Chapter XXXI: Platinum

BY JAMES. M. HILL

USES OF PLATINUM

In past discussion of the uses of platinum some confusion has resulted from the lack of appreciation that all commercial platinum is not the pure metal. The pure metal is required for chemical work of all sorts, but for other uses the iridium alloys are used. Electrical platinum contains 15 to 50 per cent. iridium, but averages 25 per cent., and jeweler’s platinum carries about 10 per cent. iridium. Palladium, another of the platinum group metals, is also of importance, chiefly in the form of palladium-gold alloys, which can be used to replace platinum in the dental and jewelry industries. Rhodium, one of the rarer elements of crude platinum, has a limited use in electrical pyrometers. Osmium and ruthenium, the remaining members of the platinum group, appear to have little use, though osmium, when properly used, can be employed as a substitute of iridium to harden platinum alloys.

The essential uses of platinum metals are in the chemical and electrical industries, and probably the dental industry should be classed as essential. Pure platinum is required in the chemical industry for catalysers in the manufacture of sulphuric acid (about 75,000 ounces now in use in the United States) and in the manufacture of nitric acid from ammonia. For the sulphuric-acid industry, platinum chloride is the primary material containing platinum. Asbestos or anhydrous magnesium sulphate soaked in platinum chloride, and then baked to drive off the chlorine, forms what is known as “contact mass,” which is charged into the chambers of contact acid plants. Very fine-mesh platinum gauze is used for the catalyser in nitric-acid plants. Some gauze used for this purpose has a reinforcing edge of platinum-iridium wire. Pure platinum utensils of various kinds, including crucibles, dishes, tongs, and triangles, are required in every chemical laboratory. It is possible to substitute palladium-gold alloys, or even gold, nickel, nichrome, and silica, for some utensils, but no substitutes have yet been found which will entirely replace platinum chemical ware.

Platinum-iridium alloys have been used extensively by the electrical industry, but substitutes are constantly being developed. Tungsten, molybdenum, and nickel-chrome alloys are the principal substitutes used so far, but their use has not done away with the necessity of platinum in the industry. The principal use of platinum-iridium alloys in electrical work is in contact points, and the proportion of iridium necessary in the alloys is directly dependent on the intensity of the current passing through the contacts and the speed at which the contacts move. Probably the largest consumption of platinum alloy is in the manufacture of telephone and telegraph equipment, including sending and receiving instruments, switch boards and relays. There is also a large consumption of platinum for contacts in magnetos used for various kinds of internal-combustion engines. Automobile makers are, however, developing starting systems that do not require platinum, so we can hope for a lessening future demand from that quarter.

Platinum has an important use in dentistry, though in emergencies palladium-gold alloys have been used as substitutes. Seemingly, however, the substitutes are not entirely satisfactory, and it may be necessary to go back to platinum for certain dental uses. The chief uses are for pins for crown work, pins for fastening artificial teeth to plates, and foil for making molds of cavities in which to bake porcelain fillings. For the time being, the palladium-gold substitutes can be used and perhaps they will be developed so that the use of pure platinum in the future may not be necessary.

The non-essential use of platinum metals is in jewelry, and it seems certain that this misuse of platinum metals must be stopped in order that industrial development may continue. It is estimated that for a number of years 50 per cent. of the platinum consumed in the world went into jewelry. A large part of platinum-mounted jewelry is in private ownership, and as the value of the metal in a jewel is approximately 35 per cent. of the total cost, it is evident that it would be difficult, if not impossible, in case of necessity to recover more than a small proportion of the large quantity of platinum that is in the form of jewelry.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The relative importance of the platinum-producing countries of the world can best be judged by the past output, which is shown in the following table,[181] and graphically in the chart.

[181] HILL, J. M.: “Platinum and Allied Metals,” U. S. Geol. Survey,
“Mineral Resources, 1916,” Pt. 1, 1917, p. 3.

The platinum field of Russia is in the Ural Mountains, north of Ekaterinburg. In Colombia, South America, the chief production of platinum has come from the headwater streams of the San Juan River, which enters the Pacific near Buena Ventura; some platinum is found in the upper reaches of the Atrato River, which enters the Caribbean Sea near the east end of Panama. A small amount of platinum and osmiridium has come from New South Wales and some osmiridium from Tasmania. Some of the placers in southwestern Oregon and northern California carry platinum as well as gold. Platinum has recently been determined in concentrates from several localities in Alaska and Canada, and is known in some placers in Borneo and India.

