Chapter I: Preface

The want of a short and easy introduction to the study of Icelandic has been felt for a long time--in fact, from the very beginning of that study in England. The _Icelandic Reader_, edited by Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell, in the Clarendon Press Series, is a most valuable book, which ought to be in the hands of every student; but it still leaves room for an elementary primer. As the engagements of the editors of the Reader would have made it impossible for them to undertake such a work for some years to come, they raised no objections to my proposal to undertake it myself. Meanwhile, I found the task was a more formidable one than I had anticipated, and accordingly, before definitely committing myself to it, I made one final attempt to induce Messrs. Vigfusson and Powell to take it off my hands; but they very kindly encouraged me to proceed with it; and as I myself thought that an Icelandic primer, on the lines of my Anglo-Saxon one, might perhaps be the means of inducing some students of Old English to take up Icelandic as well, I determined to go on.

In the spelling I have not thought it necessary to adhere strictly to that adopted in the Reader, for the editors have themselves deviated from it in their _Corpus Poeticum Boreale_, in the way of separating _ǫ_ from _ö_, etc. My own principle has been to deviate as little as possible from the traditional spelling followed in normalized texts. There is, indeed, no practical gain for the beginner in writing _tīme_ for _tīmi_, discarding _ð_, etc., although these changes certainly bring us nearer the oldest MSS., and cannot be dispensed with in scientific works. The essential thing for the beginner is to have _regular_ forms presented to him, to the exclusion, as far as possible, of isolated archaisms, and to have the defective distinctions of the MSS. supplemented by diacritics. I have not hesitated to substitute (¯) for (´) as the mark of length; the latter ought in my opinion to be used exclusively--in Icelandic as well as in Old English and Old Irish--to represent the actual accents of the MSS.

In the grammar I have to acknowledge my great obligations to Noreen's _Altisländische Grammatik_, which is by far the best Icelandic grammar that has yet appeared--at least from that narrow point of view which ignores syntax, and concentrates itself on phonology and inflections.

The texts are intended to be as easy, interesting, and representative as possible. With such a language, and such a master of it as Snorri to choose from, this combination is not difficult to realise. The beginner is indeed to be envied who makes his first acquaintance with the splendid mythological tales of the North, told in an absolutely perfect style. As the death of Olaf Tryggvason is given in the Reader only from the longer recension of the Heimskringla, I have been able to give the shorter text, which is admirably suited for the purposes of this book. The story of Auðun is not only a beautiful one in itself, but, together with the preceding piece, gives a vivid idea of the Norse ideal of the kingly character, which was the foundation of their whole political system. As the Reader does not include poetry (except incidentally), I have added one of the finest of the Eddaic poems, which is at the same time freest from obscurity and corruption--the song of Thor's quest of his hammer.

In the glossary I have ventured to deviate from the very inconvenient Scandinavian arrangement, which puts _þ_, _æ_, _œ_, right at the end of the alphabet.

I have to acknowledge the great help I have had in preparing the texts and the glossary from Wimmer's _Oldnordisk Læsebog_, which I consider to be, on the whole, the best reading-book that exists in any language. So excellent is Wimmer's selection of texts, that it was impossible for me to do otherwise than follow him in nearly every case.

In conclusion, it is almost superfluous to say that this book makes no pretension to originality of any kind. If it contributes towards restoring to Englishmen that precious heritage--the old language and literature of Iceland--which our miserably narrow scheme of education has hitherto defrauded them of, it will have fulfilled its purpose.

HENRY SWEET London, February, 1886

GRAMMAR

1. This book deals with Old Icelandic in its classical period, between 1200 and 1350.

PRONUNCIATION

2. The Icelandic alphabet was founded on the Latin, with the addition of _þ_ and _ð_, and of the modified letters _ę_, _ǫ_, _ø_, which last is in this book written _ö_, _ǫ̈_.

Vowels

3. The vowel-letters had nearly the same values as in Old English. Long vowels were often marked by (´). In this book long vowels are regularly marked by (¯)[1]. The following are the elementary vowels and diphthongs, with examples, and key-words from English, French (F.), and German (G.):--

[Footnote 1: Note that the longs of _ę_, _ö_ are written _æ_, _œ_, respectively.]

a _as in_ mann (G.) halda (_hold_)
ā " father rāð (_advice_)
e " été (F.) gekk (_went_)
ē[2] . . . lēt (let _pret._)
ę " men męnn (_men_)

[Footnote 2: Where no keyword is given for a long vowel, its sound is that of the corresponding short vowel lengthened.]

æ _as in_ there sær (_sea_)
i " fini (F.) mikill (_great_)
ī . . . lītill (_little_)
o " beau (F.) orð (_word_)
ō . . . tōk (_look_)
ǫ " not hǫnd (_hand_)
ö " peu (F.) kömr (_comes_)
œ . . . fœra (_bring_)
ǫ̈ " peur (F.) gǫ̈ra (_make_)
u " sou (F.) upp (_up_)
ū . . . hūs (_house_)
y " tu (F.) systir (_sister_)
ȳ . . . lȳsa (_shine_)
au " haus (G.) lauss (_loose_)
ei = ę + i bein (_bone_)
ey = ę + y leysa (_loosen_)

4. The unaccented _i_ in _systir_, etc. (which is generally written _e_ in the MSS.) probably had the sound of _y_ in _pity_, which is really between _i_ and _e_. The unacc. _u_ in _fōru_ (they went), etc. (which is generally written _o_ in the MSS.) probably had the sound of _oo_ in _good_.

Note that several of the vowels go in pairs of _close_ and _open_, thus:

close : e ē o ō ö œ
open : ę æ ǫ - ǫ̈ -

Consonants

5. Double consonants followed by a vowel must be pronounced really double, as in Italian. Thus the _kk_ in _drekka_ (to drink) must be pronounced like the _kc_ in _bookcase_, while the _k_ in _dręki_ (dragon) is single, as in _booking_. When final (or followed by another cons.) double conss. are pronounced long, as in _munn_ (mouth _acc._), _hamarr_ (hammer _nom._), _steinn_ (stone _nom._), distinguished from _mun_ (will _vb._), and the accusatives _hamar_, _stein_.

6. _k_ and _g_ had a more front (palatal) sound before the front vowels _e_, _ę_, _i_, _ö_, _ǫ̈_, _y_, and their longs, as also before _j_, as in _kęnna_ (known), _keyra_ (drive), _gǫ̈ra_ (make), _liggja_ (lie).

7. _kkj_, _ggj_ were probably pronounced simply as double front _kk_, _gg_, the _j_ not being pronounced separately.

8. *f* had initially the sound of our _f_, medially and finally that of _v_, as in _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (gave), except of course in such combinations as _ft_, where it had the sound of _f_.

9. *g* was a stopped (back or front--guttural or palatal) cons. initially and in the combination _ng_, the two _g_'s in _ganga_ (go) being pronounced as in _go_. It had the open sound of G. _g_ in _sagen_ medially before the back vowels _a_, _o_, _ǫ_, _u_, and all conss. except _j_, and finally:--_saga_ (tale), _dǫgum_ (with days); _sagði_ (he said); _lag_ (he lay). Before the front vowels and _j_ it had the sound of G. _g_ in _liegen_, or nearly that of _j_ (our _y_), as in _sęgir_ (says), _sęgja_ (to say).

10. Before voiceless conss. (_t_, _s_) _g_ seems to have been pronounced _k_, as in _sagt_ (said), _dags_ (day's).

11. The _g_ was always sounded in the combination _ng_, as in _single_, not as in _singer_.

12. *h* was sounded before _j_ in such words as _hjarta_ (heart) much as in E. _hue_ (= hjū). _hl_, _hn_, _hr_, _hv_ probably represented voiceless _l_, _n_, _r_, _w_ respectively, _hv_ being identical with E. _wh_: _hlaupa_ (leap), _hnīga_ (bend), _hringr_ (ring), _hvat_ (what).

13. *j* is not distinguished from _i_ in the MSS. It had the sound of E. _y_ in _young_: _jǫrð_ (earth), _sętja_ (to set).

14. *p* in _pt_ probably had the sound of _f_: _lopt_ (air).

15. *r* was always a strong point trill, as in Scotch.

16. *s* was always sharp.

17. *v* (which was sometimes written _u_ and _w_) had the sound of E. _w_: _vel_ (well), _hǫggva_ (hew).

