Chapter LI: Part IV: Earth and Sky (6)

Another thing about this particular day is that our almanacs call it the first day of spring. All because no boy or anything else has a shadow on the equator at noon time. People and bluebirds and robins in the state of New York will see squalls of snow about that time, and there will be some freezing nights. But after the first day of spring the cold storms do not last so long, as was the case during December, January, and early February, when the sun’s rays hit us with very glancing blows. Watch to see how much faster the sun melts the snow on the last days of March than it did at Christmas time. The light is also stronger and brighter, and plants in greenhouses and our homes have more life, and are not so shiftless, so to speak. Even the hens feel the influence, for they begin to lay more eggs and cackle, and down goes the price of eggs. Do not forget to learn what day in March spring begins, when the Equator boy finds it so hot that he would like to take off his flesh, and sit in his bones. After a few days, Equator Shem will find he again has a shadow at noon. A short one it is true, but it will get longer and longer each day. Now his shadow will be on the south side of him. Is this a queer thing to happen? On which side of you is your noon-time shadow? I will give every one of you a red apple that finds it anywhere but on the north side of him at twelve o’clock. Every time the sun shines at noon, watch to find your old uncle in the wrong, and thereby get the apple. Each day that the shadow of Equator Shem becomes longer and longer, the noon-day shadow of Tropic of Cancer Ham, living on the Island of Cuba, will be getting shorter and shorter, until at last there comes a day during the last of June that he, too, will have no shadow, and the almanac says that that day is the beginning of summer.

Now it will be the turn of the Tropic of Cancer Ham, on the Island of Cuba, to say the weather is hotter than two Fourths of July beat into one, and he too will wish that he could take off his flesh, and sit in his bones. Everybody in the state of New York will say that the first summer day is the longest day of the year. It is on this day that Equator Shem will have as long a shadow as _he_ ever had in his life. No United States boy will ever be without a shadow at noon so long as he remains in his own country. When the eight o’clock curfew bell says it is time for boys and girls to go to bed, it will yet be light enough to read the papers. The sun not only sets late on that first summer day, but it appears early next morning. What a beautiful spectacle a sunrise in June is! Men of wealth will pay thousands of dollars for pictures showing its glory, yet I suppose that not one boy in five hundred ever saw the beauty of the birth of a new day in the sixth month of the year, and with no price of admission at that.

For only one day do the sun’s rays fall directly on top of the head of Tropic of Cancer Ham, who lives on the Island of Cuba--just for one day, after which the up and down rays travel back towards the Equator Shem. On the twenty-first of September Shem again has no shadow at noon, and the almanac makers say that is the last day of summer, and tomorrow will be the first day of autumn. Again it is very hot where Shem lives, but the alligators and monkeys and the parrots do not seem to mind it. Where do the up and down rays of the sun go next? They keep going south, hunting for the boy named Tropic of Capricorn Japhet, to warm _him_ up, as was the case with the boys in Cuba and at the Equator. The up and down rays do not find the top of the head of the lad in the City of San Paulo, Brazil until the last part of December, just four days before Christmas, and then the almanac says this is the beginning of winter, and the shorter days of the year, when we in the state of New York light the lamp at five o’clock in the afternoon. Now, my boys and girls, do you understand why we have a change of seasons? Do you understand that the sun changes his manner of pitching his rays at us? That in winter, when he is over the head of the Tropic of Capricorn Japhet in San Paulo, and making summer on that part of the earth, to us people in the north, in the State of New York, he pitches only slanting rays that do not hit us hard, and have but little power? Thus you will see that the rays of the sun that strike the earth direct blows, swing back and forth like a pendulum, year after year, and century after century, coming north as far as Tropic of Cancer Shem, but no farther, and then swinging south as far as the boy named Tropic of Capricorn Japhet, and no farther, just stopping and swinging back again towards the north.

FOOTNOTE:

[A] A portion of a letter to apprentice gardeners from Uncle John, published as a supplement to the Home Nature-Study Course Leaflet, for April-May, 1907.

THE ZODIAC AND ITS SIGNS

_Teacher’s Story_

To be retold to pupils.

The mysterious symbols of the Zodiac on the first pages of almanacs are always a source of wonder and awe to children, and remain a life-long mystery to most people except fortune tellers; and yet the Zodiac is the simplest thing in the world to understand. However, the lesson should not be given until after the children have had their lessons on the sun and the shadow-stick, and also the lessons on the stars.