TABLE 72.--ESTIMATED WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PLATINUM, 1909-1917

(In troy ounces)

----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
Country | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
Borneo and Sumatra | 500| 200| ...| ...| 200|
Canada | 30| 30| 30| 30| 50|
New South Wales and Tasmania| 440| 332| 470| 778| 1,500|
Russia |264,000|275,000|300,000|300,000|250,000|
United States | 672| 390| 628| 721| 483|
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
Totals |271,642|285,952|313,128|313,529|267,233|
----------------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

----------------------------+-------+-------+------+------
Country | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917
----------------------------+-------+-------+------+------
Borneo and Sumatra | [182]| [182]| [182]| [182]
Canada | 30| 100| 60| 80
New South Wales and Tasmania| 1,248| 303| 222| [182]
Russia |241,200|124,000|63,000|50,000
United States | 570| 742| 750| 605
+-------+-------+------+------
Totals |260,548|143,145|89,932|82,685
----------------------------+-------+-------+------+------

[182] No basis for estimate.

GEOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLATINUM

Practically all of the platinum metals produced in the world to date have been derived from placer deposits, though a little platinum and palladium have been obtained as a by-product from the electrolytic refining of copper and nickel matte.

The platinum placers of the world are so definitely related to intrusive basic igneous rocks, including pyroxenites, peridotites and dunites, that there is practically no question of the origin of the metal. In fact, in British Columbia, Spain, and Russia platinum has been found in place in these types of rocks, and it is reported that owing to the great value of platinum at present, a project is on foot to crush and wash certain of the bodies of dunite in Russia.

Platinum is not found in all placers derived from basic rocks, but so far as known it is rarely found in placers derived from other types of rocks. Prospecting for platinum placers therefore resolves itself first into a search for deposits of gravel derived in a large part from pyroxenite, peridotite, and dunite. Chromite is a characteristic heavy constituent of platinum sands and in some deposits can be recovered as a by-product in mining. Olivine is also present in considerable amounts. Magnetite and ilmenite are ordinarily present in the concentrates from platinum placers, but are more characteristic of placers in which gold is the most valuable constituent.

A large amount of prospecting has been done in Russia and Spain, based on the theory of origin outlined above. Much of this prospecting has been successful in locating platiniferous placers, but many of these recent discoveries do not seem to be of commercial worth. It is not possible to foretell whether placers derived from basic igneous rocks will be productive. The most that can be told is that certain placers derived from these rocks hold the greatest promise for the searcher for platinum. Platinum is such a rare metal and is found in such small quantities in its mother rock that it is necessary to have certain physiographic conditions present to predicate commercial deposits. Most important of these conditions is extremely prolonged or very rapid weathering of the primary deposits. In the Russian field, rock-weathering has been in progress for great geologic time; on the other hand, in Colombia, South America, the period of weathering seems to have been relatively short, but so rapid that the same result has been obtained.

Ordinarily, platinum is not found in commercial quantities in gravels that have not been reconcentrated, and the richer deposits of the world seem to be the results of repeated reconcentrations of platinum-bearing material. Crude or placer platinum is not pure metal, but contains, besides other metals of the platinum group, more or less iron, nickel, and copper. Russian crude platinum is ordinarily sold on the assumption that it contains 83 per cent. platinum metals; Colombian crude, 85 per cent. platinum metals. Some placer platinum, so-called, carries a large proportion of osmiridium. Thus the Oregon and California crude platinum carries from 25 to 45 per cent. iridium, and Tasmanian platinum is really nearly pure osmiridium.

The following analyses of Russian,[183] Colombian,[184] and American[184] platinum serve to illustrate the wide divergence of metal content of crude platinum.

TABLE 73.--ANALYSES OF CRUDE PLATINUM FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD

--------------------------------------+--------------------
North America[183] | South America[183]
--------+------+------+------+--------+------+--------+----
| Cali-| Cali-| |British |Colom-|Colom-|Colom-
|fornia|fornia|Oregon|Columbia| bia | bia | bia
--------+------+------+------+--------+------+------+------
Pt. | 85.50| 63.30| 51.45| 72.07 | 86.20| 86.16| 80.00
Ir. | 1.05| 0.70| 0.40| 1.14 | 0.85| 1.09| 1.55
Rh. | 1.00| 1.80| 0.65| 2.57 | 1.40| 2.16| 2.50
Pd. | 0.60| 0.10| 0.15| 0.19 | 0.50| 0.35| 1.00
Os. | ...| ...| ...| ... | ...| 0.97|
Io₃[186]| 1.10| 22.55| 27.30| 10.51 | 0.95| 1.19| 1.40
Au. | 0.80| 0.30| 0.85| ... | 1.00| ...| 1.50
Fe. | 6.75| 6.40| 4.30| 8.59 | 7.80| 8.03| 7.20
Cu. | 1.40| 4.25| 2.15| 3.39 | 0.60| 0.40| 0.65
Sand. | 2.95| ...| 3.00| 1.69 | 0.40| ...| 4.35
--------+------+------+------+--------+------+------+------
|101.15| 99.40|100.25| 100.15 |100.25|100.35|100.15
--------+------+------+------+--------+------+------+------

