Chapter XVI: Zinc

BY FREDERICK B. HYDER

USES OF ZINC

Metallic zinc, or spelter, as the commercial metal is often known in the trade, is chiefly used in the form of rolled sheets; in galvanizing; in alloys forming brass and bronze; and in the desilverization of lead bullion. Rolled sheets are used for roofs, tanks, conduits, and protective linings. Iron and steel objects are dipped into baths of molten spelter and coated with the metal or galvanized, being thereby protected from oxidizing agencies. Other methods of applying this protective coating are also in use.

Zinc and copper unite in all proportions, forming alloys known as brass which are of widespread industrial application. There is only one definite alloy; it corresponds approximately to CuZn₂, contains 33 per cent. copper and 67 per cent. zinc, is hard and brittle and of little practical value. All other brasses may be considered as solid solutions of this definite alloy in an excess of one of its constituents. Brasses in use vary in zinc content from 20 to 85 per cent. and differ greatly in their properties according to the composition. Alloys of zinc and aluminum have valuable properties, especially those containing 25 to 35 per cent. zinc. Other alloys used contain, besides copper and zinc, either lead, tin or nickel.

The Parkes process of desilverizing lead bullion has superseded the older Pattinson and cupellation process, except where bismuth is present, owing to the avidity with which zinc robs the bullion of gold, silver, copper and tellurium. This purification may be made as perfect as desired or only to a commercially profitable point, generally being brought down to a content of one-half ounce of silver per ton of lead.

Among the miscellaneous uses of zinc are these: ornamental castings; in galvanic batteries; in photo-engraving; in plates hung in boilers to prevent formation of scale; precipitation of gold in the cyanide process; in the form of powder, as a reducing agent in organic chemistry, especially in the reduction of indigo-blue and in a paint for structural steel. Zinc is also used in the form of numerous salts, such as the chloride as a wood preservative, and the sulphate, employed in medicine, dyeing and glue manufacture.

Zinc oxide, produced both from the metal and from ores, is used as a pigment both in combination with white lead and barytes, and as a competitor of them. Considerable amounts of oxide are also used in the rubber manufacturing industry. Lithopone (an intimate mixture, obtained by chemical precipitation of zinc sulphide and barium sulphate) is of growing importance as a pigment.

All the chief uses of zinc, comprising galvanizing, rolled sheets, brass-making and the desilverization of lead bullion, may be considered essential. Brass belongs with steel in the category of indispensable materials of modern industry. No satisfactory substitute as regards both physical qualities and cost is available for many important parts of machinery and for manufacturing purposes. Its wide use depends on a number of qualities. The excellent sharp castings made from certain brasses are readily machined or otherwise finished and electro-plated if desired. The electrical conductivity of brass is good. Certain brasses are easily rolled into sheets and cut and stamped in desired shapes. Lubricated surfaces of steel on brass make satisfactory and durable bearings.

The other large uses of zinc depend on its resistance to oxidation and on the possibility of rolling it into fairly thin sheets. In both these qualities, however, it is surpassed by other metals, notably nickel and tin. Alloyed with lead it may be rolled into a substitute for tin-foil. It is in some cases a fairly satisfactory, cheap substitute for metals of higher quality. In times of scarcity or high prices, substitution of metals of inferior quality is feasible, and in many cases zinc may be temporarily dispensed with altogether. Its field is therefore largely fixed by commercial conditions of supply and price, which determine broadly the total consumption and especially the percentages devoted to the various uses. It may be assumed, however, that the percentages for the domestic consumption in the United States in 1910 represent approximately those of normal peace times. In that year, of the total consumption, 60 per cent. was used in galvanizing; 20 per cent. in brass-making; 11 per cent. in rolled sheets; and 1 per cent. in lead desilverization; leaving 8 per cent. for miscellaneous uses. During the war the percentage used in galvanizing was greatly reduced and that used for brass-making much increased. The use of rolled sheets will increase.

A large part of the European production in normal times is rolled into sheets used chiefly for roofing.

CHANGES IN PRACTICE

In the extraction of zinc from its ores the most important changes in practice during recent years have been adaptations of retort smelting for the purpose of utilizing zinc concentrates from complex ores, the increased production of zinc oxide and lithopone through the application of volatilization methods to the re-treatment of retort residues and base ores, and the electrolytic and electro-thermic processes of extraction of the metal.

The most revolutionary advance has been the development of the oil flotation, the electro-magnetic, and electro-static processes for the concentration of ores. These processes are being widely introduced and in connection with electrolytic reduction are particularly adapted to the production of spelter of the highest quality from complex ores. As the electrolytic and electro-thermic processes find their field only where power is relatively cheap, the tendency is to put installations where hydro-electric power is available, effecting a redistribution of zinc-smelting centers.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION

Zinc and lead are commonly associated in mineral deposits, sometimes intimately mixed, sometimes so segregated that one metal predominates, but ores of one are seldom free entirely from the other. The geological and geographical distribution of the two metals is therefore nearly identical.

The sulphide ores, chiefly sphalerite or blende, are the most important, but in the oxidized zone they are often altered to carbonates--smithsonite, calamine and hydrozincite. The oxides--franklinite, willemite and zincite--are important in only one district in New Jersey. The carbonates, although they carry a low percentage of zinc, often occur in concentrated ore bodies, and yield readily to metallurgical treatment. Therefore, calamine-smithsonite ores form a large proportion of the production of many important districts, but blende will hereafter be of increasing importance in the world production.

Zinc ores occur in deposits of several distinct genetic types. In the order of their importance they are:

(_a_) Deposits formed in sedimentary rocks, without apparent connection with igneous rocks, as bedded replacements usually of limestones and dolomites. The ores of this type usually contain lead (galena) and iron (pyrite or marcasite) minerals, often those of manganese and cadmium, sometimes those of arsenic, cobalt and nickel, but seldom gold, silver, copper, or antimony. Barite and fluorite are sometimes present.

The deposits of this type are of world-wide distribution. Their greater purity and the simplicity of the treatment necessary, particularly of the ores in their oxidized zones, have caused them to be exploited first and most extensively and to be until recently the dominant factor in the world production of zinc. To this type belong the deposits of the Mississippi Valley and Silesia, which together produced 34 per cent. of the world’s output in 1913.

(_b_) Veins associated with igneous rocks and disseminated sulphide replacements of igneous rock. In this group come the deposits of Butte, Leadville, and the Coeur d’Alene, and the disseminated deposits of the Bawdwin (Burma Mines Co.), Ridder (Siberia) and Salmon River (B.C.). These ores are usually complex, comprising minerals of zinc, lead, copper, iron, gold and silver, and often arsenic, antimony and other metals. In one group, the silver-lead deposits, zinc seems a minor factor, but with depth replaces lead as the predominant metal. Deposits of these complex ores have in recent years become important sources of zinc through recognition of the zinc ores in their oxidized zones, through zinc becoming the dominant metal with increasing depth at many mines, and especially through improvements in methods of concentrating complex ores and extracting metal from the concentrates. Ores of this type will be of increasing importance in the future because of their world-wide distribution.