18. *z* had the sound of _ts_: _bęztr_ (best).

19. *þ* and *ð* were used promiscuously in the older MS., the very oldest using _þ_ almost exclusively. In Modern Icelandic _þ_ is written initially to express the sound of E. hard _th_, _ð_ medially and finally to express that of soft _th_; as there can be no doubt that this usage corresponds with the old pronunciation, it is retained in this book: _þing_ (parliament), _faðir_ (father), _við_ (against). In such combinations as _pð_ the _ð_ must of course be pronounced _þ_.

Stress

20. The stress (accent) is always on the first syllable.

PHONOLOGY

Vowels

21. The vowels are related to one another in different ways, the most important of which are _mutation_ (umlaut), _fracture_ (brechung), and _gradation_ (ablaut).

Mutation

22. The following changes are *i*-mutations (caused by an older _i_ or _j_ following, which has generally been dropped)[3]:

[Footnote 3: Many of the _i_'s which appear in derivative and inflectional syllables are late weakenings of _a_ and other vowels, as in _bani_ (death) = Old English _bana_; these do not cause mutation.]

*a* (*ǫ*) ... *ę* :-- _mann_ (man _acc._), _męnn_ (men); _hǫnd_ (hand), _hęndr_ (hands).

*ā* ... *æ* :-- _māl_ (speech), _mæla_ (speak).

*e* (*ja*, *jǫ*) ... *i* :-- _verðr_ (worth), _virða_ (estimate).

*u* (*o*) ... *y* :-- _fullr_ (full), _fylla_ (to fill); _lopt_ (air), _lypta_ (lift).

*ū* ... *ȳ* :-- _brūn_ (eyebrow), pl. _brȳnn_.

*o* ... *ö* :-- _koma_ (to come), _kömr_ (comes).

*ō* ... *œ* :-- _fōr_ (went), _fœra_ (bring).

*au* ... *ey* :-- _lauss_ (loose), _leysa_ (loosen).

*jū* (*jō*) ... *ȳ* :-- _sjūkr_ (sick), _sȳki_ (sickness); _ljōsta_ (strike), _lȳstr_ (strikes).

23. The change of _a_ into _ę_ is sometimes the result of a following _k_, _g_, or _ng_, as in _dęgi_ dat. sg. of _dagr_ (day), _tękinn_ (taken), _gęnginn_ (gone), inf. _taka_, _ganga_. _i_ appears instead of _e_, and _u_ instead of _o_ before a nasal followed by another cons.: cp. _binda_ (to bind), _bundinn_ (bound) with _bresta_ (burst) ptc. prt. _brostinn_.

24. There is also a *u*-mutation, caused by a following _u_, which has often been dropped:

*a* ... *ǫ* :-- _dagr_ (day) dat. pl. _dǫgum_; _land_ (land) pl. _lǫnd_.

25. Unaccented _ǫ_ becomes _u_, as in _sumur_ pl. of _sumar_ (summer), _kǫlluðu_ (they called), infin. _kalla_.

Fracture

26. The only vowel that is affected by fracture is _e_: when followed by original _a_ it becomes _ja_, when followed by original _u_ it becomes _jǫ_, as in _jarðar_ gen. of _jǫrð_ (earth)[4]. When followed by original _i_, the _e_ is, of course, mutated to _i_, as in _skildir_ plur. nom. of _skjǫldr_ (shield), gen. _skjaldar_.

[Footnote 4: Cp. German _erde_.]

Gradation

27. By gradation the vowels are related as follows:--

*a* ... *ō* :-- _fara_ (go) pret. _fōr_, whence by mut. _fœra_ (bring).

*e* (i, ja) ... *a* ... *u* (o) :-- _bresta_ (burst), prt. _brast_, prt. pl. _brustu_, ptc. prt. _brostinn_; _finna_ (find), _fundinn_ (found _ptc._), _fundr_ (meeting).

*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *o* :-- _stela_ (steal), prt. _stal_, prt. pl. _stālu_, ptc. prt. _stolinn_.

*e* ... *a* ... *ā* ... *e* :-- _gefa_ (give), _gaf_ (he gave), _gāfu_ (they gave), _gefinn_ (given), _gjǫf_ (gift), _u_-fracture of _gef-_, _gæfa_ (luck) mut. of _gāf-_.

*ī* ... *ei* ... *i* :-- _skīna_ (shine), _skein_ (he shone), _skinu_ (they shone). _sōl-skin_ (sunshine).

*jū* (jō) ... *au* ... *u* ... *o* :-- _ljūga_ (tell a lie), prt. _laug_, prt. pl. _lugu_, ptc. prt. _loginn_. _lygi_ (lie _sbst._) mut. of _lug-_. _skjōta_ (shoot), _skjōtr_ (swift), _skotinn_ (shot _ptc._), _skot_ (shot _subst._).

Other changes

28. All final vowels are long in accented syllables: _þā_ (then), _nū_ (now).

29. Inflectional and derivative vowels are often dropt after long accented vowels: cp. _ganga_ (to go) with _fā_ (to get), the dat. plurals _knjām_ (knees) with _hūsum_ (houses).

30. Vowels are often lengthened before _l_ + cons.: _hālfr_ (half _adj._), _fōlk_ (people); cp. _fōlginn_ (hidden) with _brostinn_ (burst _ptc._).

Consonants

31. _v_ is dropped before _o_ and _u_: _vaxa_ (to grow), prt. _ōx_, _vinna_ (to win), _unninn_ (won _ptc._), _svelta_ (to starve), _soltinn_ (starved, hungry).

Final _r_ is often assimilated to a preceding cons.

32. _*-lr_, _*-nr_, _*-sr_ always become _-ll_, _-nn_, _-ss_ after a long vowel or diphthong, as in _stōll_ (chair _nom._), acc. _stōl_, _steinn_ (stone _nom._), acc. _stein_, _vīss_ (wise _masc. nom. sg._), _vīs_ fem. nom. sg., and in unacc. syllables, as in the masc. sg. nominatives _mikill_ (great), fem. _mikil_, _borinn_ (carried), fem. _borin_, _ȳmiss_ (various) fem. _ȳmis_.

33. Words in which _l_, _n_, _r_, _s_ are preceded by a cons. drop the _r_ entirely, as in the masc. nominatives _jarl_ (earl), _hrafn_ (raven), _vitr_ (wise), _þurs_ (giant), _lax_ (salmon).

34. If _l_ and _n_ are preceded by a short accented vowel, the _r_ is generally kept, as in _stelr_ (steals), _vinr_, (friend), _sr_ becoming _ss_, as elsewhere.

35. _r_ is kept after _ll_, and generally after _nn_, as in the masc. nom. _allr_ (all), and in _bręnnr_ (burns).

36. _z_ often stands for _ðs_ as well as _ts_, as in _þēr þykkizk_ (ye seem) = _*þykkið-sk_, _Vest-firzkr_ (belonging to the West Firths) = _-*firðskr_ (_fǫrðr_, firth).

37. Inflectional _t_ is generally doubled after a long accented vowel: _fār_ (few) neut. _fātt_ (cp. _allr_ 'all,' neut. _allt_), _sā_ (I saw), _sātt_ 'thou sawest.'

INFLECTIONS

Nouns

38. *Gender*. There are three genders in Icelandic--masculine, feminine, and neuter. The gender is partly natural, partly grammatical, generally agreeing with the gender in Old English. Compound words follow the gender of their last element.

39. *Strong and Weak*. All weak nouns end in a vowel in the nom. sg. and in most of the other cases as well. Most strong nouns end in a cons. in the nom. sg.

40. *Cases*. There are four cases--nominative, accusative, dative, genitive. All nouns (except a few contractions) have the gen. pl. in _-a_ (_fiska_, of fishes), and the dat. pl. in _-um_ (_fiskum_). All strong masculines (_fiskr_) and some strong feminines (_brūðr_, bride) take _r_[5] in the nom. sg. Most strong feminines show the bare root in the nom. sg. with _u_-mutation, if possible (_āst_, favour, _fǫr_, journey). The nom. pl. of all strong masc. and fem. nouns ends in _r_ (_fiskar_, _āstir_). The acc. pl. of fem. nouns is the same as the nom. pl. (_āstir_). The acc. pl. of masc. strong nouns always ends in a vowel (_fiska_). The plur. nom. and acc. of neuters is the same as the sing. nom. and acc., except that in the plur. nom. and acc. they take _u_-mutation, if possible (_hūs_, houses, _lǫnd_, lands).