-----------------------------------------+
Oceania[185] |
--------+------+--------+---------+------+
|Borneo|N. S. W.|Australia|Taguil|
| | |Tasmania?| |
--------+------+--------+---------+------+
Pt. | 82.60| 75.90 | 61.40 | 76.16|
Ir. | 0.66| 1.30 | 1.10 | 2.68|
Rh. | ...| 1.30 | 1.85 | 0.54|
Pd. | ...| Trace | 1.80 | 0.27|
Os. | | | | |
Io₃[186]| 3.80| 9.30 | 26.00 | 1.50|
Au. | 0.20| ... | 1.20 | ...|
Fe. | 10.67| 10.15 | 4.55 | 14.72|
Cu. | 0.13| 0.41 | 1.10 | 3.39|
Sand. | ...| 1.22 | 1.20 | |
--------+------+--------+---------+------+
| 98.06| 99.58 | 100.20 | 99.26|
--------+------+--------+---------+------+

--------+--------------------------------------
| Russia[187]
--------+-----+----------+---------+-----------
| Iso |Kamenonchy|Koswinsky|Kanjakowaky
| | | |
--------+-----+----------+---------+-----------
Pt. |80.10| 82.46 | 83.50 | 60.39
Ir. | 1.38| 1.79 | 2.74 | 6.90
Rh. | 0.30| 0.69 | 0.62 | 0.80
Pd. | 0.30| 0.18 | 0.28 | 0.19
Os. | | | |
Io₃[186]| 4.47| 4.99 | 0.79 | 20.21
Au. | 0.09| 0.27 | 0.07 |
Fe. | 7.68| 9.49 | 11.05 | 11.16
Cu. | 0.63| 0.54 | 1.14 | 0.49
Sand. | | | |
--------+-----+----------+---------+-----------
|94.95| 100.41 | 100.19 | 100.04
--------+-----+----------+---------+-----------

[183] DUPARC, LOUIS: “Le Platine et les gîtes platiniferes de
l’Oural”: Soc. des Eng. Civ. de France. Bull. Jan.-Mar., 1916.

[184] KEMP, J. F.: “The Geological Relation and Distribution of
Platinum and Associated Metals”: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 193.

[185] Analyses cited by KEMP.

[186] Io₃ is abbreviation used for osmiridium.

[187] Analyses cited by DUPARC.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PLATINUM

The relative importance of the platinum-producing countries of the world can best be judged by the past output, which is shown in the following table[188] and graphically in Figure 22.

[188] HILL, J. M.: “Platinum and Allied Metals”: U. S. Geol. Survey
“Mineral Resources, 1916,” Pt. I, 1917, p. 3.

TABLE 74.--ESTIMATED WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PLATINUM, 1909-1917

(Troy ounces)

---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |
---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
Borneo and | | | | | |
Sumatra | 500| 200| ...| ...| 300|
Canada | 30| 30| 30| 30| 50|
Colombia | 6,000| 10,000| 12,000| 12,000| 15,000|
New South Wales| | | | | |
and Tasmania | 440| 332| 470| 778| 1,500|
Russia |264,000|275,000|300,000|300,000|250,000|
United States | 672| 390| 628| 721| 483|
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
|271,642|285,952|313,128|313,529|267,233|
---------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

---------------+-------+-------+------+------
| 1914 | 1915 | 1916 | 1917
---------------+-------+-------+------+------
Borneo and | | | |
Sumatra | | | |
Canada | 30| 100| 60| 80
Colombia | 17,500| 18,000|25,000|32,000
New South Wales| | | |
and Tasmania | 1,248| 303| 222|
Russia |241,000|125,000|63,900|50,000
United States | 570| 742| 750| 605
+-------+-------+------+------
|260,548|143,145|89,932|82,685
---------------+-------+-------+------+------