(_c_) Igneous metamorphic deposits containing franklinite, willemite, zincite, a little blende, and a gangue of calcite, rhodonite, garnet, pyroxene, hornblende, magnetite and tremolite. This type is characteristic of the Franklin and Adirondack deposits of the northeastern metallographic province of the United States and is also found at Magdalena and Hanover, New Mexico and the Horn Silver mine, in Utah.

(_d_) Metamorphosed deposits. Originally these may have been of any of the preceding types but are now disguised by regional metamorphism. The best example is the important deposit of Ammeberg, Sweden. Blende there occurs disseminated in bands in gneissoid granulite, which also contains bands of disseminated pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The chief zinc ore deposits of the world are in the countries listed in the table below; the order of the countries is that of their importance in the industry in 1913, as nearly as can be estimated from incomplete data.

The three major metallographic provinces of the world as indicated by present exploitation are those of Broken Hill, N.S.W., Silesia, and the Mississippi Valley.

The condition of the zinc industry in the principal countries, in 1913, is shown in Table 59.

=United States.=--The zinc deposits of the United States may be assigned to three metallographic provinces, which in the order of their present importance are: the Mississippi Valley province; the Western province; and the Northeastern province.

Judged by present knowledge, the _Mississippi Valley province_ is one of the three major zinc-bearing metallographic provinces of the world. It occupies an area underlain with slightly disturbed Paleozoic limestone, ranging from Ordovician to Lower Carboniferous in age, that comprises most of the great mid-continental valley of the Mississippi in the states of Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, Illinois, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Iowa, also Tennessee and the western part of Virginia. Igneous rocks are generally absent. There are three principal subprovinces: the Ozark province, comprising Missouri, Oklahoma, Kansas, Arkansas; the upper Mississippi valley, comprising Wisconsin, Northern Illinois, and Iowa; and the regions of Tennessee and Virginia.

TABLE 58.--CHIEF ZINC-ORE DEPOSITS OF THE WORLD

-----------+---------------------------------+------------------
Approximate| | Percentage of
order | Country |world’s production
| | in 1913
-----------+---------------------------------+------------------
1 |United States | 35.0
2 |Germany | 25.0
3 |Australia | 15.0
4 |Italy | 5.0
5 |Algeria | 3.0
6 |Japan | 2.0
7 |Spain | 2.0
8 |Russia (including Russian Poland)| 2.0
9 |France | 1.5
10 |Greece | 1.0
11 |Sweden | 1.0
12 |Mexico | 1.0
13 |Austria | 1.0
14 |Tunis | 1.0
15 |Indo-China (Tonkin) |
16 |Great Britain |
17 |China |
18 |Bolivia |
19 |Canada |
20 |India (Burma) |
21 |Egypt |
22 |South Africa |
23 |Peru |
-----------+---------------------------------+------------------

In the Ozark subprovinces the Joplin district is most important. The ores lie at three horizons in flat-lying lower Carboniferous limestones. In the upper horizon, below the surface, the ore lies in clayey chert breccias, and galena predominates. The middle horizon, or “sheet ground,” carries mixed galena and blende, which cements brecciated chert. The ore is low grade, the average recovery of zinc being 1.9 per cent. This horizon has been the most important source of ore. The third and lowest horizon, as yet little exploited, contains disseminated ores. Thirty mills were busy in the Joplin district in 1918. The Athletic Mining & Smelting Co. was the largest producer, operating the Athletic mine, at Duenweg, the Bertha A., at Webb City, and Mutual mine, at Oronogo. Miami Zinc Syndicate, affiliated with the Butte & Superior and American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co.; the Commerce Mining & Royalty Co.; the Century Zinc Co.; and the Tri-State Mining Co., are large operators. Much of the production is by lessees and small operators.

TABLE 59.--ZINC INDUSTRY IN 1913

------------------------+-------------------------------------++
| ||
| Available zinc in ore ++
| (short tons) ||
+---------+---------+--------+--------++
| | | | ||
Country | Produced| Smelted |Exported|Imported||
------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------++
United States | 305,500| 310,500| 8,500 | 13,500||
| | | | ||
Australasia | 206,000| 4,000| 202,000| ... ||
British Isles | 50,000| 65,000| ... | 15,000||
Canada | 24,000| ... | 24,000| ... ||
Burma, Indo China, etc. | 18,000| ... | 18,000| ... ||
France and French Africa| 69,000| 63,000| 6,000| ... ||
Italy | 40,000| ... | 40,000| ... ||
Belgium | 11,000| 218,000| ... | 207,000||
China | 5,000| 2,500| 2,500| ... ||
Greece | 12,000| ... | 12,000| ||
Japan | 10,000| 8,000| 2,000| ... ||
Russia | 35,000| 13,000| 22,000| ... ||
Holland | ... | 27,000| ... | 27,000||
Mexico | 30,000| ... | 30,000| ||
Norway | 15,000| 10,000| 5,000| ... ||
Spain | 50,000| 15,000| 35,000| ... ||
Sweden | 10,000| 6,000| 4,000| ... ||
Austria-Hungary | 24,000| 24,000| ... | ... ||
Germany | 163,500| 312,000| ... | 148,500||
Other | ... | ... | ... | ... ||
+---------+---------+--------+--------++
Total |1,078,000|1,078,000| 411,000| 411,000||
------------------------+---------+---------+--------+--------++
------------------------++-------------------------------------------
|| Spelter (short tons)
++-----------------+-------+-------+---------
|| Produced | | |
++---------+-------+ | To be | Annual
|| | Sec- | For | im- | con-
Country || Primary | ondary| export| ported| sumption
------------------------++---------+-------+-------+-------+---------
United States || 310,500| 50,000| 21,000| | 339,500
|| | | | |
Australasia || 4,000| ... | ... | ... | 4,000
British Isles || 65,000| 6,000| ... |143,500| 214,500
Canada || ... | ... | ... | 20,000| 20,000
Burma, Indo China, etc. || | | | |
France and French Africa|| 63,000| 20,500| ... | 5,500| 89,000
Italy || ... | ... | ... | 12,000| 12,000
Belgium || 218,000| 3,500| 7,500| ... | 84,000
China || 2,500| ... | ... | 7,500| 10,000
Greece || | | | |
Japan || 8,000| ... | ... | 4,000| 12,000
Russia || 13,000| ... | ... | 23,500| 36,500
Holland || 27,000| 3,000 | 25,500| ... | 4,500
Mexico || | | | |
Norway || 10,000| ... | 10,000| |
Spain || 15,000| ... | 8,500| ... | 6,500
Sweden || 6,000| ... | 6,000| ... |
Austria-Hungary || 24,000| 3,000| ... | 17,500| 44,500
Germany || 312,000| 18,500| 75,000| ... | 255,500
Other || ... | 1,500| ... | 45,000| 46,500
++---------+-------+-------+-------+---------
Total ||1,078,000|106,000|283,500|278,500|1,179,000
------------------------++---------+-------+-------+-------+---------

In Arkansas the ores are of similar character and mode of occurrence and are found in the same formation and also in the Ordovician limestone. The Lavender Mining & Milling Co. is the largest operator and the production has been largely carbonate ores.