The ancients who believed the earth stood still and the sun moved around it, noticed inevitably that the path through the heavens pursued by the sun reached in summer a point farther north and higher up than in the winter, and they naturally wished to map this path, so as to fix it in their minds and writings. Nothing could be easier, for there in the skies were the eternal stars always following the same fixed path through the heavens and never wobbling up and down like the sun. So they chose the constellation which marked the highest point in the sun’s path for each month, and these constellations might be likened to a stairway with six steps down toward the south and six steps up toward the north, the highest stair being reached by the sun in June, for then the sun is highest in the heavens and the farthest north. So beginning in June with Cancer, (the Crab), which is high in the heavens, it steps down to Leo, (the Lion) in July, takes another step lower to the Virgin in August, another down to the Scorpion in September, and comes to the lowest step of all, Sagittarius, (the Archer), in November; for at the last of November, the sun’s path reaches its lowest point farthest south in the heavens and then the days are shortest. But in December it begins to climb and takes a short step up to Capricornus, (the Goat), in January it rises to Aquarius, (the Water Carrier), and in February rises another step to Pisces, (the Fishes). In March it reaches up to Aries, (the Ram), in April attains Taurus, (the Bull), and in May reaches Gemini, (the Twins), which step is almost as high and as near to the North Star as was the Cancer, where the journey began the June before.

It may be difficult for the pupils to learn to know all these constellations, as some of them are not very well marked; however, if they wish to learn them they can do so by the use of the planisphere. Some of the Zodiac constellations are marked by brilliant stars which have already been learned. Regulus is the heart of Leo, the Lion; Spica which means “ear” is the ear of wheat which the Virgin is holding in the constellation Virgo. Red Antares lies in the Scorpion; and the Milk Dipper, which is shaped like the Big Dipper, but smaller, marks Sagittarius. Red Aldebaran is the fiery eye of Taurus, the Bull, while the Gemini, or Twins, are the most conspicuous of the stars in the evening skies of February and March. It should be noted, however, that at the present day, owing to the peculiar movement of our earth, the path of the sun in climbing up and down these constellation steps is not quite the same as it seemed to the ancients.

THE RELATIONS OF THE SUN TO THE EARTH

_Teacher’s Story_

“_Whether we look or whether we listen,
We hear life murmur or see it glisten._”
--LOWELL.

All this murmuring and glistening life on our earth planet has its source in the great sun which swings through our skies daily, sending to us through the friendly ether his messages of light and warmth--messages that kindle life in the seed and perfect the existence of every living organism, whether it be the weed in the field or the king on his throne.

At sunrise this heat which the sun sends out equally at all times of day and night, is tempered when it reaches us because it passes obliquely through our atmosphere-blanket, and thus traverses a greater distance in the cooling air. The same is true at sunset; but at noon, when the sun is most directly over our heads its rays pass through the least possible distance of the atmosphere-blanket and, therefore, lose less heat on the way. It is true that often about three o’clock in the afternoon is the hottest period of the day, but this is because the air-blanket has become thoroughly heated; but we receive the most heat directly from the sun at noon.

The variations in the time of the rising and the setting of the sun may be made a most interesting investigation on the part of the pupils. They should keep a record for a month in the winter; and with this as a basis, use the almanac to complete the lesson. Thus, each one may learn for himself which is the shortest and which the longest day of the year. There is a slight variation in different years; the shortest day of the year when this lesson was written, as computed from a current almanac, was the 22d of December; it was nine hours and fourteen minutes long. The longest day of the year was the 22d of June, and it was fifteen hours and six minutes in duration. On the longest day of the year the sun reaches its farthest point north and is, therefore, most nearly above us at mid-day. On the shortest day of the year, the sun reaches its farthest point south and is, therefore, farther from the point directly above us at mid-day than during any other day of the year.

Also the movement of the sun north and south is an interesting subject for personal investigation, as suggested in the lesson. Through quite involuntary observation, I have become so accustomed to the arc traversed by the points of sunrise as seen from my home, that I can tell what month of the year it is, by simply noting the place where the sun rises. When it first peeps at us over a certain pine tree far to the south, it is December; when it rises over the reservoir it is February or October; and when it rises over Beebe pond it is July. Only at the equinox of spring and fall does it rise exactly in the east and set directly in the west. Equinox means equal nights, that is, the length of the night is equal to that of the day.