=Russia.=--Russian placer deposits have supplied approximately 95 per cent. of the platinum in the world. The principal placer deposits rich in platinum are in the central Urals, in the Perm government, near Nishni-Tagilsk, Nishni-Turinsk, and Verkhoturshi. The richer deposits are on the eastern slope of the mountains, principally on the Iss and Veeya tributaries of the Tura River of the Obi drainage. Several important placers are found on the west slope of the mountains on the headwaters of the Chusovaia and Kama rivers of the Volga drainage. Near Nishni-Tagilsk platiniferous placers occur both on the Taguil, a tributary of the Obi, and on the Martian, a headwater stream of the Volga drainage. In these placers platinum is the predominant metal, but gold is also found. The greater part of the output in the past has been by hand-washing, but of recent years much of the ground has been reworked by dredges, though it is still safe to say that over 75 per cent. of the output is from hand labor. It is hardly practicable in a report of this sort to discuss in detail the individual deposits, even were the information at hand. The best information available can be summarized as follows: most of the platinum has undoubtedly originated from the disintegration of dunitic, pyroxenitic, or peridotitic rocks. The period of weathering has been very long and there have been many changes in the drainage systems, which have now reached maturity. The stream grades are low; the inter-stream relief is relatively slight. The platinum has probably been reconcentrated many times and is at present won principally from present valley gravels, though the pay channels do not always follow the present river channels. Some bench-ground representing old river channels is worked, particularly in the Nishni-Tagilsk region. The pay gravels ordinarily rest on bed-rock, though concentration on clay beds forming false bed-rock is fairly common. The pay dirt ranges from a few inches to as much as 6 feet in thickness. It has few large boulders, but has considerable clay in many places. The overburden ranges from 2 to 16 feet in thickness, averaging 8 to 10 feet. It consists of a thick basal portion of practically barren gravel and sand, or clay and sand lenses interlayered with gravel, which is overlain by 2 to 3 feet of clay sand and vegetable matter similar to the “muck” of the Alaskan mines.

In shallow ground, up to 3 feet deep, mining is carried on by open-cut methods; in the deeper ground shafts and drifting have been employed. For the deposits in river channels crude hand dredges were and still are used for raising the gravels. About 35 more or less modern dredges were engaged in platinum mining prior to the war. Clay is so generally found in the gravels that specially designed machines have been used to save the platinum and the newer dredges have special devices to cope with this problem.

=Colombia.=--The platinum district of Colombia covers the upper waters of the Atrato and San Juan rivers in the Choco district of northwestern Colombia. Platinum is known as far north as Bete, on the Atrato, and in many of the tributaries of the San Juan which enter from the east. Most of the platinum exported from Colombia has come from the Condoto River, a headwater stream of the San Juan. It is stated that in this stream the platinum constitutes about 75 per cent. of the precious metal in the gravel. On the Atrato the platinum content is lower, ranging from 5 to 15 per cent. Platinum and osmiridium also occur in the streams south of the San Juan drainage, which enter directly into the Pacific, though little authentic data concerning them are available.

According to Dr. Tulio Ospina,[189] Director of the School of Mines, Medellin, Colombia, platinum is found widespread in conglomerates which cover an extensive area in the Atrato and San Juan basins. The metal has been reconcentrated in the present stream channels from which the major output of platinum comes. According to the statements of various observers, there are places on the interstream areas in which platinum has been concentrated. These areas are, from all accounts, old stream channels. The primary platinum deposits evidently are to be looked for on the west slope of the western ridge of the Andes, though no literature which gives detailed information on the geology of this range has been found. Peridotite, dunite, and other basic igneous rocks are represented in the platiniferous gravels.

[189] Proceedings Second Pan-American Scientific Congress, vol. 8,
1917.

There is almost no information upon which to base an estimate as to the possible reserves of platinum in Colombia. Little has been published on the subject that gives good data on the geology of the country, but from all accounts it seems safe to assume that Colombia holds much promise and should be more carefully prospected. Over 90 per cent. of the platinum mined in Colombia is won by natives, mostly women, who raise the gravel in _calabaches_ and wash the gravels in _bateas_. The dry season is utilized, for then the low places in the river are more exposed. There is one dredge in operation in Colombia at present, though other dredging operations have been tried, which, for various causes, were not successful.

=Canada.=--A small quantity of platinum is produced each year by the placer operations on the Tulameen River, in _British Columbia_. The metal was derived from a mass of peridotite and dunite, which outcrops west of the main drainage. The gravels of this area are apparently very deep, but the platinum is found in the upper 8 to 20 feet, in part concentrated on a false bed-rock. Recent information indicates the possibility of dredging a considerable acreage of gravels on the Tulameen in the vicinity of Princeton. Reports were current during 1917 of discoveries of platiniferous placers further north in the Canadian Rockies, but no definite information concerning the size or value of the deposits is available.