The Upper Mississippi region comprises deposits in nearly horizontal limestones of Ordovician age. Three-fourths of the output of this district is made by five companies: the Mineral Point Zinc Co., a subsidiary of the New Jersey Zinc Co., with seven mines; the Vinegar Hill Zinc Co., with six mines; the Wisconsin Zinc Co., a subsidiary of the American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co., with four mines; the Frontier Mining Co., with five producing mines; and the Cleveland Mining Co., with two mines. Other important companies are Burr Mining Co., Block House Mining Co., M. & A. Mining Co., B. M. & B. Mining Co., and Oliver Mining Co., a subsidiary of the U. S. Steel Corporation. All of the mines are equipped with milling plants. The production of the district shows a steady growth.

The zinc deposits of southwest Virginia and northeastern Tennessee occur as disseminated replacement breccia along crushed and faulted zones in folded Cambro-Ordovician limestones, and also as oxidized ores in clays residual from the weathering of the same limestones. The gangue is calcite and dolomite. The American Zinc Co. is the largest operator in Tennessee; it has a milling capacity of 3,000 tons daily and zinc-blende ore reserves greater than 6,000,000 tons averaging between 4 and 5 per cent. zinc, from which 60 per cent. zinc-blende concentrates are made. This company is a subsidiary of the American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co.

The _Western province_ comprises most of the western states; it extends north into British Columbia and south into Mexico. The chief subprovinces are those of Leadville, Butte, and Coeur d’Alene.

The Leadville deposits are found in strata varying in age from Archean to Cretaceous, which have been intruded by igneous rocks. The ores are mainly replacements of limestone and occur in large masses. This district first became of importance in zinc production upon the recognition of smithsonite and calamine in the large masses of oxidized ores. Of recent years sulphides form an increasing part of the production, now coming largely from deeper levels. The ores carry gold, silver, manganese, copper and sometimes bismuth. The United States Smelting Refining & Mining Co., the Empire Zinc Co., a subsidiary of the New Jersey Zinc Co.; the Western Mining Co., the Downtown Mines Co., the Wellington Mines Co., at Breckenridge; and the Mary Murphy mine, at Chalk Creek, are the largest operators in this region.

The Butte ores occur as veins in igneous rocks. The area in which zinc ores predominate surrounds that of important copper veins on three sides. On the border of the two areas, zinc-silver ores predominate in the upper levels and copper in the deeper workings. Many of the present zinc mines were formerly worked for silver. These complex zinc ores have been made available by the successful application of oil flotation and electrolytic deposition. The Black Rock mine of the Butte & Superior Mining Co., the Elm Orlu of W. A. Clark & Son, the Alice, and several other mines of the Anaconda Copper Mining Co., and the North Butte Mining Co. are among the most important producers. The twelve mines yielding zinc in 1915 together have immense reserves. The ores all carry lead and silver and some pyrite, and many contain copper and gold.

The Coeur d’Alene subprovince comprises a number of mining districts in Idaho, at least five being zinc producers. The Interstate-Callahan, in the Beaver district, is the largest zinc mine in the state. The ore is remarkable for the small percentage of minerals other than sphalerite, averaging 28 per cent. zinc.

The _Northeastern province_ comprises important deposits at Franklin, New Jersey, and in the Adirondack Mountains in New York, and others of minor importance in the New England states. It is characterized by deposits of igneous metamorphic origin in Pre-Cambrian limestone. The Franklin deposits, in New Jersey, consist chiefly of franklinite, willemite and zincite in a gangue of calcite, rhodonite, garnet, pyroxene, magnetite and hornblende. Willemite is separated magnetically from these ores and used to produce a very high-grade spelter free from lead and cadmium and therefore in great demand for certain purposes. The other classes of ore are smelted for the production of zinc white and spiegeleisen. These mines, owned and operated by the New Jersey Zinc Co., have produced more than 1,500,000 tons of zinc in the form of spelter and zinc oxide. The Edwards-Balmat district, in St. Lawrence County, New York, comprises an area two to three miles wide and fifteen miles long, of Pre-Cambrian limestone. The ore occurs in lenses and is a mixture of sphalerite, pyrite and a little galena with a gangue of dolomite. Separation is effected by magnetic tables. The typical ore contains: sphalerite, 25.5 per cent.; galena, 1.43 per cent.; pyrite, 12.4 per cent.; barite, 3.9 per cent. The ore reserves of the Northern Ore Co., the largest operator, are known to exceed one million tons.

=Germany.=--Imperial Germany comprised most of one metallographic province of major importance, Silesia, and other districts ranking as follows: Upper Silesia; Rhenish Prussia; Westphalia; Saxony; Hanover; and Nassau.

The major part of the mineral province of Upper Silesia lay within the boundaries of Germany in 1914. Once it was part of the Kingdom of Poland, except for portions included in the old empires of Russia and Austria. The pre-war production of zinc ores from Russian Poland was entirely from this metallographic province. The deposits, which contain lead and zinc together, occur in Triassic formation overlying Carboniferous rocks that carry important seams of coal. This juxtaposition of ore and fuel has furnished an ideal basis for the great smelting industry that has been developed, and facilitates the smelting of low-grade ores. The ores are said to average 17 per cent. zinc and 5 per cent. lead. They come from two ore horizons. The lower is characterized by blende, with a little galena and marcasite; the upper or lead horizon comprises a very persistent sheet of galena 0.05 to 0.30 meters thick, which generally is underlain by red calamine. The blende deposits are extensive and will be productive for a long time.

In Rhenish Prussia, zinc ore (smithsonite) deposits are found in strata of Devonian age. These deposits are approaching exhaustion. The chief zinc deposits of Westphalia are in Devonian strata. The historic mines at Freiberg (Erzgebirge), in Saxony, produce a small quantity of blende from the concentration of galena ores. The blende carries considerable iron and silver and some of it contains traces of tin. These mines are controlled by the Saxon government.