[Footnote 5: Subject, of course, to the assimilations described above.]

41. The declensions are most conveniently distinguished by the acc. plur.

Strong Masculines

(1) a-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ fisk-r (_fish_) fisk-ar
_Acc._ fisk fisk-a
_Dat._ fisk-i fisk-um
_Gen._ fisk-s fisk-a

42. So also _heimr_ (home, world); _konungr_ (king); _Þōrr_ (Thor), acc. _Þōr_, gen. _Þōrs_; _steinn_ (stone), acc. _stein_, gen. _steins_, pl. nom. _steinar_; _hrafn_ (raven), acc. _hrafn_, pl. nom. _hrafnar_; _þurs_ (giant), acc. gen. _þurs_, pl. nom. _þursar_.

43. Dissyllables in _-r_, _-l_, _-n_ generally throw out the preceding vowel before a vowel-inflection: _hamarr_ (hammer), dat. _hamri_; _jǫtunn_ (giant), pl. nom. _jǫtnar_. _kętill_ (kettle) and _lykill_ (key) show unmutated vowels in the contracted forms, as in the acc. plur. _katla_, _lukla_.

44. Some nouns of this decl. take _-ar_ in the gen. sing., especially proper names, such as _Hākon_, gen. _Hākonar_.

45. Some nouns add _v_ before vowels: _sær_ (sea), gen. _sævar_.

46. The dat. sometimes drops the _i_: _sæ_ (sea), _Þōr_. _dagr_ (day) mutates its vowel in the dat. _dęgi_.

47. Nouns in _-ir_ keep the _i_ in the sing., and drop it in the plur.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ hęlli-r (_cave_) hęll-ar
_Acc._ hęlli hęll-a
_Dat._ hęlli hęll-um
_Gen._ hęlli-s hęll-a

48. So also a number of proper names, such as _Skrȳmir_, _Þōrir_.

(2) i-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ stað-r (_place_) stað-ir
_Acc._ stað stað-i
_Dat._ stað stǫð-um
_Gen._ stað-ar stað-a

49. So also _gripr_ (precious thing), _salr_ (hall).

50. _gęstr_ (guest) takes _-i_ in the dat. sg., and _-s_ in the gen. sg.

51. Those ending in _g_ or _k_ (together with some others) insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _bękkr_ (bench), _bękk_, _bękk_, _bękkjar_; _bękkir_, _bękki_, _bękkjum_, _bękkja_. So also _męrgr_ (marrow), _stręngr_ (string).

(3) u-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ skjǫld-r (_shield_) skild-ir
_Acc._ skjǫld skjǫld-u
_Dat._ skild-i skjǫld-um
_Gen._ skjald-ar skjald-a

52. So also _vǫndr_ (twig), _vǫllr_ (plain), _viðr_ (wood). _āss_ (god) has plur. nom. _æsir_, acc. _āsu_. _sonr_ (son) has dat. sg. _syni_, plur. nom. _synir_. It regularly drops its _r_ of the nom. in such compounds as _Tryggva-son_ (son of Tryggvi).

(4) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ fōt-r (_foot_) fœt-r
_Acc._ fōt fœt-r
_Dat._ fœt-i fōt-um
_Gen._ fōt-ar fōt-a

53. So also _fingr_ (finger), gen. _fingrar_, pl. _fingr_; _vetr_ (winter), pl. _vetr_. _maðr_ (man) is irregular: _maðr_, _mann_, _manni_, _manns_; _męnn_, _męnn_, _mǫnnum_, _manna_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ faðir (_father_) fęðr
_Acc._ fǫður fęðr
_Dat._ fǫður fęðrum
_Gen._ fǫður fęðra

54. So also _brōðir_ (brother), pl. _brœðr_.

55. Pres. participles used as nouns follow this decl. in the pl., following the weak class in the sg.:

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bōndi (_yeoman_) bœndr
_Acc._ bōnda bœndr
_Dat._ bōnda bōndum
_Gen._ bōnda bōnda

56. So also _frœndi_ (kinsman), pl. _frœndr_.

Strong Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ skip (_ship_) skip
_Acc._ skip skip
_Dat._ skip-i skip-um
_Gen._ skip-s skip-a

57. So also _orð_ (word), _land_ (land) pl. _lǫnd_, _sumar_ (summer) pl. _sumur_ (§ 25).

58. _męn_ (necklace), _kyn_ (race), _grey_ (dog) insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _greyjum_. _hǫgg_ (stroke) inserts _v_ before a vowel: _hǫggvi_. _knē_ (knee), _knē_, _knē_, _knēs_; _knē_, _knē_, _kjām_, _knjā_. So also _trē_ (tree).

59. _fē_ (money) is contracted: gen. _fjār_, dat. _fē_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ kvæði (_poem_) kvæði
_Acc._ kvæði kvæði
_Dat._ kvæði kvæðum
_Gen._ kvæði-s kvæða

60. So also _klæði_ (cloth). Those in _k_ insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _męrki_ (mark), _męrkjum_, _męrkja_. So also _rīki_ (sovereignty).

Strong Feminines

(1) ar-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ gjǫf (_gift_) gjaf-ar
_Acc._ gjǫf gjaf-ar
_Dat._ gjǫf gjǫf-um
_Gen._ gjaf-ar gjaf-a

61. So also _mǫn_ (mane), _gjǫrð_ (girdle), _ār_ (oar).

62. _ā_ (river) contracts: _ā_, _ā_, _ā_, _ār_; _ār_, _ār_, _ām_, _ā_.

63. Many take _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _kęrling_ (old woman), _kęrling_, _kęrlingu_, _kęrlingar_; _kęrlingar_, _kęrlingar_, _kęrlingum_, _kęrlinga_. So also _laug_ (bath).

64. Those with a mutated root-vowel (or _i_) insert _j_ in inflection: _ey_ (island), _ey_, _eyju_, _eyjar_; _eyjar_, _eyjar_, _eyjum_, _eyja_. So also _Frigg_, _Hęl_. _mær_ (maid), _mey_, _meyju_, _meyjar_; _meyjar_, _meyjar_, _meyjum_, _meyja_.

65.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ heið-r (_heath_) heið-ar
_Acc._ heið-i heið-ar
_Dat._ heið-i heið-um
_Gen._ heið-ar heið-a

(2) ir-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ tīð tīð-ir
_Acc._ tīð tīð-ir
_Dat._ tīð tīð-um
_Gen._ tīð-ar tīð-a

66. So also _sorg_ (sorrow), _skipun_ (arrangement), _hǫfn_ (harbour) pl. _hafnir_, and the majority of strong feminines.

67. Many have _-u_ in the dat. sg.: _sōl_ (sun), _sōl_, _sōlu_, _sōlar_; _sōlir_, _sōlir_, _sōlum_, _sōla_. So also _jǫrð_ (earth), _stund_ (period of time).

68. One noun has _r_ in the nom. sg., following _heiðr_ in the sg.: _brūðr_ (bride), _brūði_, _brūði_, _brūðar_; _brūðir_, _brūðir_, _brūðum_, _brūða_.

(3) r-plurals

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bōk (_book_) bœk-r
_Acc._ bōk bœk-r
_Dat._ bōk bōk-um
_Gen._ bōk-ar bōk-a

69. So also _nātt_ (night) pl. _nætr_, _bōt_ (compensation) pl. _bœtr_, _tǫnn_ (tooth) gen. _tannar_ pl. _tęnnr_.

70. _hǫnd_ (hand) pl. _hęndr_ has dat. sg. _hęndi_.

71. _kȳr_ (cow) has acc. _kū_, pl. _kȳr_.

72. _brūn_ (eyebrow) assimilates the _r_ of the pl.: _brȳnn_.

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ mōðir (_mother_) mœðr
_Acc._ mōður mœðr
_Dat._ mōður mœðrum
_Gen._ mōður mœðra

73. So also _dōttir_ (daughter) pl. _dœtr_; _systir_ (sister) pl. _systr_.

Weak Masculines

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ bog-i (_bow_) bog-ar
_Acc._ bog-a bog-a
_Dat._ bog-a bog-um
_Gen._ bog-a bog-a

74. So also _māni_ (moon), _fēlagi_ (companion).

75. _hǫfðingi_ (chief) and some others insert _j_ in inflection: _hǫfðingja_, _hǫfðingjar_, _hǫfðingjum_.