By far the greater part of the yearly output of platinum and palladium of Canadian origin is a by-product of refining the nickel ores of the Sudbury district, _Ontario_. That a far greater production of both metals from this source is possible has been shown by the Royal Ontario Nickel Commission.

=United States.=--Crude platinum is won in California, Oregon, and Washington. The dredges at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains in _California_ produce a large part of the placer platinum output of the United States, principally because of the great yardage handled rather than because of any particular concentration of platinum in the gravels derived from the Mother Lode belt. In northern California the Klamath and Trinity rivers, particularly the Hay Fork of the Trinity, carry platiniferous gravels. In southwestern _Oregon_ platiniferous gravels have been found at several places on the Illinois and Rogue rivers. Along the beach from Bandon, Oregon, to Eureka, California, platinum occurs with the black sands and has been won at a number of mines located both on the present strand line and on ancient elevated beaches. In the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon and in the Strawberry Range south of John Day River a few placers have been worked which carried platinum. In _Washington_, particularly on the south fork of Lewis River, near Yacolt, platinum has been found, and it is reported on the beaches from the Straits of Juan de Fuca south.

All of the platinum-bearing placers in the United States are closely associated with chromiferous serpentine derived from peridotites or pyroxenites. The concentration of the platinum has not been great and the original quantity was not large, so none of the areas seems capable of much production. Most of the crude platinum from the Pacific Coast placers carries considerable osmiridium. As stated before, the great bulk of the platinum won in the United States is from the dredging fields at the base of the Sierra Nevada Mountains from Butte to Stanislaus County. The gravels in these fields are the result of several reconcentrations, but their platinum content can not be considered high. In practically all of the other stream placer areas the gravels have not been subject to such extensive reconcentration, and in some places recent gravels carry platinum. The beach deposits are the result of repeated concentration. The platinum and gold are excessively small, flaky, and difficult to separate from the heavy sands; they are concentrated in the dark bands of sand caused by tidal and wave concentration. The lenses are rarely over one foot thick and taper out in short distances. Correct estimates of reserves are consequently almost impossible.

Within the past few years a little platinum has been won from widely scattered localities in _Alaska_, chiefly Dime, Bear, and Sweepstake Creek placers in eastern Seward Peninsula; the Boob Creek placers, Tolstoi district, Lower Yukon; and the beach deposits of Kodiak Island. Platinum also occurs in the Upper Kahiltna drainage, north of Anchorage.

Copper ores rich in palladium are produced at the Rambler mine, _Wyoming_, from the Salt Chuck Mine, _Alaska_, and from the Boss mine, in _Nevada_. At the two former mines the ore is associated with basic igneous rocks; in the latter mine the ore bodies are in dolomite. The oft-repeated reports of platinum in certain sandstones exposed near the Bright Angel trail in the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, _Arizona_, and in certain shale beds in Chester County, _Pennsylvania_, have not been verified, though in June, 1918, the United States Platinum Co. was organized to work the deposits in Arizona.

=Australia.=--Platinum and osmiridium have been won in small quantities from Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania. Platinum is also reported from New Zealand. The greater production has been from the osmiridium-bearing gravels of the Savage River drainage in the Bald Hills mining district in the northwestern part of _Tasmania_. Little has been published concerning the extent of these gravels, which were derived from the weathering of a series of sediments intruded by basic igneous rocks.

In _New South Wales_, beach deposits much like those of California and Oregon are found from Beachy Head north past Clarence and Richmond rivers into Queensland. Commercial exploitation of these deposits seems to have had the ups and many downs of similar undertakings on our West Coast. Some platinum was obtained from an old buried channel in the Platina or Fifield district in central New South Wales, where pay gravel 6 to 10 feet thick lies under an overburden of 20 to 80 feet. The water supply was not in sufficient quantities to warrant large-scale operations. The channel seems small and has been mined about as far as is commercially possible.

=Spain.=--What may prove to be commercial placer deposits have been found in the Sierra Ronda, in southern Spain, about 50 miles northwest of the port of Malaga. The deposits have been discussed in some detail by Duparc.[190] Apparently the gravels have not been rearranged by nature many times, the concentration of platinum is not great, and it is problematical whether extensive development will be warranted.

[190] DUPARC, LOUIS, and GROSSETT, AUGUSTINE: “Etude comparée des
gîtes platiniferes de la Sierra de Ronda et de l’Oural”: Soc. Phys.
et Hist. Nat. Geneve, Mem., t. 38, fasc. 5, 1916.