A considerable quantity of blende ore is concentrated as a by-product in the dressing of the lead ore of the Upper Harz, Hanover. The ore of Rammelsberg, in the Lower Harz, occurs in a bed interstratified with lower Devonian slates and sandstones; it is an intimate mixture of blende, galena, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and barite and some calcite and quartz. Zinc is produced as a by-product of lead ores in the valley of Lahn (Nassau), where a series of strong veins are found in Lower Devonian strata.

=Australia.=--The zinc resources of the Commonwealth of Australia are chiefly in New South Wales and Tasmania. The former has been the chief source of zinc in the past, but the Tasmania deposits are now being rapidly developed and equipped for production.

The most important source of zinc ore in _New South Wales_ is the great Broken Hill lode, where operations began in 1884. The country rock comprises crystalline schists and gneisses. Between the oxidized and primary sulphide ores was a thin zone of secondary sulphides. The early operations in the district were for lead, and immense dumps accumulated of zinc-bearing ores sorted out or of zinc-bearing tailings from the concentration of the lead ores. In 1903 these dumps were estimated at 5,687,400 tons carrying 18.6 per cent. zinc. With the development of demand for zinc sulphide ores and of oil flotation methods of separation and concentration these dumps became important sources of zinc concentrates, but many of them are approaching exhaustion. The sulphide ores are a close mixture of galena and zinc blende, carrying silver. There are two classes of these ores, distinguished as silicate-gangue ore, and calcite-gangue ore. The silicate gangue ore bodies carry rhodonite, garnet and quartz and are richer in zinc and silver than those of calcite gangue.

Eight mining companies are now at work. In the order of the importance of their output and ore reserves, these companies are: Broken Hill South Silver Mining Co.; Broken Hill North Mining Co.; Zinc Corporation; Sulphide Corporation; British Broken Hill Proprietary Co.; Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Block 10; and Broken Hill Proprietary Co., Block 14. The estimated ore reserves of all the mines approximate 12,000,000 tons.

The Broken Hill South Silver Mining Co. has ore reserves estimated at 3,350,000 tons, and is the largest producer. Broken Hill North, Amalgamated Zinc (de Bavay), Zinc Corporation, and Barrier South Ltd. are controlled by Govett and associates, a group of Australian capitalists. The Amalgamated Zinc Co. in 1913 treated 498,289 tons of tailings, obtaining 140,098 tons zinc concentrates, carrying zinc, 48.9 per cent.; also lead concentrates amounting to 1,584 tons, carrying 57.1 per cent. lead. The Zinc Corporation, a company formed by Bewick, Moreing Co., has ore reserves estimated at 1,504,211 tons, averaging 14.8 per cent. lead, 9.2 per cent. zinc, and 2.5 ounces of silver per ton. The mine of the Broken Hill Proprietary Co. is, according to last reports, nearly exhausted.

The principal deposits of Tasmania are those of the Primrose, Hercules, and Tasmania Copper Mines, all owned by the Mount Reed Rosebery Co., affiliated with the Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co. The state geological staff estimates reserves at 1,272,500 tons averaging 29.79 per cent. zinc, 8.89 per cent. lead, 12.16 ounces of silver and 0.17 ounces of gold per ton.

=Italy.=--The zinc production of Italy is derived from the Iglesias district of Sardinia, and the Province of Bergamo. The Iglesias district is in the southeastern part of the island of Sardinia. The ores are oxidized and mostly worked by open pits. They are mined and milled by two Italian companies, Societa di Monteponi, and the Societa di Pertusola. The ores have usually been smelted in Germany, England or Belgium. The Bergamo mines, in the Province of Lombardy, are worked by the English Crown Spelter Co., which ships the ore to Swansea, Wales, for smelting.

=Algeria.=--Algeria produced 82,256 tons of zinc ore in 1913. Of the 78,973 tons whose origin is known, 31 per cent. of the total was extracted by Belgian companies and the remainder was produced by French operators.

=Japan.=--The only important zinc-producing district in Japan is the Province of Hida. The principal companies are the Osaka Zinc Mining & Smelting Co., Takata & Co., the Rhuara Mining Co., and the Mitsui Mining Co. The largest producer is the Kamioka Mine of the last named, which produces annually about 10,000 tons. The Osaka Mining Co. also produces from Korea (Chosen) about 15,000 tons of ore annually.

The annual smelting capacity in Japan, with all projected construction completed, is estimated at 300,000 tons of zinc ore, whereas the domestic output of ore is about 50,000 tons. The difference has been imported chiefly from Siberia, China, Tonkin and Australia. In the future it is expected that the foreign ores will come chiefly from China and Siberia. The domestic spelter production has reached about 60,000 tons annually and the domestic consumption 29,000 tons.

=Spain.=--Zinc ores are produced in the provinces of Santander, Murcia, Tereul, Biscay and Guipuzcoa. The only district of importance is that of Santander, where there is a zinc smelter owned by the Compagnie Royale Asturienne des Mines (French). Some of the ore is smelted in France. Most of the Spanish ores are calamine and occur almost without exception in limestone. Eighty per cent. of the Spanish production comes from Santander and Murcia. In the latter the mines are worked primarily for lead.

=Russia.=--The zinc output of the Russian Empire was derived from Russian Poland, eastern Siberia, the Altai Mountains in southwestern Siberia, and the northern Caucasus Mountains. The Polish deposits are part of the Silesian field. The ores are largely carbonates and silicates. Some of the mines and plants were owned by the Russian government, others apparently by French companies. In eastern Siberia, the Tyuticha mine has a calamine orebody containing at least 200,000 tons averaging 48 per cent. zinc. Some ore has come from the Ussurisk district. It is believed that the Mitsui Mining Co. has made arrangements to ship ores from this district to Japan for treatment.

In the Altai Mountains of southwestern Siberia the Ridder Mining Co., controlled by the Irtysh Corporation, Ltd., of London, has developed two large deposits on the same mineralized zone, with ore reserves estimated in 1917 at over 3,500,000 tons. The possibilities of this property are immense. The company has acquired the Ekibastus coal fields, constructed about 165 miles of railroad and provided river transport, thus bringing the ore and coal together at a smelting plant having a capacity of 15,000 tons lead and 5,000 tons spelter annually.

In the northern Caucasus Mountains, the Sadon mine, belonging to the Société d’Alagir (French), has been worked for a long time. The ores from this mine are smelted locally.

=Other Countries.=--The zinc-ore production of _France_ comes from several scattered districts. Of the 45,929 long tons reported in 1912, nearly all came from six mines which are all controlled by French capital with perhaps some Belgian participation.

The only important source of zinc in _Greece_ is the famous Laurium deposit, which was worked in ancient times. The ancients, however, rejected, as far as possible, the zinc ores. These deposits are now controlled and operated by a French company, the Compagnie Française des Mines de Laurium, which also has reopened the ancient workings of Gebel Rosas, near the Red Sea, in Egypt.