76. _lē_ (scythe) is contracted; its gen. sg. is _ljā_.

77. _oxi_ (ox) has pl. _öxn_.

78. _herra_ (lord) is indeclinable in the sg.

Weak Neuters

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ hjart-a (_heart_) hjǫrt-u
_Acc._ hjart-a hjǫrt-u
_Dat._ hjart-a hjǫrt-um
_Gen._ hjart-a hjart-na

79. So also _auga_ (eye).

Weak Feminines

SINGULAR PLURAL

_Nom._ tung-a (_tongue_) tung-ur
_Acc._ tung-u tung-ur
_Dat._ tung-u tung-um
_Gen._ tung-u tung-na

80. So also _stjarna_ (star) pl. _stjǫrnur_, _kirkja_ (church), gen. plurals _stjarna_, _kirkna_.

_Sg. Nom._ ęlli (_old age_)
_Acc._ ęlli
_Dat._ ęlli
_Gen._ ęlli

81. So also _glęði_ (joy) and many abstract nouns.

82. _lygi_ (falsehood) has pl. _lygar_; so also _gǫ̈rsimi_ (precious thing).

Adjectives

83. Adjectives have three genders, and the same cases as nouns, though with partly different endings, together with strong and weak forms.

Strong Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ ung-r (_young_) ung-t ung
_Acc._ ung-an ung-t ung-a
_Dat._ ung-um ung-u ung-ri
_Gen._ ung-s ung-s ung-rar

_Pl. Nom._ ung-ir ung ung-ar
_Acc._ ung-a ung ung-ar
_Dat._ ung-um ung-um ung-um
_Gen._ ung-ra ung-ra ung-ra

84. So also _fagr_ (fair), fem. _fǫgr_, neut. _fagrt_.

85. Some insert _j_ before _a_ and _u_: _nȳr_ (new), _nȳjum_, _nȳjan_.

86. Some insert _v_ before a vowel: _hār_ (high), _hāvan_, _dökkr_ (dark), _dökkvir_, _kykr_ (alive), _kykvir_.

87. The _t_ of the neut. is doubled after a long vowel: _nȳtt_, _hātt_. Monosyllables in _ð_, _dd_, _tt_ form their neut. in _-tt_: _breiðr_ (broad), _breitt_; _leiddr_ (led), _leitt_. _gōðr_ (good) has neut. _gott_. _sannr_ (true) has neut. _satt_. In unaccented syllables or if a cons. precedes, _tt_ is shortened to _t_: _kallaðr_ (called), _kallat_; _blindr_ (blind), _blint_, _harðr_ (hard), _hart_, _fastr_ (firm), _fast_.

88. _l_ and _n_ assimilate a following _r_: _gamall_ (old), fem. _gǫmul_, fem. acc. _gamla_, dat. _gamalli_. _vǣnn_ (beautiful), gen. pl. _vænna_.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ mikill (_great_) mikit mikil
_Acc._ mikinn mikit mikla
_Dat._ miklum miklu mikilli
_Gen._ mikils mikils mikillar

_Pl. Nom._ miklir mikil miklar
_Acc._ mikla mikil miklar
_Dat._ miklum miklum miklum
_Gen._ mikilla mikilla mikilla

89. So also _lītill_ (little).

90. Dissyllables in _-inn_ have _-it_ in the neut., and _-inn_ in the masc. sg. acc.: _tīginn_ (distinguished), _tīgit_, _tīginn_, pl. _tīgnīr_. So also _kominn_ (come).

91.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ annarr (_other_) annat ǫnnur
_Acc._ annan annat aðra
_Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðru annarri
_Gen._ annars annars annarrar

_Pl. Nom._ aðrir ǫnnur aðrar
_Acc._ aðra ǫnnur aðrar
_Dat._ ǫðrum ǫðrum ǫðrum
_Gen._ annarra annarra annarra

Weak Adjectives

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ ung-i ung-a ung-a
_Acc._ ung-a ung-a ung-u
_Dat._ ung-a ung-a ung-u
_Gen._ ung-a ung-a ung-u

_Pl. Nom._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Acc._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Dat._ ung-u ung-u ung-u
_Gen._ ung-u ung-u ung-u

92. So also _fagri_, _hāvi_, _mikli_, etc.

_Sg. Nom._ yngri (_younger_) yngra yngri
_Acc._ yngra yngra yngri
_Dat._ yngra yngra yngri
_Gen._ yngra yngra yngri

_Pl. Nom._ yngri yngri yngri
_Acc._ yngri yngri yngri
_Dat._ yngrum yngrum yngrum
_Gen._ yngri yngri yngri

93. So also all comparatives, such as _meiri_ (greater), and pres. partic. when used as adjectives, such as _gefandi_ (giving), dat. pl. _gefǫndum_.

Comparison

94. (1) with _-ari_, _-astr_: _rīkr_ (powerful), _rīkari_, _rīkastr_; _gǫfugr_ (distinguished), _gǫfgari_, _gǫfgastr_.

95. (2) with _-ri_, _-str_ and mutation: _langr_ (long), _lęngri_, _lęngstr_; _stōrr_ (big), _stœrri_, _stœrstr_; _ungr_ (young), _yngri_, _yngstr_.

96. The following are irregular:

gamall (_old_) ęllri ęlztr
gōðr (_good_) bętri bęztr
illr (_bad_) vęrri vęrstr
lītill (_little_) minni minstr
margr (_many_) fleiri flestr
mikill (_great_) meiri mestr

Numerals

97.

CARDINAL ORDINAL

1. einn (_one_) fyrstr (_first_)
2. tveir annarr
3. þrīr þriði
4. fjōrir fjōrði
5. fimm fimmti
6. sex sētti
7. sjau sjaundi
8. ātta ātti
9. nīu nīundi
10. tīu tīundi
11. ellifu ellifti
12. tōlf tōlfti
13. þrettān þrettāndi
14. fjōrtān
15. fimmtān
16. sextān
17. sjautān
18. ātjān
19. nītjān
20. tuttugu
21. einn ok tuttugu, etc.
30. þrīr tigir, etc.
100. tīu tigir
110. ellifu tigir
120. hundrað
1200. þūsund

_einn_ is declined like other adjectives:--

98.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ einn eitt ein
_Acc._ einn eitt eina
_Dat._ einum einu einni
_Gen._ eins eins einnar

It also has a pl. _einir_, _einar_, _ein_; gen. _einna_, etc. in the sense of 'some.'

The next three show various irregularities.

99.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ tveir tvau tvær
_Acc._ tvā tvau tvær
_Dat._ tveim tveim tveim
_Gen._ tvęggja tvęggja tvęggja

Similarly _bāðir_ (both):

100.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ bāðir bæði bāðar
_Acc._ bāða bæði bāðar
_Dat._ bāðum bāðum bāðum
_Gen._ bęggja bęggja bęggja

101.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ þrīr þrjū þrjār
_Acc._ þrjā þrjū þrjār
_Dat._ þrim þrim þrim
_Gen._ þriggja þriggja þriggja

102.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Nom._ fjōrir fjogur fjōrar
_Acc._ fjōra fjogur fjōrar
_Dat._ fjōrum fjōrum fjōrum
_Gen._ fjogurra fjogurra fjogurra

103. The others are indeclinable up to _þrīr tigir_, etc.; the _tigir_ being declined regularly as a plural strong _u_-masculine _tigir_, _tigu_, _tigum_, _tiga_.

104. _hundrað_ is a strong neut.: _tvau hundruð_ (240), _tveim hundruðum_, etc. It governs the gen. (as also does _þūsund_): _fimm hundruð gōlfa_, 'five (six) hundred chambers.'

105. _þūsund_ is a strong _ir_-feminine: _tvær þūsundir_ (2400).

106. _hundrað_ and _þūsund_ are rarely = 100 and 1000.

107. Of the ordinals _fyrstr_ and _annarr_ (§ 91) are strong, the others weak adjectives. _þriði_ inserts a _j_: _þriðja_, etc.

Pronouns

108.