So vast is the weight of the sun that the force of gravity upon its surface is so great that even if it were not for the white-hot fireworks there so constantly active, we could not live upon it, for our own weight would crush us to death. But this multiplying the weight of common objects by twenty-seven and two-thirds to find how much they would weigh on the sun is an interesting diversion for the pupils, and incidentally teaches them how to weigh objects, and something about that mysterious force called gravity; and it is also an excellent lesson in fractions.

LESSON CCXXXII

THE RELATION OF THE SUN TO THE EARTH.

_Leading thought_--The sun which is the source of all our light and heat and, therefore, of all life on our globe travels a path that is higher across the sky in June than the path which it follows in December, and hence we experience changes of seasons. The lesson should be given to the pupils of the upper grades and should be correlated with reading, arithmetic and thinking.

_Observations_--1. What does the sun do for us?

2. At what time of the day after the sun rises do we get the least heat from it? What hour of the day do we get the most heat from it?

3. Is the sun equally hot all day? Why does it seem hotter to us at one time of the day than at another?

4. At what hour does the sun rise and set on the first of the following months; February, March, April, May and June?

5. Which is the shortest day of the year, and how long is it?

6. Which is the longest day of the year, and how many hours and minutes are there in it?

7. What day of the year is the sun nearest a point directly over our heads at mid-day?

8. Which day of the year is the sun at mid-day farthest from the point directly above our heads? Explain why this is so.

9. Standing in a certain place, mark by some building, tree or other object just where the sun rises in the east and sets in the west on the first of February. Observe the rising and setting of the sun from the same place on the first day of March and again on the first of April. Does it rise and set in the same place always or does it move northward or southward?

10. Is the sun farthest south on the shortest day of the year? If so, is it farthest north on the longest day of the year?

11. At what time of the year does the sun rise due east and set due west?

12. The sun is so much larger than the earth that its force of gravity is twenty-seven and two-thirds times that of the earth. How much would your watch weigh if you were living on the sun? How much would you yourself weigh if you were there?

13. _Experiment. A shadow stick_--Place a peg two or three inches high upright in a board and place the board lengthwise on the sill of a south window or where it will get the south light. Note the length cast by the shadow of the peg during a sunny day and draw a line with pencil or chalk outlining the tip of the shadow of the stick from 9 a. m. to 4 p. m. Make a similar outline a month later and again a month later and note whether the shadow traces the same line during each of these days of observation. Note especially the length of the shadow at noon.

Another excellent observation lesson for teaching the fact that the sun travels farther south in the winter, is to measure the shadow of a tree on the school grounds at noonday once a month during the school year. The length of the tree shadow can be measured from the base of the tree trunk, a memorandum being made of it.

14. When does the stick or tree cast its longest shadow at noon--in December or February? February or April? April or June? Why?

_Topics for English themes_--The size and distance of the sun. The heat of the sun and its effect upon the earth. What we know about the sun spots. Our path around the sun.

_Supplementary reading_--Starland, Ball; The Earth and Sky, Holden.

LESSON CCXXXIII

HOW TO MAKE A SUNDIAL

_Method_--The diagram for the dial is a lesson in mechanical drawing. Each pupil should construct a gnomon (_no-mon_) of cardboard, and should make a drawing of the face of the dial upon paper. Then the sundial may be constructed by the help of the more skillful in the class. It should be made and set up by the pupils. A sundial in the school grounds may be made a center of interest and an object of beauty as well.

_Materials_--For the gnomon a piece of board a half inch thick and six inches square is required. It should be given several coats of white paint so that it will not warp. For the dial, take a board about 14 inches square and an inch or more thick. The lower edge may be bevelled if desired. This should be given three coats of white paint, so that it will not warp and check.

_To make the gnomon_--The word gnomon is from a Greek word meaning “one who knows.” It is the hand of the sundial, which throws its shadow on the face of the dial, indicating the hour. Take a piece of board six inches square, and be very sure its angles are right angles. Let s, t, u, v represent the four angles; draw on it a quarter of a circle from s to u with a radius equal to the line vs. Then with a cardboard protractor, costing fifteen cents, or by working it out without any help except knowing that a right angle is 900, draw the line vw making the angle at x the same as the degree of latitude where the sundial is to be placed. At Ithaca the latitude is 42°, 27′ and the angle at x measures 42° 27′. Then the board should be cut off at the line vw, and later the edge sw may be cut in some ornamental pattern.