=Other Countries.=--A small amount of platinum is produced as a by-product from gold dredges on the Irawadi River, in _India_, and from the tin dredges in the _Dutch East Indies_. Unconfirmed reports have been received of discoveries of platinum in southern _Siberia_, at various places in _Mexico_, and from several localities in _Ecuador_ and _Peru_. Platinum is known to occur in some of the streams as well as in certain of the gold deposits of the Minas Geraes district of _Brazil_.

In southwestern _Borneo_ platinum occurs in the Tanath-Laut district. Several Russian writers have given information on this region.

PROBABLE CHANGES IN KNOWN GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION IN THE NEAR FUTURE

At present the Russian platinum fields are practically idle. The dredges are for the most part not running and the industry is disorganized. It will require considerable expense and several months’ time to rehabilitate the Russian platinum industry. The known deposits of the Russian field are becoming exhausted, and the reserves of known platiniferous gravels are stated by Duparc to have a life of 12 years, based on the pre-war rate of production; or, stated differently, the known deposits are capable of producing between 3,000,000 and 3,600,000 ounces of platinum before they are exhausted.

Colombia seems to have large reserves of unworked platinum-bearing ground, though so little detailed information is available that it is unsafe to predict their future. It is safe, however, to point out that all reports indicate that careful prospecting in the Choco district will probably be repaid by the discovery of considerable areas of platinum-bearing ground.

The Canadian deposits hold some promise of future production. Several recent discoveries of platinum along the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, from the Tulameen to the Stikeen, indicate that further search may be rewarded. If reports are true, there is a considerable area on the Tulameen, Willow and Peace rivers which can be dredged for the recovery of gold and platinum. The most important Canadian platinum reserves are in the Sudbury nickel deposits, but present metallurgical practice will have to be changed to obtain the maximum output of platinum and palladium from these ores.

In the United States there does not seem to be hope for a considerable increase in the output of platinum; in fact, it may be that the production will be materially less when the new refineries for the treatment of Sudbury ores are completed in Canada. The placer deposits carrying platinum are for the most part relatively small; many of those in northern California and Oregon can not be worked economically and few are available for dredging. As the gold-dredging field along the base of the Sierras becomes exhausted, the output of platinum in this country will decline in proportion, barring the discovery of new ground and deposits of gravel richer in platinum than those now known.

The various Australian platinum deposits do not seem particularly promising, as regards production, with the possible exception of the Bald Hill dredging field, in Tasmania. The Fifield deposits seem to be nearly exhausted and the beach deposits in New South Wales and Queensland are too low grade and the valuable minerals are too erratic in distribution to appear of much commercial interest.

The Spanish deposits have not yet been sufficiently explored to determine their extent, but published reports do not seem to indicate that they will prove very large or particularly rich.

POLITICAL CONTROL

As Table 74 shows, _Russia_ has political control of approximately 90 per cent. of the world’s supply of platinum. It seems probable that _Canada_, in the nickel ore of the Sudbury district and in the known placers in the Tulameen and Barkersville districts, has control of the third largest reserve of platinum. The deposits under the political control of the _United States_ in Alaska and on the Pacific Coast are relatively insignificant. _Great Britain_ naturally controls the platinum in her colonial possessions, Australia, Tasmania, and India. The output of the _Dutch East Indies_, from Borneo and Sumatra, is relatively small, although there is a possibility that the production from these countries may be increased. _Spain_ may, perhaps, control a small output of platinum, though it does not seem probable that the production from this country will ever be large. A large area in the Sierra Ronda Mountains has been set aside by the government for further prospecting under the auspices of the government, and it seems reasonable to believe, judging from the general mineral policy of Spain, that in the event of the proving of commercial deposits they will be worked under government auspices rather than by private persons.

Although the deposits in _Colombia_ are politically controlled by that country, they are, nevertheless, owned largely by American interests.