Personal

_Sg. Nom._ ek (_I_) þū (_thou_) --
_Acc._ mik þik sik (_oneself_)
_Dat._ mēr þēr sēr
_Gen._ mīn þīn sīn

_Dual Nom._ vit it --
_Acc._ okkr ykkr sik
_Dat._ okkr ykkr sēr
_Gen._ okkar ykkar sīn

_Pl. Nom._ vēr (_we_) þēr (_ye_) --
_Acc._ oss yðr sik (_oneselves_)
_Dat._ oss yðr sēr
_Gen._ vār yðar sīn

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hann (_he_) þat (_it_) hon (_she_)
_Acc._ hann þat hana
_Dat._ honum þvī hęnni
_Gen._ hans þess hęnnar

_Pl. Nom._ þeir (_they_) þau þær
_Acc._ þā þau þær
_Dat._ þeim þeim þeim
_Gen._ þeira þeira þeira

109. _ek_ was often suffixed to its verb, especially in poetry, being sometimes added twice over: _mætta-k_ (I might), _sā-k-a-k_ (I saw not; _a_='not'). So also _þū_: _er-tu_ (art thou), _skalt-u_ (shalt thou) = _*skalt-tu_.

Possessive

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ minn (_my_) mitt mīn
_Acc._ minn mitt mīna
_Dat._ mīnum mīnu minni
_Gen._ mīns mīns minnar

_Pl. Nom._ mīnir mīn mīnar
_Acc._ mīna mīn mīnar
_Dat._ mīnum mīnum mīnum
_Gen._ minna minna minna

110. So also _þinn_ (thy), _sinn_ (his, etc., reflexive).

111. _vārr_, _vārt_, _vār_ (our) is regular: acc. masc. _vārn_, masc. plur. _vārir_, _vāra_, _vārum_, _vārra_, etc.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ yðarr (_your_) yðart yður
_Acc._ yðarn yðart yðra
_Dat._ yðrum yðru yðarri
_Gen._ yðars yðars yðarrar

_Pl. Nom._ yðrir yður yðrar
_Acc._ yðra yður yðrar
_Dat._ yðrum yðrum yðrum
_Gen._ yðarra yðarra yðarra

112. So also _okkarr_ (our two) and _ykkarr_ (your two).

113. _hans_ (his), _þess_ (its), _hęnnar_ (her), and _þeira_ (their) are indeclinable.

Demonstrative

114.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ sā (_that_) þat sū
_Acc._ þann þat þā
_Dat._ þeim þvī þeiri
_Gen._ þess þess þeirar

_Pl. Nom._ þeir þau þær
_Acc._ þā þau þær
_Dat._ þeim þeim þeim
_Gen._ þeira þeira þeira

115. _hinn_, _hitt_, _hin_ (that) is inflected like _minn_ (except that its vowel is short throughout): acc. masc. _hinn_, plur. masc. _hinir_, _hina_, _hinum_, _hinna_.

116.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ þessi (_this_) þetta þessi
_Acc._ þenna þetta þessa
_Dat._ þessum þessu þessi
_Gen._ þessa þessa þessar

_Pl. Nom._ þessir þessi þessar
_Acc._ þessa þessi þessar
_Dat._ þessum þessum þessum
_Gen._ þessa þessa þessa

Definite

The prefixed definite article is declined thus:

117.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ inn it in
_Acc._ inn it ina
_Dat._ inum inu inni
_Gen._ ins ins innar

_Pl. Nom._ inir in inar
_Acc._ ina in inar
_Dat._ inum inum inum
_Gen._ inna inna inna

118. When suffixed to its noun it undergoes various changes. In its monosyllabic forms it drops its vowel after a short (un-accented) vowel, as in _auga-t_ (the eye), but keeps it after a long vowel, as in _ā-in_ (the river), _trē-it_ (the tree). The dissyllabic forms drop their initial vowel almost everywhere; not, however, after the _-ar_, _-r_, of the gen. sg., nor in _męnninir_ (men, _nom._), _męnn-ina_ (men, _acc._). The _-m_ of the dat. pl. is dropped before the suffixed _-num_.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ fiskr-inn skip-it gjǫf-in
_Acc._ fisk-inn skip-it gjǫf-ina
_Dat._ fiski-num skipi-nu gjǫf-inni
_Gen._ fisks-ins skips-ins gjafar-innar

_Pl. Nom._ fiskar-nir skip-in gjafar-nar
_Acc._ fiska-na skip-in gjafar-nar
_Dat._ fisku-num skipu-num gjǫfu-num
_Gen._ fiska-nna skipa-nna gjafa-nna

_Sg. Nom._ bogi-nn auga-t tunga-n
_Acc._ boga-nn auga-t tungu-na
_Dat._ boga-num auga-nu tungu-nni
_Gen._ boga-ns auga-ns tungu-nnar

_Pl. Nom._ bogar-nir augu-n tungur-nar
_Acc._ boga-na augu-n tungur-nar
_Dat._ bogu-num augu-num tungnu-num
_Gen._ boga-nna augna-nna tungna-nna

Relative

119. The ordinary relative pron. is the indeclinable _er_, often preceded by _sā_: _sā er_ = he who, who, _sū er_ who fem.

Interrogative

120. The neut. _hvat_ has gen. _hvess_, dat. _hvī_, which last is chiefly used as an adverb = 'why.'

121.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvārr (_which hvārt hvār
of two_)
_Acc._ hvārn hvārt hvāra
_Dat._ hvārum hvāru hvārri
_Gen._ hvārs hvārs hvārrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvārir hvār hvārar
_Acc._ hvāra hvār hvārar
_Dat._ hvārum hvārum hvārum
_Gen._ hvārra hvārra hvārra

122.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ hvęrr (_which, hvęrt hvęr
who_)
_Acc._ hvęrn hvęrt hvęrja
_Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrju hvęrri
_Gen._ hvęrs hvęrs hvęrrar

_Pl. Nom._ hvęrir hvęr hvęrjar
_Acc._ hvęrja hvęr hvęrjar
_Dat._ hvęrjum hvęrjum hvęrjum
_Gen._ hvęrra hvęrra hvęrra

Indefinite

123. _einn-hvęrr_, _eitthvęrt_, _einhvęr_ (some one) keeps an invariable _ein-_ in the other cases, the second element being inflected as above.

124. _sumr_ (some) is declined like an ordinary adjective.

125.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ nakkvarr nakkvat nǫkkur
(_some_)
_Acc._ nakkvarn nakkvat nakkvara
_Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkuru nakkvarri
_Gen._ nakkvars nakkvars nakkvarrar

_Pl. Nom._ nakkvarir nǫkkur nakkvarar
_Acc._ nakkvara nǫkkur nakkvarar
_Dat._ nǫkkurum nǫkkurum nǫkkurum
_Gen._ nakkvarra nakkvarra nakkvarra

126.

MASC. NEUT. FEM.

_Sg. Nom._ engi (_none, ekki engi
no_)
_Acc._ engan ekki enga
_Dat._ engum engu engri
_Gen._ engis engis engrar

_Pl. Nom._ engir engi engar
_Acc._ enga engi engar
_Dat._ engum engum engum
_Gen._ engra engra engra

127. In _hvār-tvęggja_ (each of the two, both) the first element is declined as above, the second is left unchanged.

Verbs

128. There are two classes of verbs, _strong_ and _weak_. Strong verbs are conjugated partly by means of gradation, weak verbs by adding _ð_ (_d_, _t_).

129. The _ð_ of the 2 pl. is dropt before _þit_ (ye two) and _þēr_ (ye): _gefi þēr_, _gāfu þit_.

130. There is a middle voice, which ends in _-mk_ in the 1 pers. sg. and pl., the rest of the verb being formed by adding _sk_ to the active endings, _r_ being dropt, the resulting _ts_, _ðs_ being written _z_ (§ 36): _kvezk_ (active _kveðr_ 'says'), _þu fekkzk_ (_fekkt_ 'gottest').

131. The following is the conjugation of the strong verb _gefa_ (give), which will show those endings which are common to all verbs:

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Present sg._ 1. gef gef-a
2. gef-r gef-ir
3. gef-r gef-i

_pl._ 1. gef-um gef-im
2. gef-ið gef-ið
3. gef-a gef-i

_Preterite sg._ 1. gaf gæf-a
2. gaf-t gæf-ir
3. gaf gæf-i

_pl._ 1. gāf-um gæf-im
2. gāf-uð gæf-ið
3. gāf-u gæf-i

_Imperative sg._ 2 gef; _pl._ 1 gef-um, 2 gef-ið. _Participle pres._ gef-andi; _pret._ gef-inn. _Infin._ gefa.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. gef-umk gef-umk
2. gef-sk gef-isk
3. gef-sk gef-isk

_pl._ 1. gef-umk gef-imk
2. gef-izk gef-izk
3. gef-ask gef-isk

_Pret. sg._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-umk
2. gaf-zk gæf-isk
3. gaf-sk gæf-isk

_pl._ 1. gāf-umk gæf-imk
2. gāf-uzk gæf-izk
3. gāf-usk gæf-isk

_Impers. sg._ 2 gef-sk; _pl._ 1 gef-umk, 2 gef-izk. _Partic. pres._ gef-andisk; _pret._ gef-izk _neut._ _Infin._ gef-ask.