_To make the dial_--Take the painted board 14 inches square and find its exact center, y. Draw on it with a pencil the line A A″ a foot long and one-fourth inch at the left of the center. Then draw the line B B″ exactly parallel to the line A A″ and a half inch to the right of it. These lines should be one-half inch apart--which is just the thickness of the gnomon. If the gnomon were only one-fourth inch thick, then these lines should be one-fourth inch apart, etc.

With a compass, or a pencil fastened to a string, draw the half-circle A A′ A″ with a radius of six inches with the point C for its center. Draw a similar half-circle B B′ B″ opposite with c′ for its center. Then draw the half-circle from D, D′, D″, from c with a radius of five and three-quarter inches. Then draw similarly from c′ the half-circle E, E′, E″. Then draw from c the half-circle F, F′, F″ with a radius of five inches and a similar half-circle G, G′, G″ from c′ as a center.

Find the points M, M′ just six inches from the points F, G; draw the line J, K through M, M′ exactly at right angles to the line A, A′. This will mark the six o’clock point so the figures VI may be placed on it in the space between the two inner circles. The noon mark XII should be placed as indicated (the “X” at D, F, the “II” at E, G). With black paint outline all the semi-circles and figures.

_To set up the sundial_--Fasten the base of the gnomon by screws or brads to the dial with the point s of the gnomon at F, G, and the point v of the gnomon at M, M′, so that the point W is up in the air. Set the dial on some perfectly level standard with the line A, A″ extending exactly north and south. If no compass is available, wait until noon and set the dial so that the shadow from W will fall exactly between the points A, B, and this will mean that the dial is set exactly right. Then with a good watch note the points on the arc E, K′, on which the shadow falls at one, two, three, four, and five o’clock: and in the morning the points on the arc J′ D on which the shadow falls at seven, eight, nine, ten and eleven o’clock. Draw lines from M to these points, and lines from M′ to the points on the arc E K′. Then place the figures on the dial as indicated in the spaces between the two inner circles. The space between the two outer circles may be marked with lines indicating the half and quarter hours. The figures should be outlined in pencil and then painted with black paint, or carved in the wood and then painted.

* * * * *

_Twilight, twilight of the west,
Sky-lines fading into rest,
Cloud-bars lying far and slight,
Shadows sinking into night,--
O moon, ye moon, so faint and still,
Hanging, hanging as ye will
Low along the western sky,
Far and far and yet so nigh
A finger’s breadth within the sheen
And silent shoreless vasts between--
Thy aching heart is long ages lost.
And clear and calm as film of frost,
Ye know no longer strain or stress,
All passionless and passionless._
--From “The New Moon,” L. H. BAILEY.

THE MOON

_Teacher’s Story_

The moon is in more senses than one an illuminating object for both the earth and the skies. As a beginning for earth study it is an object lesson, illustrating what air and water do for our world and incidentally for us; while as the beginning of the study of astronomy, it is the largest and brightest object seen in the sky at night; and since it lies nearest us, it is the first natural step from our world to outer space.

The moon is a little dead world that circles around our earth with one face always towards us, just as a hat-pin thrust into an apple would keep the same side of its head always toward the apple no matter how rapidly the apple was twirled. As we study the face of the moon, thus always turned toward us, we see that it is dark in some places and shining in others, and some ignorant people have thought that the dark places are oceans and the light places, land. But the dark portions are simply areas of darker rocks, while the lighter portions are yellowish or whitish rocks. The dark portions are of such a form that people have imagined them to represent the eyes, nose and mouth of a man’s face; but a far prettier picture is that of a woman’s uplifted face in profile. The author has a personal feeling on this point, for as a child she saw the man’s face always and thought it very ugly and, moreover, concluded that he chewed tobacco; but after she had been taught to find the face of the lady, the moon was always a beautiful object to her.

