounted to about 3,500,000 tons annually. The principal mines are worked by the Trafikaktiebolaget Grängesberg Oxelosund, in which English and German capital is interested with the Swedish government. The Swedish government controls the output of the mines and receives a large sum in royalties on the ore produced. The ore deposits from which ore is being produced at present are Kiruna, Gellivare, and Tuolluvarra, the first two being operated by the firm mentioned above and the last being an independent operation.

The ore reserves of central and southern Sweden are estimated at 140 million tons, included in a great number of relatively small deposits. Most of the mines of central Sweden are controlled by small Swedish operators. Some of the mines, however, such as Blotberg, are to a large extent under German control, and the largest one, Grängesberg, is operated by the same firm that controls the deposits of Swedish Lapland. Some of the ores of central Sweden, such as those of Dannemora, Norberg, Strossa, and Stripa, are very low in phosphorus, and are used in the manufacture of special low-phosphorus iron; others, like those of Grängesberg and Blotberg, contain more than 1 per cent. of phosphorus.

=Austria-Hungary.=--The iron ores of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire are mainly low-grade hydrous iron silicates that require roasting, large deposits of iron carbonate, and some limonite. The total probable ore reserves have been estimated at 940 million tons, of which about 560 million are very low grade.

The principal sources from which the domestic iron ore used in the past in the Austro-Hungarian Empire has been obtained are the chamosite-hematite deposits at Nucitz and elsewhere in Bohemia; the siderite beds at Erzberg, in Styria, estimated to contain more than 200 million tons of ore; the siderite-limonite deposits on the slopes of the Carpathians; and deposits of various ores in northern and central Bosnia.

By far the largest of the deposits is that at Erzberg, owned and operated by the Oesterreichische Alpinen Montan Gesellschaft, presumably Austrian. The Bohemian deposits, also important, are largely under the control of the Prager Eisen Industrie Gesellschaft. The Carpathian deposits are largely controlled by local individuals and firms, among them Duke Philipp of Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha-Kohar. Thus the principal deposits have been largely under Austro-Hungarian control.

As a result of the war and the disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Bohemian deposits, estimated to contain 35,100,000 tons of high-grade ore and 221,800,000 tons of low-grade ore, will come under the control of Czechoslovakia, whereas the Bosnian ores, with an estimated reserve of 21,500,000 tons, will go to Jugoslavia. Austria will retain control of the large Erzberg deposit in Styria, and the ores of the Carpathian region will continue under Hungarian control.

=Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco.=--The iron ores of Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, in northern Africa, are mainly high-grade hematite. The reserve tonnage of Algeria and Tunisia is estimated by Nicou at 100 million to 150 million tons, and about 30 million or 40 million tons is reported in the Spanish territory of Riff, Morocco.

The deposits of Morocco and Algeria are nearly all near the north coast, and the ores are shipped from various small ports, such as Melilla, Benisaf, Arzeu, Algiers, Bougie, and Bona. The deposits of Tunisia are 180 to 200 kilometers southwest of Tunis, the shipping port, with which they are connected by rail.

The principal mines of El Riff, Morocco, are owned by the Sociedad Española de Minas de Riff. German interests, the “Netta Company,” held a large concession, but since the war these interests are controlled by the Company of Bilbao.

The North African deposits are important as a source of high-grade low-phosphorus ore for European blast furnaces. All of the ore produced is exported, the annual shipments amounting to about 1,500,000 tons.

=Cuba.=--There are two principal groups of iron-ore deposits in Cuba--the magnetite and hematite ore on the south coast, and the brown ore, or limonite, on the north coast. All are near the eastern end of the island. The ores of Firmeza and Daiquiri, on the south coast, are mixed magnetite and hematite, averaging about 58 per cent. iron and 0.03 per cent. phosphorus. They are associated with igneous rocks. A determination of tonnage is difficult because of the irregularity of the ore bodies, and estimates of reserves range from 5 million to 9 million tons. The brown ore of the north shore is hydrated brown hematite, a laterization product of serpentine. The dried ore averages about 46 per cent. iron, 0.01 per cent. phosphorus, and 1.7 per cent. chromium. The reserve tonnage, estimated as high as 3,000 million tons, is mainly contained in the three large deposits of Camaguey, Mayari, and Moa.

The principal deposits of Cuba are owned and operated by the Bethlehem Steel Co. Important undeveloped deposits are owned by the Buena Vista Iron Co. (Midvale Steel & Ordnance Co.), United States Steel Corporation, Guantanamo Exploration Co., and Eastern Steel Co.