The chief zinc mines of _Sweden_ are the Ammeberg, the Rylls Wytland and the Sala. At the Sala immense piles of tailings made in centuries of operation, containing quantities of zinc, can now be treated, as well as zinciferous areas left in mining silver-lead ores. The important Ammeberg deposit consists of bands and lenses of disseminated blende in gneissoid granulite and is exploited by the Société de la Vieille Montagne (Belgian).

The zinc production of _Mexico_ has come chiefly from the states of Nuevo Leon, Chihuahua and Sonora. Various zinc deposits have been worked in Nuevo Leon by German and American capital. Most of them are within 50 miles of Monterrey. Zinc-producing districts are scattered over the State of Chihuahua. In the Santa Eulalia district, El Potosi Mining Co., controlled by Americans, works the mine of the same name, which has carbonate ores to a depth of 1,700 feet. The Buena Tierra, in the same district, is controlled by British capital. The principal mines in the Parral district are owned by Americans and British companies, including the American Smelters Securities Co., American Zinc Extraction Co., and San Francisco Mines of Mexico, Ltd. (British). The Carnegie Lead & Zinc Co. owns the largest zinc mine in Sonora, located near Cananea. The Calumet & Arizona Co. and the Mexican Metal Co. own zinc deposits in the Arizpe district. All of these companies are American.

Zinc ores are produced in Austria in the provinces of Carinthia, Styria, Carniole, Tyrol and Galicia. The Raibl and Schneeberg mines of Carinthia are government owned, and the ores are smelted at the government works at Cilli. Tyrolean ores were shipped to Frankfort-on-Main and Aix-la-Chapelle. Styrian ores were shipped to Silesia and Rhenish Prussia for smelting.

The considerable production of calamine with some blende from _Tunis_ is under French political and commercial control. The chief zinc ore producers appear to be French companies, in general paying a royalty of 5 per cent. of the net proceeds to the government of Tunis. The total production for 1916 was 12,544 tons.

Four districts of _Indo-China_ produce zinc ores with an aggregate total annual output of about 46,000 tons.

The largest zinc mine in _Great Britain_ is the Nenthead, in Cumberland, worked by the Société de la Vieille Montagne (Belgian). The second largest producer is the Carshield mine, in Northumberland. With the exception of the Nenthead mine all the important producers are, so far as known, owned and operated by British capital.

The chief mine in _China_ is the Shui K’ou Shan, under control of the Hunan Board of Mines. Prior to the war this mine was dominated by German capital, which had provided machinery and shipped the product to Europe. Japanese have sought diligently and with partial success to secure control of this mine.

The chief zinc-mining district in _Bolivia_ is Huanchaca, the production of which has recently decreased because of great quantities of water entering the workings. The largest operator is the Compañia Huanchaca de Bolivia, the capital and control of which is French. Its zinc production is incidental, the principal metal produced being silver.

The zinc production of _Canada_ is chiefly from British Columbia, but a small amount is from Ontario and Quebec. The only production of any moment is from the southern part of British Columbia, where the Slocan district is of greatest importance. British, Canadian and American capital are largely interested. In 1915, the mines of the Slocan district were estimated by the management of the Trail smelter to be capable of producing 10,000 to 15,000 tons of ore carrying 40 to 45 per cent. zinc. Apparently this was in addition to the possible production from the Sullivan mine, owned by the Consolidated Mining & Smelting Co., Ltd. (Trail smelter), which had proved reserves of 3,500,000 tons of galena-sphalerite ore. The principal mines of Ontario and Quebec produced 580 tons of zinc, or one-thirtieth of the production of Canada. These are operated at least in part by American capital, and the ores are smelted by the Zinc Co., Ltd., owned by Americans.

The chief deposits of _India_ are those of the Bawdwin mines, located in the Northern Shan States (Burma). There was estimated December 31, 1917, 4,033,000 tons lead-zinc ore assaying 24.7 oz. silver, 27.4 per cent. lead, and 19.1 per cent. zinc. The essential constituents of the ores are galena and sphalerite with a little pyrite and chalcopyrite. The lead and zinc concentrates are available for the customary methods of smelting. A zinc-distilling and sulphuric acid plant is being constructed at Sakohi, with the aid of the Indian government, to treat the table zinc concentrate. The company operates a lead smelter at Nam-Tu, 11 miles from the mines. The Bawdwin deposits may be expected to be an important factor in the world’s production of zinc in the immediate future. They are owned by the Burma Mines, Ltd., an English corporation of the R. Tilden Smith-Govett-Hoover interests, in which some American capital is interested.

The only zinc deposit of note in _Egypt_ is the Gebel Rosas, operated by the Compagnie Française de Laurium. This deposit is located near the Red Sea and was worked in ancient times.

The only deposit of importance in _South Africa_ is the Rhodesia Broken Hill. The large ore bodies are, so far as developed, almost wholly oxidized. One ore body is estimated at 250,000 long tons, averaging 26 per cent. lead, 22¹⁄₂ per cent. zinc, and another at 300,000 long tons, averaging 32 per cent. zinc, with little lead, but much iron oxide and carbonate. They are controlled by British capital. Considerable difficulty has been experienced in developing a commercial treatment.

In _Peru_ a French company, the Association Minière, has interests in the Compagnie des Mines de Huaron.

DEVELOPMENTS AND CHANGES IN KNOWN GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION IN THE NEAR FUTURE

So far as information is available no marked change in the rate of production in the countries of _Europe_ and northern _Africa_ seems probable. Most of the districts in those countries have been exploited over a long period and have passed their zenith of production; many are approaching exhaustion. The decrease in most of them will, however, be gradual. The most important change in Europe probably will be the transfer to Polish jurisdiction of the whole of the Silesian field, making the new state of Poland, if established as proposed, the largest single source of zinc ore in Europe.

In the _United States_, which will continue to be the largest producer of zinc in the world, the greatest increase in relative importance may be expected from the western metallographic province, particularly in the northwest, in the Butte and Coeur d’Alene districts. The Leadville district has already passed the zenith of production and has dropped to second place after Butte, which is capable of still further increase.

In _Australia_ the Broken Hill district may be expected to yield about 450,000 tons of concentrates annually for some three years, after which the output should drop to about 300,000 tons. The increase of production from Tasmania will largely depend upon the construction of electrolytic zinc plants, but the island will be a factor in production in the immediate future.