Strong Verbs

132. In the strong verbs the plur. of the pret. indic. generally has a different vowel from that of the sing. The 1 sg. pret. of the middle voice always has the vowel of the pl. pret.: _gāfumk_. The pret. subj. has the vowel of the pret. indic. plur. mutated: _skaut_ (he shot), _skutu_ (they shot), _skyti_ (he might shoot). But there is no mutation in verbs of the first conj.: _hljōpi_, inf. _hlaupa_ (leap).

133. The pres. indic. sing. mutates the root-vowel in all three persons: _ek skȳt_, _þū skȳtr_, _hann skȳtr_, infin. _skjōta_ (shoot). _e_ however is not mutated: _ek gef_, _þū gefr_. The inflectional _r_ is liable to the same modifications as the _r_ of nouns (§ 32): _skīnn_, _vęx_, infin. _skīna_ (shine), _vaxa_ (grow).

134. Verbs in _ld_ change the _d_ into _t_ in the 1, 3 sg. pret. indic. and in the imper. sg.: _helt_ (held), _halt_ (hold!), infin. _halda_. _nd_ becomes _tt_, and _ng_ becomes _kk_ under the same conditions: _binda_ (bind), _ganga_ (go), pret. _batt_, _gekk_, imper. _bitt_, _gakk_.

135. The _t_ of the 2 sg. pret. indic. is doubled after a long accented vowel: _þū sātt_ (thou sawest). If the 1 sg. pret. indic. ends in _t_ or _ð_, the 2 sg. ends in _zt_: _lēt_ (I let), _þū lēzt_, _bauð_ (I offered) _þū bauzt_.

136. There are seven conjugations of strong verbs, distinguished mainly by the characteristic vowels of their preterites.

137.

I. 'Fall'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

falla (_fall_) fęllr fell fellu fallinn lāta (_let_) lætr lēt lētu lātinn rāða (_advise_) ræðr rēð rēðu rāðinn heita (_call_) heitr hēt hētu heitinn halda (_hold_) hęldr helt heldu haldinn ganga (_go_) gęngr gekk gengu gęnginn fā (_get_) fær fekk fengu fęnginn ----------------- auka (_increase_) eykr jōk jōku aukinn būa (_dwell_) bȳr bjō bjoggu būinn hǫggva (_hew_) hǫggr hjō hjoggu hǫggvinn hlaupa (_leap_) hleypr hljōp hljōpu hlaupinn

138. The following have weak preterites in _r_:

grōa (_grow_) grœr gröri gröru grōinn rōa (_row_) rœr röri röru rōinn snūa (_twist_) snȳr snöri snöru snūinn

139. _heita_ in the passive sense of 'to be named, called' has a weak present: _ek heiti_, _þū heitir_.

140.

II. 'Shake'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

fara (_go_) fęrr fōr fōru farinn grafa (_dig_) gręfr grōf grōfu grafinn hlaða (_load_) hlęðr hlōð hlōðu hlaðinn vaxa (_grow_) vęx ōx ōxu vaxinn standa (_stand_) stęndr stōð stōðu staðinn aka (_drive_) ękr ōk ōku ękinn taka (_take_) tękr tōk tōku tękinn draga (_draw_) dręgr drō drōgu dręginn flā (_flay_) flær flō flōgu flęginn slā (_strike_) slær slō slōgu slęginn

141. The following have weak presents:

hęfja (_lift_) hęfr hōf hōfu hafinn deyja (_die_) deyr dō dō dāinn hlæja (_laugh_) hlær hlō hlōgu hlęginn

142.

III. 'Bind'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bresta (_burst_) brestr brast brustu brostinn hverfa (_turn_) hverfr hvarf hurfu horfinn svelga (_swallow_) svelgr svalg sulgu sōlginn verða (_become_) verðr varð urðu orðinn skjālfa (_shake_) skelfr skalf skulfu skolfinn drekka (_drink_) drekkr drakk drukku drukkinn finna (_find_) finnr fann fundu fundinn vinna (_win_) vinnr vann unnu unninn binda (_bind_) bindr batt bundu bundinn springa (_spring_) springr sprakk sprungu sprunginn stinga (_pierce_) stingr stakk stungu stunginn bregða (_pull_) bregðr brā brugðu brugðinn sökkva (_sink_) sökkr sǫkk sukku sokkinn stökkva (_spring_) stökkr stǫkk stukku stokkinn

143. The following have weak presents (which makes however no difference in their conjugation):

bręnna (_burn_) bręnnr brann brunnu brunninn ręnna (_run_) ręnnr rann runnu runninn

144.

IV. 'Bear'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bera (_carry_) berr bar bāru borinn nema (_take_) nemr nam nāmu numinn fela (_hide_) felr fal fālu fōlginn koma (_come_) kömr kom kvāmu kominn sofa (_sleep_) söfr svaf svāfu sofinn

145.

V. 'Give'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

drepa (_kill_) drepr drap drāpu drepinn gefa (_give_) gefr gaf gāfu gefinn kveða (_say_) kveðr kvað kvāðu kveðinn meta (_estimate_) metr mat mātu metinn reka (_drive_) rekr rak rāku rekinn eta (_eat_) etr āt ātu etinn sjā (_see_) sēr[6] sā sā[7] sēnn

[Footnote 6: sē, sēr, sēr; sjām, sēð, sjā. Subj. sē, sēr, sē; sēm, sēð, sē.]

[Footnote 7: sām, sāið, sā.]

146. The following have weak presents:--

biðja (_ash_) biðr bað bāðu beðinn sitja (_sit_) sitr sat sātu setinn liggja (_lie_) liggr lā lāgum leginn þiggja (_receive_) þiggr þā þāgu þeginn

147.

VI. 'Shine'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bīta (_bite_) bītr beit bitu bitinn drīfa (_drive_) drīfr dreif drifu drifinn grīpa (_grasp_) grīpr greip gripu gripinn līða (_go_) līðr leið liðu liðinn līta (_look_) lītr leit litu litinn rīða (_ride_) rīðr reið riðu riðinn sīga (_sink_) sīgr seig sigu siginn slīta (_tear_) slītr sleit slitu slitinn stīga (_advance_) stīgr steig stigu stiginn bīða (_wait_) bīðr beið biðu beiðnn

148. The following has a weak present:

vīkja (_move_) vīkr veik viku vikinn

149.

VII. 'Choose'-conjugation

INFIN. THIRD PRES. PRT. SING. PRT. PL. PTC. PRT.

bjōða (_offer_) bȳðr bauð buðu boðinn brjōta (_break_) brȳtr braut brutu brotinn fljōta (_float_) flȳtr flaut flutu flotinn hljōta (_receive_) hlȳtr hlaut hlutu hlotinn kjōsa (_choose_) kȳss kaus kusum kosinn njōta (_enjoy_) nȳtr naut nutu notinn skjōta (_shoot_) skȳtr skaut skutu skotinn drjūpa (_drop_) drȳpr draup drupu dropinn ljūga (_tell lies_) lȳgr laug lugu loginn lūka (_close_) lȳkr lauk luku lokinn lūta (_bend_) lȳtr laut lutu lotinn fljūga (_fly_) flȳgr flō flugu floginn

Weak Verbs

150. There are three conjugations of weak verbs. All those of the first conjugation have mutated vowels in the pres., and form their pret. with _ð_ (_d_, _t_): _heyra_ (hear), _heyrða_. Those of the second form their pret. in the same way, but have unmutated vowels in the pres.: _hafa_ (have) _hafða_. Those of the third form their pret. in _-aða_: _kalla_ (call), _kallaða_.

I. 'Hear'-conjugation

Active

151.