=Newfoundland.=--The principal iron ores of Newfoundland are bedded oolitic hematites, which average 50 per cent. to 52 per cent. in metallic iron. The ore reserves of Newfoundland have been estimated as between 3,250 million and 3,500 million tons, making them among the largest and by far the most compact iron-ore reserves in the world. The output of ore has been 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 tons annually, except during the war, when the production decreased. These deposits are important on account of both their size and their situation. Ore can be placed readily in American or European ports at a cost far lower per unit of iron than any competitive ore, so that the market is practically unlimited.

The ores have been mainly exported to Sydney, Nova Scotia, and to Philadelphia, while about 10 per cent. has gone to Holland (Germany). The phosphorus content is too high for normal economic basic open-hearth practice if the ores are used alone, but not too high for foundry use or for the basic Bessemer process developed in Europe.

The Wabana iron-ore deposits are owned and mined by the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., and the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., two Canadian firms. Both companies operate steel plants near Sydney, Cape Breton.

=Norway.=--The principal iron ores of Norway are low-grade magnetite and specular hematite, much of which can profitably be concentrated. They occur in the northern part, north of the Arctic Circle. Small deposits of high-grade ores, consisting mainly of magnetite lenses, occur in southern Norway.

The Sydvaranger deposits, in the extreme north near the border of Finland, are estimated to contain 100 million tons of low-grade magnetite. The ore is treated in a large concentrating plant erected by a Norwegian company but controlled by Swedish and German capital. The concentrates analyze 70 per cent. iron and 0.02 per cent. phosphorus. The Dunderland deposits on Rannenfjord, near the Arctic Circle, are estimated to contain 80 million tons of mixed low-grade specular hematite and magnetite.

In 1914 Norway produced 652,273 tons of iron ore, of which seven-eighths came from the Sydvaranger deposit.

=Italy.=--The most important iron mines in Italy are the hematite mines of the island of Elba, which have furnished between 500,000 and 1,000,000 tons of ore annually in recent years. Ten or twelve large ore bodies are found in the eastern part of the island, all under control of the Elba Company, which has obtained a concession giving it exclusive iron-mining rights on the island. Important but as yet little developed magnetite deposits are found in the Aosta Valley, Piedmont, and limonite deposits are found on the island of Sardinia. These have furnished a very small output. Minor deposits of iron ore occur in Lombardy, in the Apennines of central Italy, and elsewhere. The total reserves of iron ore in Italy are estimated at about 25 million tons.

Italy has several important iron-smelting works, among them being the Elba Company furnaces on the island of Elba, the Piombino furnaces at Piombino, on the mainland opposite Elba, and the Ilva furnaces at Bagnoli, near Naples. In addition there are some small plants in northern Italy.

Italy’s iron-ore deposits and iron manufactures are controlled by commercial organizations, mainly Italian, but in part English. The Italian government exercises control over the ore deposits by granting concessions for comparatively short terms.

Agreements made among the Italian manufacturers for the rational division of work have led to the formation of a syndicate of the following firms: Ilva, Elba, Siderurgica di Savona, Metallurgica di Lestre, Ferriere Italiane, and the Piombino Steel Works. These firms undertook to maintain the syndicate for eleven years, dating from July, 1911. The affairs of the organization were directed by the Ilva Company. “In 1916 the constituent companies renewed their agreement up to the year 1930, but the Ilva Company ceased to direct the affairs of the Syndicate, and the relations between the Syndicate and the German Stahlwerks Verband were abrogated and replaced by Anglo-Italian relationships.”[40]

[40] Ironmonger Metal Market Year Book, 1918.

A further organization was made called the “Societa Ferro ed Acciaio,” a combination of steel works.

Italy is important as a producer of iron ore and as a manufacturer of iron products. She has been able to supply her own needs in iron ore for many years and at the present rate can continue to do so for probably twenty years longer. There appears to be no tendency toward expansion into other fields to control foreign ore deposits.

Italy produced 593,000 tons of iron ore in 1913; 669,000 tons in 1915; and 927,000 tons in 1916. In 1915, 408,000 tons of pig iron were produced, and 87,000 tons were imported.

=Greece.=--Chromiferous iron ores are found in eastern Greece and adjacent islands. They contain 46 to 52 per cent. iron, 2 to 3 per cent. chromium, and about 0.10 to 1.00 per cent. nickel and cobalt. The normal annual production of iron ore in Greece has been in the neighborhood of 400,000 tons.