The greatest new factor in the world’s output of zinc will be the Bawdwin mines, in _Burma_, which within a short time will be equipped to produce about 300,000 tons of ore annually or about 75,000 tons of high-grade zinc concentrates and 100,000 tons of low-grade concentrates or middlings for treatment by the Ganlin process. The extent to which the zinc concentrates from this ore will be treated in India will be determined by the development of the local market for sulphuric acid. The remainder of the concentrates will be treated in England.

Recent developments in the Altai Mountains of southwestern _Siberia_ have proved immense bodies of complex zinc-lead ores. The extent of their exploitation will, however, be determined largely by the extent of the Russian market as affected by social and political conditions. Removal of the stringent tariff on importations from abroad to the manufacturing centers of Warsaw, Petrograd and Moscow might greatly restrict the market for the output of these mines. Their extreme geographic isolation will prevent the deposits from becoming an important factor in the world market for a long period, notwithstanding their large size and excellent grade.

The utilization of the Rhodesia Broken Hill deposit in _South Africa_ will be delayed by the difficulty of separating the oxidized lead and zinc minerals, the lack of fuel, and geographic and commercial isolation.

POLITICAL CONTROL

Political control of the zinc resources of the world up to the outbreak of the war in 1914 seems to have had only a minor effect upon the industry. Economic factors made ineffective any control not international in scope. A very large percentage of the zinc ores of the world were transported from the country of production to another for treatment, in some cases even being re-exported, sometimes after calcination, for the purpose of utilizing the sulphur content in the production of acid. Tariffs were imposed by some countries, as, for example, by the United States, on certain classes of zinc ores. Such measures had some effect on production in Mexico and Canada. Russia had imposed heavy import duties which subsidized domestic production and stimulated exploration and development. The chief European countries importing and smelting zinc ores admitted them free of duty.

During the World War, however, political jurisdiction was largely invoked to restore control of national resources to citizens of the given country or its allies. This movement was particularly marked in the British Empire, wherein there now exists a joint political and commercial control. Alien interests have been eliminated by government action and the government retains a share in the control through interests in marketing organizations or through financial participation in treatment works. Canada has established a small bounty on zinc produced in Canada from domestic ores and given financial aid to attempts to establish domestic smelting and refining plants.

In the United States the Alien Property Custodian has been active in eliminating all alien enemy control. His appointees will control many important companies for several years. Such action as has been taken does not appear to have disturbed such centralization of control as had been effected.[138]

[138] See Chapter on Copper, pages 232-235, for discussion of German
interests in the American metal trade.

COMMERCIAL CONTROL

Copper, lead and zinc form a class by themselves as regards industrial utility and tonnage produced, ranking after iron, which far outclasses them, as the most important base metals. The annual production of each is considerably more than a million tons. In view of the industrial importance of zinc and the fact that brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is an indispensable material in modern industry, it is not strange that the great industrial nations have contrived many expedients in the endeavor to control the zinc industry.

The ownership and operative control of the mines has been a minor factor in the commercial control of this industry. Economic factors force the location of retort smelting plants in industrial districts adjacent to coal fields, the most important factors being availability and cost of fuel and labor, and proximity to a market for spelter. A lack of fuel and scarcity or high cost of labor has prevented smelting in some regions producing considerable ore. On the other hand, the smelting done in some countries has been entirely disproportionate to their ore output. The revival of nationalist sentiment as a result of the World War may make ownership and operative control a more important factor in the future.

Electrolytic and electro-thermic reduction of ores makes possible the economic production of spelter where previously impossible and may bring about some decentralization of the industry.

Ownership or control of the reduction plants has been an important basis for control of the industry. The most effective control has been exercised through marketing organizations or trade combinations of reduction works, ore-buying and metal-selling agencies, with interlocking directorates, joint ownership and long-term contracts for ores, concentrates and metals. In recent years these became world-wide in their scope and completely dominated the industry.

=United States.=--Below are listed the most important zinc smelting companies in the United States, together with the percentage of the total reduction capacity that each controls:

Percentage of
production controlled
New Jersey Zinc Co. 13.4
American Metal Co. 15.2
Grasselli Chemical Co. 10.1
Anaconda Copper Mining Co. 10.0
United States Steel Corporation 7.7
American Smelting & Refining Co. 7.2
American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co. 5.7
Beer, Sondheimer & Co. 4.7
L. Vogelstein & Co. 1.7
Various independents or of unknown affiliation 24.3

The close affiliations of L. Vogelstein & Co., Beer, Sondheimer & Co., the American Metal Co., and their subsidiary companies, comprising 27.3 per cent. of the smelting capacity, and various ore producers, with their metal-selling contracts with other smelters, enabled them to dominate the American metal market in the interest of the German “Trio.” The Alien Property Custodian took over all three companies during the war and eliminated all alien-enemy ownership and control by disposing of German-owned stock at auction.

The American Metal Co. completely owns the American Zinc & Chemical Co., South American Metal Transport Co., Bartlesville Zinc Co., and South American Metal Co.; it has large holdings of stock in the Ohio and Colorado Smelting & Refining Co., Compañia Minera de Peñoles, Compañia de Minerales y Metales, Compañia Metalurgica de Torreon, Compañia Minera Palmo y Cabrillos, Fundicion de Guayacan, Balbach Smelting & Refining Co., and Nichols Copper Co., some of which operate in Mexico and South America. The capital stock of the American Metal Co. comprised 70,000 shares, of which 34,644 were owned by aliens affiliated with the German “Trio”; 18,620 shares belong to American citizens who have had control of the management, and the remainder belonged to the Merton interests, of London, which has been reorganized by the British government, eliminating alien ownership. The alien-owned shares have been sold by the Alien Property Custodian and the control of the business for a period of five years was vested in a board of five trustees named by him.

The National Zinc Co. was owned by Beer, Sondheimer & Co., one of the German “Trio,” which also owned other metal-producing companies in the United States and Cuba.

The operative control of the American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co. has been acquired by the Butte & Superior Mining Co., dominated by Hayden, Stone & Co., of New York and Boston. A large interest in the American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co. was held by L. Vogelstein & Co., formerly the representative of the German Metallgesellschaft in the United States. The American Zinc, Lead & Smelting Co. controls the Wisconsin Zinc Co.; the American Zinc Co., of Illinois; the American Zinc Co., of Tennessee; and the American Zinc Ore Separating Co.

The New Jersey Zinc Co., an American concern, controls the New Jersey field, and, through its subsidiary, the Empire Zinc Co., owns and operates a number of mines in the western states and Mexico, and the Mineral Point Zinc Co., of Wisconsin, one of the three largest producers in that region, and four zinc smelters.

The Anaconda company operates a number of zinc-producing mines in the Butte district and has erected electrolytic plants for the treatment of its own concentrates, one of 25-tons’ capacity as an experimental plant at Anaconda and a plant of 200-tons’ daily capacity at Great Falls, Montana. It has treated some of the production of other companies, notably of the Butte & Superior Mining Co. It is an American company under American control but has many European stockholders.