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. heyr-i heyr-a
2. heyr-ir heyr-ir
3. heyr-ir heyr-i

_pl._ 1. heyr-um heyr-im
2. heyr-ið heyr-ið
3. heyr-a heyr-i

_Pret. sg._ 1. heyr-ða heyr-ða
2. heyr-ðir heyr-ðir
3. heyr-ði heyr-ði

_pl._ 1. heyr-ðum heyr-ðim
2. heyr-ðuð heyr-ðið
3. heyr-ðu heyr-ði

_Imper. sg._ 1. heyr; _pl._ 1. heyr-um, 2. heyr-ið. _Partic. pres._ heyr-andi; _pret._ heyr-ðr. _Infin._ heyr-a.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. heyr-umk heyr-umk
2. heyr-isk heyr-isk
3. heyr-isk heyr-isk

_pl._ 1. heyr-umk heyr-imk
2. heyr-izk heyr-izk
3. heyr-ask heyr-isk

_Pret. sg._ 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðumk
2. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk
3. heyr-ðisk heyr-ðisk

_pl._ 1. heyr-ðumk heyr-ðimk
2. heyr-ðuzk heyr-ðizk
3. heyr-ðusk heyr-ðisk

_Imper. sg._ 2. heyr-sk; _pl._ 1. heyr-umk, 2. heyr-izk. _Partic. pres._ heyr-andisk; _pret._ heyr-zk _neut._ _Infin._ heyr-ask.

A. Without vowel-change

152. The inflectional _ð_ becomes _d_ after long syllables ending in _l_ or _n_: _sigla_ (sail), _siglda_; _nęfna_ (name), _nęfnda_, _nęfndr_.

153. _-ðð_ becomes _dd_: _leiða_ (lead), _leidda_.

154. _ð_ after _s_ and _t_ becomes _t_: _reisa_ (raise), _reista_; _mœta_ (meet), _mœtta_. Also in a few verbs in _l_, _n_: _mæla_ (speak), _mælta_; _spęnna_ (buckle), _spęnta_.

155. After _nd_ and _pt_ it is dropped: _sęnda_ (send), _sęnda_, _sęndr_; _lypta_ (lift), _lypta_.

156. It is preserved in such verbs as the following: _dœma_ (judge), _dœmða_; _fœra_ (lead), _fœrða_; _hęrða_ (harden), _hęrða_; _hleypa_ (gallop), _hleypða_.

B. With vowel-change

157. All these verbs have _j_ preceded by a short syllable (tęlja), or a long vowel without any cons. after it (dȳja), or _gg_ (lęggja); the _j_ being kept before _a_ and _u_, as in the pres. ind. of _spyrja_ (ask): _spyr_, _spyrr_, _spyrr_; _spyrjum_, _spyrið_, _spyrja_, pres. subj. 1 sg. _ek spyrja_; they unmutate their vowel in the pret. and ptc. pret. (spurða, spurðr), the mutation being restored in the pret. subj. _spyrða_, _spyrðir_, etc. The ptc. pret. often has an _i_ before the _ð_.

bęrja (_strike_) barða barðr
lęggja (_lay_) lagða lag(i)ðr
tęlja (_tell_) talða tal(i)ðr
vękja (_wake_) vakða vakðr
flytja (_remove_) flutta fluttr
dȳja (_shake_) dūða dūðr

158. The following keep the mutated vowel throughout:

sęlja (_sell_) sęlda sęldr
sętja (_set_) sętta sęttr

C.

159. The following are irregular:

sœkja (_seek_) sōtta sōttr
þykkja (_seem_) þōtta þōttr

Subj. pret. _sœtta_, _þœtta_.

160. The following has an adj. for its partic. pret.:

gǫ̈ra (_make_) gǫ̈rða gǫ̈rr.

II. 'Have'-conjugation

161. The few verbs of this class are conjugated like those of conj. I, except that some of them have imperatives in _-i_: _vaki_, _þęfi_; _uni_. _lifa_, _sęgja_ have imper. _lif_, _sęg_. They mutate the vowel of the pret. subj. (ynða). Their partic. pret. generally occurs only in the neut.; sometimes the _a_ is dropped.

lifa (_live_) lifi lifða lifat
una (_be contented_) uni unða unat
skorta (_be wanting_) skorti skorta skort
þola (_endure_) þoli þolða þolat
þora (_dare_) þori þorða þorat
nā (_attain_) nāi nāða nāðr, nāit

162. The following show mutation:

sęgja (_say_) sęgi sagða sagðr
þęgja (_be silent_) þęgi þagða þagat
hafa (_have_) hęfi hafða hafðr
kaupa (_buy_) kaupi keypta keyptr

163. The present indic. of the first three is as follows:

_Sing._ 1. hęfi sęgi þęgi
2, 3. hęfir sęgir þęgir

_Plur._ 1. hǫfum sęgjum þęgjum
2. hafið sęgið þęgið
3. hafa sęgja þęgja

164. The rest of _hafa_ is regular. Pres. subj. _hafa_, _hafir_, _hafi_; _hafim_, _hafið_, _hafi_. Pret. indic. _hafða_, _hafðir_, _hafði_; _hǫfdum_, _hǫfðuð_, _hǫfðu_. Pret. subj. _hęfða_, _hęfðir_, _hęfði_; _hęfðim_, _hęfðið_, _hęfði_. Imper. _haf_, _hǫfum_, _hafið_. Ptc. _hafandi_, _hafðr_.

III. 'Call'-conjugation

Active

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. kall-a kall-a
2. kall-ar kall-ir
3. kall-ar kall-i

_pl._ 1. kǫll-um kall-im
2. kall-ið kall-ið
3. kall-a kall-i

_Pres. sg._ 1. kall-aða kall-aða
2. kall-aðir kall-aðir
3. kall-aði kall-aði

_pl._ 1. kǫll-uðum kall-aðim
2. kǫll-uðuð kall-aðið
3. kǫll-uðu kall-aði

_Imper. sing._ 2. kall-a; _plur._ 1. kǫll-um, 2. kall-ið. _Partic. pres._ kall-andi; _pret._ kallaðr (_neut._ kallat). _Infin._ kalla.

Middle

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. kǫll-umk kǫll-umk
2. kall-ask kall-isk
3. kall-ask kall-isk

_pl._ 1. kǫll-umk kall-imk
2. kall-izk kall-izk
3. kall-ask kall-isk

_Pret. sg._ 1. kǫll-uðumk kǫll-uðumk
2. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk
3. kall-aðisk kall-aðisk

_pl._ 1. kǫll-uðumk kall-aðimk
2. kǫll-uðuzk kall-aðizk
3. kǫll-uðusk kall-aðisk

_Imper. sing._ 2. kall-ask; _pl._ 1. kǫll-umk, 2. kall-izk. _Partic. pres._ kall-andisk; _pret._ kall-azk _neut._ _Infin._ kall-ask.

165. So also _byrja_ (begin), _hęrja_ (make war), _vakna_ (awake).

Strong-Weak Verbs

166. These have old strong preterites for their presents, from which new weak preterites are formed.

INFIN. PRES. SG. PRES. PL. PRT. PTC.

eiga (_possess_) ā eigu ātta āttr kunna (_can_) kann kunnu kunna kunnat _n._ mega (_can_) mā megu mātta mātt _n._ muna (_remember_) man munu munða munat _n._ munu (_will_) mun munu munða ---- skulu (_shall_) skal skulu skylda skyldr þurfa (_need_) þarf þurfu þurfta þurft _n._ unna (_love_) ann unnu unna unnt _n._ vita (_know_) veit vitu vissa vitaðr

167. Of these verbs _munu_ and _skulu_ have preterite infinitives: _mundu_, _skyldu_.

Anomalous Verbs

168. _Vilja_ (will):

Present

Sing. Plur.

1. vil viljum
2. vill vilið
3. vill vilja

_Subj. pres._ vili. _Pret. ind._ vilda. _Ptc. prt._ viljat.

169. _Vera_ (be):

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

_Pres. sg._ 1. em sē
2. ert sēr
3. er sē

_pl._ 1. erum sēm
2. eruð sēð
3. eru sē

_Pret. sg._ 1. var væra
2. vart værir
3. var væri

_pl._ 1. vārum værim
2. vāruð værið
3. vāru væri

_Imper. sg._ ver; _pl._ verið. _Ptc. prt._ verit _n._

COMPOSITION

170. Composition with the genitive is very frequent in Icelandic. Thus by the side of _skip-stjōrn_ (ship-steering) we find _skips-brot_ (ship's breaking, shipwreck), _skipa-hęrr_ (army of ships, fleet). Genitival composition often expresses possession, as in _konungs-skip_ (king's ship).