=Canada.=--Small iron-ore deposits occur in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In Ontario there are two principal iron-ore districts--the Atikokan and the Michipicotan ranges. The ore in the former is magnetite, and in the latter hematite and siderite with some limonite. The ores of western British Columbia are largely magnetite. The principal deposits are on Texada and Vancouver islands, where the ore is of excellent grade, averaging 63 per cent. iron, 0.02 per cent. phosphorus and 4 to 10 per cent. silica. Low-grade magnetite ore is found at the Moose Mountain mine, Ontario, and is being concentrated.

There are a number of blast furnaces in Canada, among them being those of the Dominion Iron & Steel Co., Sydney; the Nova Scotia Steel & Coal Co., Sydney Mines, and the Londonderry Iron & Mining Co., Londonderry, all of which use ores from Newfoundland and Nova Scotia; the Algoma Steel Corporation, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario; the Steel Company of Canada, Hamilton, Ontario; the Canadian Furnace Co., Port Colborne, Ontario; the Canada Iron Foundries, Midland, Ontario; the Standard Iron Co., Deseronto and Parry Sound, Ontario; and the Atikokan Iron Co., Port Arthur, Ontario, which use largely Lake ores of the United States and Canada. The Moose Mountain Co., of Sellwood, Ontario, has a magnetic concentrating and briquetting plant using ore from the Moose Mountain mine. In May, 1920, the British Empire Steel Corporation, the second largest in the world, was formed by the merger of nine steel, coal, ship-building and transportation companies.

In 1912 Canada produced 156,000 tons of iron ore, and made 906,000 tons of pig iron.[41] In 1918 she made 1,066,071 tons of pig iron. The iron mines of Canada are largely of Canadian and partly of American ownership.

[41] Board of Trade, “Reports on Iron and Steel,” London, 1905-1918.

=China and Manchuria.=--Little information is available on the extent of the iron-ore deposits of the Chinese Empire. The principal producing area is that of Tayeh, south of Yangtse River in the Province of Hupeh, where a series of ore bodies, consisting of mixed hematite and magnetite, occurs along the contact of limestone and intrusive syenite. The deposits are estimated to contain about 40 million tons of ore.[42] The Han-Yeh-Ping Iron & Steel Co., largely controlled in Japan, owns these deposits and the Han Yang steel plant near Hankow. Iron ore similar to that of Tayeh is reported to occur farther down the Yangtse at Tungling, in the Province of Ngan-whei, and also along the coast near Amoy, Province of Fukien. The deposits near Amoy are said to contain about 25 million tons.

[42] BAIN, H. F.: “Notes on Iron-Ore Resources of China,” _Trans._
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.

Of considerable importance are the mixed hematite and magnetite ores of Chin-ling-chen, near Kiaochow, Shantung Province. A series of ore bodies, some of them 100 feet in width, are said to occur along a contact zone two kilometers in length.[43] The deposits were exploited by Germans and are being developed by Japanese.

[43] KOERT, W.: “Iron-Ore Resources of the World,” Stockholm, 1910.

Sedimentary beds of oolitic ore of some extent are reported in the provinces of Chih-li and Kiang-si, but they are of low grade.

Bedded siderite ores similar to the Coal Measures ores of England have been mined for many years in Shan-si Province and smelted in native furnaces. In Hunan Province, also, this type of ore is mined.

The principal iron ores of Manchuria are magnetites that occur as a series of deposits in a northwest-southeast belt south and southeast of Mukden, in southern Manchuria. They are interbedded with schist, gneiss, and porphyry. In this belt are the An-shan-chang deposits that are now being developed by Japanese interests affiliated with the South Manchurian Railway, and the Miaor-kow deposits operated by a Sino-Japanese company, the Pen-hsi-hu Coal & Iron Co., Ltd. The southern Manchuria magnetite belt is reported to contain reserves amounting to about 500 million tons.[44] Much of the ore is of low grade.

[44] WANG, C. F.: “Coal and Iron Deposits of the Pen-hsi-hu District,
Manchuria,” _Trans._ Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1918.

=India.=--Iron ores of four types are found in India[45]: (1) lenses of specular hematite with some magnetite, occurring in quartz-hematite and quartz-magnetite schist of the Dharwar series and other older rocks; (2) granules of magnetite and hematite scattered through granite and schist; (3) clay ironstones in the Coal Measures of Bengal; and (4) lateritic ores.