=Germany.=--The ambition of German commercial interests to control the metal markets and resources of the world was more nearly realized in the case of zinc than of any other metal.

The German Zinc Syndicate (Zinkhüttenverband) was organized in 1909, by three powerful interests: (1) The Merton group, comprising the Metallgesellschaft, the Metallbank and Metallurgische Gesellschaft, all of Frankfurt, and the Merton companies of London; (2) Beer, Sondheimer & Co., which through the Tellus stock company controlled over a dozen metal and chemical concerns; and (3) Aron Hirsch & Sohn, at Halberstadt; and was immediately joined by all the important Silesian and Rhenish-Westphalian zinc concerns. The organizers were made exclusive selling agencies for the syndicate and purchases from any foreign sources were made in unison. The syndicate immediately made agreements with Austrian and Belgian producers including the Vieille Montagne, which has mines, works and agencies in many parts of the world. It was also joined by a Dutch concern, Zincs de la Campine. The syndicate embraced altogether 18 firms and regulated both their output and prices. By the end of 1912 this German syndicate controlled directly one-half of the world’s output of zinc and three-fourths of the European production.

Two Belgian and some French works formed another syndicate. A third was formed by six English works, and the competition of United States firms drove all three into the International Zinc Syndicate, which endured up to April, 1914. The International regulated the output of its members but did not fix exact prices. Through the American Metal Co., and affiliated companies, the German syndicate was rapidly becoming a factor of importance in the control of American, Mexican, and Australian zinc production at its source. The German syndicate maintained its dominancy and was rapidly extending and strengthening it throughout the world through banks, holding companies, affiliations with syndicates and cartels, interlocking directorates, and joint shareholdings.

As a result of the war, the Australian zinc concentrates are permanently diverted from German reduction works, and all German control is eliminated. The activities of the Alien Property Custodian have tended to eliminate German interests in the United States. The re-establishment of the nation of Poland may take from Germany all the Silesian deposits and reduction plants, leaving only those of the Rhenish-Westphalian, Harz and Erzgebirge regions, with only one-third the former domestic production of ore. Poland should be twice as important as Germany in the zinc industry, unless Germany should be able to import ores and concentrates on a large scale.

=Australia.=--At the outbreak of the World War the Australian zinc industry was in the grip of the great German zinc syndicate, described in more detail above under “Germany.” This controlled the world’s spelter market, determined output and prices and manipulated the market in the interests of Germany. This was possible through long-term contracts for zinc concentrates, in which form nearly the whole zinc product was exported for reduction in Belgium and Germany. Only 10 per cent. of the concentrates was smelted at Port Pirie or in England.

During the war these contracts were cancelled by the Australian and British governments and the work of reconstructing the industry on a purely Australian and British basis was undertaken, the idea being to provide for the treatment, so far as possible, of all ores in Australia, so that they could be marketed in their finished state. The Australian government first formed a metals exchange, through which all metals produced in Australia must pass for sale. The Zinc Producers’ Association Proprietary, Ltd., was registered May 20, 1916, in Victoria, Australia, to market products of the member companies producing zinc ores, concentrates, and metals in the Commonwealth of Australia and Tasmania, all of which have sold their entire output to the association for fifty years. The shares, 100,000 of £1 each, are held by the following companies: Amalgamated Zinc (De Bavay’s); Broken Hill Proprietary, Block 14; Zinc Corporation; Broken Hill Proprietary; Electrolytic Zinc Smelters; Junction North; North Broken Hill; Sulphide Corporation; British Broken Hill; Broken Hill Associated Smelters; Broken Hill Junction; Broken Hill South Silver; Broken Hill Proprietary, Block 10; Mount Lyell Mining & Railway Co.

The Australian federal government, acting through the Zinc Producers’ Association, contracted to sell to the British government the whole output of zinc concentrates in Australia for the period of the war and ten years thereafter. Previously the Prime Minister had contracted for the sale to the imperial government of 100,000 tons of zinc concentrates and 45,000 tons of electrolytic zinc and spelter for ten years. The arrangement provided for the British government taking the stocks of zinc concentrates on hand December 31, 1917, less a definite percentage reserve, and thereafter 250,000 tons per annum for the period of the war, and 300,000 tons annually for the following nine years. Provision was also made for supplying the requirements of the Australian zinc-refining works and the fulfilling of Japanese contracts during the period covered by the British contract. Under normal conditions the Australian output of zinc concentrates, averaging from 46 to 48 per cent. zinc, is about 450,000 tons per annum, valued at $25,000,000.

The effect of the above arrangements is to transfer permanently the control of the Australian zinc industry from German to British citizens under a system jointly commercial and political. The mines and works always were owned by British and Australian capital.

The Zinc Producers’ Association is co-operative in character, guaranteeing to all members equality of treatment irrespective of tonnage. The commonwealth is represented on the board. The federal government is also encouraging in every possible way the establishment of reduction works, particularly electrolytic zinc works. It has been reported that the Burma Corporation was a stockholder of the Zinc Producers’ Association, but this report has not been satisfactorily confirmed. In case it should be true the association may ultimately control the sale of 85 to 95 per cent. of the zinc ores of the British Empire. Having smelting capacity for a considerable part of their production and acting as a unit in selling the surplus, the Australian zinc producers should hereafter be in a strong position in dealing with German, Dutch and Belgian smelters. The smelting capacity will not be largely increased in the near future.

=France.=--The nationalist movement in France during the war resulted in the formation of trade associations known as “consortiums,” comprising the principal factor in each industry.[139]

[139] For a description of the consortium covering the mineral
industry, the Société Minerais et Metaux, see the Chapter on Lead,
pages 284 and 285.

POSITION OF THE GREAT NATIONS

Since the elimination of the alien-enemy interests in the American Metal Co., L. Vogelstein & Co., and Beer, Sondheimer & Co., the industry in the _United States_ is controlled and the mines and works are owned by American capital, which also controls some zinc production in Mexico, Canada and Peru. Future production and consumption will probably balance as before the war. There is now excess smelting capacity, but it has been conclusively demonstrated that the country is capable of supplying the ore for even greater capacity. The United States will retain first place as a producer. During the period of readjustment some concentrates may be shipped to Belgium and Holland.

With the permanent diversion of the Australian concentrates, and the probable loss of the Silesian deposits and reduction works, _Germany_ will lose its second place in the industry. With only the Rhenish, Westphalian, Harz, and Erzgebirge districts as sources of domestic ores, the supply will be reduced to one-third of that produced before 1914, which was only two-thirds of all the ore smelted in the country. Unless ores or concentrates can be imported, Germany will be only a small factor in zinc production. Whereas in 1912 Germany had 50,000 tons of spelter available for export, importation may now be necessary. As a result of the treaty of peace the Polish industry may be dominated by French capital.