DERIVATION

Prefixes

171. Prefixes are much less used in Icelandic than in Old English.

*al-* 'quite,' 'very': _al-būinn_ 'quite ready,' _al-snotr_ 'very clever.'

*all-* 'all,' 'very': _all-valdr_ 'all-ruler, monarch,' _all-harðr_ 'very hard,' _all-stōrum_ 'very greatly.'

*and-* 'against': _and-lit_ 'countenance' (_lita_, look), _and-svar_ 'answer.'

*fjǫl-* 'many': _fjǫl-męnni_ 'multitude' (_maðr_, man).

*mis-* 'mis-': _mis-līka_ 'displease.'

*ū-* 'un-': _ū-friðr_ 'war' (_friðr_, peace), _ū-happ_ 'misfortune' (_happ_ luck).

Endings

(a) Nouns

Personal

172. *-ingr*, *-ingi*, *-ing*: _vīkingr_ 'pirate,' _hǫfðingi_ 'chief,' _kęrling_ 'old woman.'

Abstract

173. *-ð*, fem. with mutation: _fęgrð_ 'beauty' (_fagr_, fair), _fęrð_ 'journey' (_fara_, go), _lęngð_ 'length' (_langr_, long).

*-ing*, fem.: _svipting_ 'pulling,' _vīking_ 'piracy,' _virðing_ 'honour.'

*-leikr*, masc.: _kœr-leikr_ 'affection' (_hœrr_, dear), _skjōt-leikr_ 'speed' (_skjōtr_, swift).

*-an*, *-un*, fem.: _skipan_ 'arrangement,' _skęmtun_ 'amusement.'

(b) Adjectives

174. *-ugr*: _rāðugr_ 'sagacious,' _þrūðugr_ 'strong.'

*-ōttr*: _kollōttr_ 'bald,' _ǫndōttr_ 'fierce.'

*-lauss* '-less': _fē-lauss_ 'moneyless,' _ōtta-lauss_ 'without fear.'

*-ligr* '-ly': _undr-ligr_ 'wonderful,' _sann-ligr_ 'probable' (_sannr_, true).

*-samr*: _līkn-samr_ 'gracious,' _skyn-samr_ 'intelligent.'

*-verðr* '-ward': _ofan-verðr_ 'upper.'

(c) Verbs

175. *-na*: _brotna_ 'be broken' (_brotinn_, broken), _hvītna_ 'become white,' _vakna_ 'awake.' Used to form intransitive and inchoative verbs of the third conj.

(d) Adverbs

176. *-liga* '-ly': _undar-liga_ 'wonderfully,' _stęrk-liga_ 'strongly' (_stęrkr_, strong).

*-um*, dat. pl.: _stōrum_ 'greatly' (_stōrr_, great).

SYNTAX

177. Icelandic syntax greatly resembles Old English, but has several peculiarities of its own.

Concord

178. Concord is carried out very strictly in Icelandic: _allir męnn vāru būnir_ 'all the men were ready,' _allir vāru drepnir_ 'all were killed.'

179. A plural adj. or pronoun referring to two nouns of different (natural or grammatical) gender is always put in the neuter: _þā gekk hann upp, ok með honum Loki_ (masc.), _ok Þjālfi_ (masc.), _ok Rǫskva_ (fem.). _þā er þau_ (neut.) _hǫfðu lītla hrið gęngit..._ 'he landed, and with him L., and Þ., and R. When they had walked for some time...'

Cases

180. The extensive use of the instrumental dative is very characteristic of Icelandic: whenever the direct object of a verb can be considered as the instrument of the action expressed by the verb, it is put in the dative, as in _kasta spjōti_ 'throw a spear' (lit. 'throw _with_ a spear'), _hann helt hamarskaptinu_ 'he grasped the handle of the hammer,' _heita þvī_ 'promise that,' _jāta þvī_ 'agree to that.'

Adjectives

181. The weak form of adjectives is used as in O.E. after the definite article, _þessi_ and other demonstratives. _annarr_ (other) is always strong.

182., An adj. is often set in apposition to a following noun to denote part of it: _eiga hālft dȳrit_ 'to have half of the animal,' _ǫnnur þau_ 'the rest of them,' _of miðja nātt_ 'in the middle of the night.'

Pronouns

183. _sā_ is often put pleonastically before the definite article _inn_, both before and after the subst.: _sā inn ungi maðr_ 'that young man,' _hafit þat it djūpa_ 'the deep sea.'

184. The definite article is generally not expressed at all, or else _einn_, _einnhvęrr_ is used.

185. A noun (often a proper name) is often put in apposition to a dual pron. of the first and second persons, or a plur. of the third person: _þit fēlagar_, 'thou and thy companions,' _með þeim Āka_ 'with him and Āki.' Similarly _stęndr Þōrr upp ok þeir fēlagar_ 'Thor and his companions get up.'

186. The plurals _vēr_, _þēr_ are sometimes used instead of the singulars _ek_, _þū_, especially when a king is speaking or being spoken to.

187. _sik_ and _sēr_ are used in a strictly reflexive sense, referring back to the subject of the sentence, like _se_ in Latin: _Þorr bauð honum til matar með sēr_ 'Thor asked him to supper with him.'

Verbs

188. The tenses for which there is no inflection in the active, and all those of the passive, are formed by the auxiliaries _skal_ (shall), _hafa_ (have), _vera_ (be) with the infin. and ptc. pret., much as in modern English.

189. The historical present is much used, often alternating abruptly with the preterite.

190. The middle voice is used: (1) in a purely reflexive sense: _spara_ 'spare,' _sparask_ 'spare oneself, reserve one's strength.' (2) intransitively: _būa_ 'prepare,' _būask_ 'become ready, be ready'; _sętja_ 'set,' _sętjask_ 'sit down'; _sȳna_ 'show,' _sȳnask_ 'appear, seem.' (3) reciprocally: _bęrja_ 'strike,' _bęrjask_ 'fight'; _hitta_, 'find,' _hittask_ 'meet.' In other cases it specializes the meaning of the verb, often emphasizing the idea of energy or effort: _koma_ 'come,' _komask_ 'make one's way.'

191. The impersonal form of expression is widely used in Icelandic: _rak ā storm_ (acc.) _fyrir þeim_ 'a storm was driven in their face.'

192. The indef. 'one' is expressed in the same way by the third pers. sg., and this form of expression is often used when the subject is perfectly definite: _ok freista skal þessar īþrōttar_ 'and this feat shall be tried (by you).'

193. The abrupt change from the indirect to the direct narration is very common: _Haraldi konungi var sagt at þar var komit bjarndȳri, 'ok ā Īslęnzkr maðr,'_ 'King Harold was told that a bear had arrived, and that an Icelander owned it.' The direct narration is also used after _at_ (that): _hann svarar at 'ek skal rīða til Hęljar'_ 'he answers that he will ride to Hel.'

TEXTS

[Note: The asterisks are to help find the spots mentioned in the notes. (I took out the line numbers to keep the line width as close to 65 characters as possible.) --B.C.]

I. THOR

Þōrr er āsanna framastr, sā er kallaðr er Āsa-þōrr eða Ǫku-þōrr; hann er stęrkastr allra guðanna ok manna. Hann ā þar rīki er Þrūð-vangar heita, en hǫll hans heitir [*] Bilskīrnir; ī þeim sal eru fimm hundruð gōlfa ok fjōrir tigir; þat er hūs mest, svā at męnn hafa gǫ̈rt. [*]

Þōrr ā hafra tvā, er svā heita, Tann-gnjōstr ok Tann- grisnir, ok reið þā er hann ękr, en hafrarnir draga reiðina; þvī er hann kallaðr Ǫkuþōrr. Hann ā ok þrjā kost-gripi. Einn þeira er hamarrinn Mjǫllnir, er hrīm-þursar ok berg- risar kęnna, þā er hann kömr ā lopt, ok er þat eigi undarligt: hann hęfir lamit margan haus ā fęðrum eða frændum þeira. Annan grip ā hann bęztan, męgin-gjarðar; ok er hann spęnnir þeim um sik, þā vęx honum ās-męgin hālfu. En [*] þriðja hlut ā hann þann er mikill gripr er ī, þat eru jārn- glōfar; þeira mā hann eigi missa við hamarskaptit. En engi er svā frōðr at tęlja kunni ǫll stōr-virki hans.