COMMERCIAL CONTROL

=Through Ownership of Mines.=--Prior to the war, French commercial interests practically dominated the platinum industry of _Russia_, through the operations of the Compagnie Internationale du Platine. This company not only had extensive mining holdings but also had contracts with the two largest independent Russian platinum producers, namely, the Shouvaloff and Demidoff companies, for their entire output. The contracts were suspended by the French company shortly after the declaration of war and may not be remade. There are, however, two Russian companies which are more or less independent of French control and there are a large number of small miners and peasants who know no allegiance to any particular buying concern. It appears that at least 75 per cent. of the platinum production of Russia is (or was, previous to the Bolshevist domination) controlled by the following companies: Compagnie Internationale du Platine (French), Shouvaloff’s company (Russian), Demidoff company (Russian), Nicolo-Pavdinski company (Russian), and the Platina company (Russian). During 1914 these companies were operating approximately 35 dredges in the platinum field, though from the best reports now available it does not seem that more than two or three of the dredges were at work during 1917. The reader should realize, however, that the production from dredges has always been relatively small, as compared with the output made by other methods. It is estimated that about 80 per cent. of the platinum won from the Russian placers is recovered by hand labor by lessees (starateli) who contract to dispose of their production to the companies owning the ground and pay a royalty for the privilege of working. Since the war the peasants and miners are virtually in control of all the mines and the original operators have little to do with operation or management.

The most important platinum-bearing placers in _Colombia_ are controlled by American financial interests. The General Development Co., of New York, through two subsidiary companies, controls a large area in the headwater region of the San Juan River, particularly on the Condoto River. Recently these interests have organized the South American Gold & Platinum Co. The Quito Mining Co. controls a considerable acreage on the Quito River between Quibdo and Istimina. There are other small American holdings in the vicinity of Negua, on the Atrato drainage, and on the Tamana and Sipi, on the San Juan drainage. Late in 1917 a British company was organized for the development of extensive holdings on the Opogodo River, in the upper San Juan drainage. If the present conditions are not changed by special legislation in Colombia it would seem that American financial interests will continue to dominate the Colombia platinum field.

The platinum deposits of the _United States_ are apparently largely in the hands of small holders, who are citizens of this country. A few of the large dredges in California, which are producing platinum as a by-product, are, in part, owned by British capital.

Apparently the beach deposits in _Australia_ (in New South Wales and Queensland) are worked in a small way by local capital, as are the deposits near Platina and Fifield. The Tasmania deposits are controlled by local capital.

As to _Canada_, it is understood that a large part of the gravel area of the Tulameen River, near Princeton, British Columbia, is controlled by American capital. A few claims on the upper Tulameen are controlled by Canadian capital. An American company has recently been organized for the purpose of exploiting certain prospective areas in the Barkersville region, in north-central British Columbia, and it is understood that Canadian capital has rather extensive holdings on the Peace River, in northern British Columbia, which are reported to contain considerable quantities of platinum. The nickel deposits of Ontario, which have a considerable prospective value as producers of both platinum and palladium, are operated by the Mond Nickel Co., under British control, and the International Nickel Co., under American control. However, the Canadian government is regulating the operations of both of these companies.

=Through Ownership of Reduction Plants.=--It is a peculiar fact that while the larger part of the Russian crude platinum is sold through a French company, nevertheless _England_ has refined the greater part of the output of Russia. The Johnson Matthey Co., of London, is the largest platinum refiner in England. Prior to the war this company is said to have refined about 70 per cent. of the Russian platinum production.

In _Germany_ the chief platinum refiner is W. C. Heraeus, of Hanau. This company is said to be owned chiefly by Dr. Heraeus and the estate of Heinrich Heraeus. The firm of F. Eisennad & Co., at Offenbach, a small platinum refiner, was acquired by Heraeus’ interests just prior to the war. G. Seibert, of Hanau, also refines platinum, the operations being financed by the Seibert Bros., and the Deutsche Gold und Silberscheidenanstalt, of Frankfort. According to Russian figures, about 25 per cent. of the Russian output was refined by Germany and presumably a large part of the work was done by Heraeus. Heraeus interests without doubt predominate the platinum-refining industry of Germany.

The chief platinum refiner of _France_ is Quenessen, de Belmont, Legendre et Cie., which is controlled by the estate of MM. Desmoutis and Lamaire. Other small refineries are the Lyon Allemand, the Credit Lyonnais, Herique Marrett & Bonnin, and Hesse Fils, all of Paris. Apparently the first company is the controlling factor in the French industry.

In the _United States_ the platinum industry is controlled by Baker & Co., American Platinum Works, Irvington Smelting & Refining Works, Hanovia Chemical Co., and Charles Englehard. There are several independent platinum refiners in the United States, though their combined output is less than a quarter of the domestic industry. These are J. Bishop & Co., Malvern, Pennsylvania; Wilson Co., Newark, New Jersey; Belais & Cohn, New York City; Kastenhuber & Lehrfeld, New York City, and Goldsmith Bros., Smelting & Refining Co., New York City and Chicago, which are operated financially by American capital. The Rossler & Hasslacher Chemical Co., of New York City, also refines some platinum.