Not over 5 per cent. of the ore smelted in _Belgium_ is of domestic production. The mines are owned by French and German companies. The works are owned by French, Belgian and Germans in about equal proportions. Part of the Australian concentrates will be allotted to Belgium for smelting. The largest single factor in the Belgian industry, the Société de la Vieille Montagne, owned and worked mines in Belgium, Moresnet, Germany, Sweden, England, Algiers and Tunis and reduction works in Belgium, Germany and France. Although formerly a member of the German zinc convention this company seems to be controlled by Belgian capital affiliated with the strongest Belgian financial interests. Several other Belgian companies have important interests in France, Spain, Algiers, and Tunis. Close affiliation seems to exist, and may be expected to continue, between French and Belgian capital in the zinc industry.

Let us now consider the _British Empire_. The domestic production of zinc ores in the British Isles is insignificant, but the smelting works have made England an important factor in the industry, although before 1914 they produced only 32 per cent. of the zinc consumption of the empire. The capacity of these works, which are British owned, has been largely increased and new plants are being constructed to treat the concentrates from Australia and Burma, from which sources a supply more than sufficient is assured by the contracts of the imperial government with the Zinc Producers’ Association of Australia. The imperial government is interested in some of the plants. Reduction plants will also be in operation in Australia, Tasmania, India, and Canada. The excess Australian concentrates are to be allotted to French and Belgian works. With the organization now in effect, British domination of the European zinc industry seems certain.

The mines and works of _Australia_ are entirely controlled by English and Australian capital. An organization under Australian government control has been made the sole marketing agency for the producers. The mines of _India_ and _Burma_ are English controlled and the smelter being constructed at Sakchi is partly financed by the Indian government. The mines of _Canada_ are mostly British owned, although there are some American interests. The potential capacity of the mines is large. In spite of government subsidies, the capacity and future of the reduction works is uncertain.

French capital controls all the domestic works and mines of _France_; also those of Greece, Indo-China, Tunis, most of the mines of Algiers, where some Belgian capital is also interested, part of the Belgian and Polish mines and reduction works, some of the Spanish mines and smelters, and probably the Caucasus mines in Russia. France should be an important factor in the industry during the near future.

The largest mines of _Italy_ are owned by Italian companies and some domestic reduction works are under construction by them. The chief producing company in northern Italy is English.

In _Japan_, Japanese capital owns all the domestic mines and works; also those of Chosen (Korea), and is rapidly securing control of the deposits of China and eastern Siberia. The present smelting capacity is greater than domestic consumption and much larger than the domestic ore supply. Ore is imported from China, Siberia, Indo-China and Australia.

As to _Russia_, the ownership of deposits in the Polish regions was divided between Russians and French before 1914, and this condition presumably will be restored, modified by Polish political control. The Russian interests were doubtless under German influence. The Altai Mountains region is controlled by British capital and its development depends wholly upon how internal social and political conditions affect the domestic market to which the product of this region is limited by geographic isolation. Eastern Siberia seems to be rapidly coming under the commercial control of the Japanese.

_Holland_ has no mines but has considerable smelting capacity. It is dependent on its neighbors for coal also. Its future is difficult to forecast. The mines and works of _Spain_ are largely under French and Belgian control, which may be modified by contracts with English interests. The control in _Norway_ and _Sweden_ is not definitely known. It is nominally by local capital but some English and German interests are probable. The Sulphide and the Zinc corporations, both British, are reported interested in the Hydraulic Power & Smelting Co.

The mines and works in _Austria_, which were owned by the Austrian government and Austrian companies, perhaps under German domination, will now be distributed among two or three political jurisdictions. Little ore is imported or exported, and the region as a whole is not an important factor in the industry.

The mines in _Mexico_ are largely owned by Mexicans and Americans. German control is reported to be strong and growing. The possibilities of ore production are large.

SUMMARY

The essential uses of zinc are: in brass, the alloy with copper, an indispensable material in modern industry; in galvanizing as rolled sheets; and in desilverizing lead bullion. The consumption is greatest in galvanizing. The amount used in the form of rolled sheets will increase.

Zinc and lead are commonly associated in their ores and are widely distributed over the world, but the countries of largest ore production are, in order, United States, Germany, and Australia. Burma will soon be of importance. Siberia can produce much ore in the near future, but exploitation will be retarded by political conditions and geographic isolation. Canada, Mexico, Chile, Peru and Bolivia may be expected to increase their output.

The successful commercial application of electro-magnetic, electro-static, and more especially oil flotation processes to the separation and concentration of complex ores has made available vast resources, adding to the list of regions of ore production and materially affecting their relative importance.

Economic factors, particularly availability and cost of fuel and skilled labor in retort smelting and market for spelter, determined the location of reduction works in populous industrial districts adjacent to coal fields. The mineral resources, however, in many instances occur in countries either undeveloped industrially or without abundant and cheap fuel, and a large percentage of the zinc ores are transported from the producing country to another for treatment. In the order of their importance the countries making the most spelter are: the United States, Germany, Belgium, Great Britain and France.

Commercial control of the industry has been based chiefly on the control of reduction plants and ore-buying and metal-selling organizations rather than on ownership of deposits, and to be effective it necessarily became international in scope. Before 1914 an organization, apparently international in character, but really dominated by Germans, had through control on this basis achieved a commanding position in the industry, influencing output and prices quite effectively. During the World War, however, political jurisdiction was largely invoked to restore control of the resources of a country and industries to citizens of that country or its allies. This movement has been particularly marked in the British Empire, wherein there now exists a joint political and commercial control through the Zinc Producers’ Association and contracts in which the governments are participants, and in France, where the Société Minerais et Metaux, under government auspices, comprises all the principal mining and metallurgical companies controlled by French capital and is the arbiter of the metal industry.

A decentralization of the industry and redistribution of reduction works is to some extent resulting from the successful application of electrolytic reduction and to the dissemination of knowledge of the practice of retort smelting.

The _British Empire_ as a unit should be able to dominate the industry in Europe during the near future. _France_, through political and commercial control of Algeria and Tunis, and large financial control in Belgium, Spain and Poland, will be in a strong position. _Belgium_, with minor but widespread financial interests in mines and works in France, Germany, England, Sweden, Spain, Algiers and Tunis, is an important factor in the European situation. Its interests appear closely affiliated with those of France. The _United States_, with large reduction capacity and ore reserves, while maintaining its position as largest producer, is expected to supply domestic consumption but to export little, as was the case prior to the war. The position of _Germany_ will depend mainly upon the supply of foreign ore, which may have to be imported largely from Mexico and the United States.