Prior to the war there was more or less interlocking of the interests of Johnson and Matthey of London, Quenessen of Paris, Heraeus of Hanau, and Baker & Co. of New York. It is generally conceded that prior to the war Heraeus actually controlled the American interests now dominated by Englehard. However, when war was declared these various companies, by interchange of their stock, were separated, so that it now appears that German money is no longer interested in the English, French, or American platinum industry. It is probable, however, that both the English and French companies still hold stock in the American company, though the control of the American interests is now held by Charles Englehard through ownership of the majority of the stock of the companies mentioned above.

It is reported that there were two government-owned platinum refineries in Russia prior to the war, though apparently they handle only a very small quantity of the platinum produced in Russia and no platinum from any foreign countries.

POSITION OF THE WORLD AS REGARDS PLATINUM

As explained above, owing to the location of the chief platinum-producing regions, Russia has been the source of practically all of the world’s platinum, though commercially the French controlled the marketing of the bulk of the Russian output. Since 1914 practically no platinum has been exported and what little did get out came mostly to the United States. The situation of the various countries can be summarized as follows:

_Russia_ normally used little of her own platinum, exporting it to England, Germany, and France. The country had almost no platinum-refining capacity, the industry being controlled by French and Russian capital with more or less German influence. Since the war the platinum mines have not been extensively worked and in fact their production has decreased greatly. Any accumulated stocks of platinum that may have been in Russia probably found their way into Germany and into Allied lands.

Before the war _Germany_ refined about 25 per cent. of the Russian production of platinum; she has no deposits within her own territory. She had built up great chemical and electrical industries, which required large stocks of platinum, and probably was in a fair position with regard to the metal when war was declared. It seems probable that there is a shortage of platinum in Germany at present, for any great expansion of either chemical or electrical industries.

_France_ through her control of the bulk of the Russian output was in position to have accumulated considerable stocks of platinum, and that she did so is indicated by the fact that the government did not undertake any regulation of the platinum industry until early in 1918, and it does not appear that any great expansion of the chief industries requiring platinum was necessitated.

About 70 per cent. of the Russian, probably half of the Colombian, and all of the Australian and Indian platinum was sold in _England_ prior to the war. It is believed that not all of this was refined in England, for considerable amounts of crude platinum were exported from England to the United States; however, large stocks of the platinum metals were on hand in England when war was declared. England had to build a great chemical industry during the war, and quickly used what reserves she had, so that the government early in the war saw the necessity of controlling the use of platinum metals.

The _United States_ has been and will continue to be dependent on foreign platinum. At present all of the Colombian platinum is coming to this country. When we entered the war the stocks of platinum in the United States were about 50 per cent. of the normal, and as we had to build large chemical and electrical industries, those stocks were rapidly exhausted.

_Colombia_ has no platinum refineries; apparently she has use for none of the output of her mines. Before the war her crude platinum was shipped to England and the United States for refining, but at present it is all coming to the United States.

SUMMARY

About 90 per cent. of the crude platinum produced annually has come from the Ural Mountains, Russia. The deposits of next importance are situated in Colombia, South America. Small amounts are produced in Canada (chiefly as a by-product in the refining of nickel ore), in New South Wales, Tasmania, the United States, Dutch East Indies, India and Spain.

The political control of the platinum deposits of the world corresponds to geographical distribution. Russia and Colombia control the principal deposits, and the United States, Great Britain, Holland, and Spain the minor ones.

Prior to the war, a French company had extensive holdings in Russia, and in addition had contracts with two Russian platinum producers for their entire output. These contracts were canceled shortly after the declaration of war. The remaining deposits of the Russian fields are controlled by two independent Russian companies and by a large number of small miners. At present the peasants and miners are virtually in control of the mines and the owners have little to do with their operation or management.

The principal platinum-bearing placers of Colombia are controlled by American interests. A British company was organized recently to develop holdings in the upper San Juan drainage. With the exception of a few of the large dredges of California, owned in part by British capital, the platinum deposits of the United States are owned by American citizens. The platinum deposits of Australia are probably held for the most part by British capital.

American capital controls a large part of the platinum gravel area of British Columbia. A few claims are controlled by Canadians. The companies operating the nickel deposits of Ontario, from which platinum is produced as a by-product, are American and British.

About 75 per cent. of the Russian platinum has been refined in England and most of the remainder in Germany. Before the war there was an interlocking of the interests of the platinum refiners of the United States, Germany and Great Britain, which has been broken as far as Germany is concerned.