The moon is a member of our sun’s family, his granddaughter we might call her if the earth be his daughter; and since the moon has no fires or light of its own, it shines by light reflected from the sun and, therefore, one-half of it is always in shadow. When we see the whole surface of the lighted half we say the moon is full; but when we see only half of the lighted side turned toward us, we say the moon is in its quarter, because all we can see is one-half of one-half which is one-quarter; and when the lighted side is almost entirely turned away from us we say it is a crescent moon; and when the lighted side is entirely turned away from us we say there is no moon, although it is always there just the same. Thus, we can understand that, although we can never see the other side of the moon, the sun shines on all sides of it. Our earth, like the moon, shines always by reflected light and is almost four times as wide as the moon. Think what a splendid moon our earth must seem to the lady in the moon! When we see the old moon in the new moon’s arms, the dark outline of the moon within the bright crescent is visible because of the earthshine reflected from it. Sometimes pupils confuse this appearance of the moon with a partial eclipse; but the former is the new or old moon, which is one edge of the moon shining in the sunlight, the remainder faintly illumined by earth light, while an eclipse must always occur at the full of the moon when the earth passes between the sun and the moon, hiding the latter in its shadow.

It is approximately a month from one new moon to the next, since it takes twenty-nine and one-half days for the moon to complete its cycle around the earth and thus turn once around in the sunshine. Therefore, each moon day is fourteen and three-quarter days long and the night is the same length. The moon always rises in the east and sets in the west, following pretty nearly the sun’s summer path. The full moon rises at sunset and sets at sunrise, but owing to the movement of the earth around the sun the moon rises about fifty minutes later each evening; however, this time varies with the different phases of the moon and at different times of the year. This difference in the time of rising is so shortened in August, that we have several nights when the full moon lengthens the day; and it is called the “harvest moon,” because in England it adds to the hours devoted to harvesting the grain.

A VISIT TO THE MOON

If we could be shot out from a Jules Verne cannon and make a visit to the moon, it would be a strange experience. First, we should find on this little world, which is only as thick through as the distance from Boston to Salt Lake City, mountains rising from its surface more than thirty thousand feet high, which is twice as high as Mt. Blanc and a thousand feet higher than the tallest peak of the Himalayas; and these moon mountains are so steep that no one could climb them. Besides ranges of these tremendous mountains, there are great craters or circular spaces enclosed with steep rock walls many thousand feet high. Sometimes at the center of the crater there is a peak lifting itself up thousands of feet, and sometimes the space within the crater circle is level. Thirty-three thousand of these craters have been discovered. And, too, on the moon, there are great plains and chasms; and all these features of the moon have been mapped, measured and photographed by people on our earth. For a boy studying geometry, the measuring of the height of the mountains of the moon is an interesting story.

Photo after Nasmyth.]

But we could never in our present bodies visit the moon, because of one terrible fact--the moon has no air surrounding it. No air! What does that mean to a world? First of all, as we know life, no living thing--animal or plant--could exist there, for living beings must have air. Neither is there water on the moon; for if there were water there would have to be air. And without water no green thing can be grown, and the surface of the moon is simply naked, barren rock. If we were on the moon, we could not turn our eyes toward the sun, for with no air to veil it, its fierce light would blind us; and the sky is as black at midday as at midnight, since there is no atmosphere to sift out the other rays of light, leaving the beautiful blue in the sky; nor is there a glow at sunset because there is no air prism to separate the rays of light and no clouds to reflect or refract them. The stars could be seen in the black skies of midday as well as in the black skies of night, and they would be simply points of light and could not twinkle, since there is no air to diffuse the sun’s light and thus curtain the stars by day and cause them to twinkle at night. The shadows on the moon are, for the same reason, as black as midnight and as sharply defined; and if we should step into the shadow of a rock at midday we should be hidden as much as if we had stepped into a well of ink, or put on the invisible cloak of fairy lore. And because of no layers of air to make an aerial perspective, a mountain a hundred miles away would seem as close to us as one a mile away.

Since there is no atmosphere on the moon to act as a buffer between the cold of outer space, which is estimated to be 250° below zero, and the heat of the sun, which is 500° above zero, the temperature of the moon would vary 750° between day and night, or between sunshine and shadow, because there is no air to carry the heat over into the shadow or to blanket the world at night. But this great change of temperature between sunlight and darkness is the only force on the moon to change the shape of its rocks, for the expansion under heat and contraction under cold must break and crumble even the firmest rock more or less. Our rocks are broken by the freezing of water that creeps into every crevice, but there is no water to act on the moon’s mountains in this fashion or to wear them away by dashing over their surface. However, the rocks and mountains of the moon may be changed in shape by the battering of meteorites, which pelt into the moon by the million, since the moon has no air to set them afire and make them into harmless shooting stars, burning up before they strike. But though a meteorite weighing thousands of tons should crash into a moon mountain and shatter it to atoms there would be no sound, since sound is carried only by the atmosphere.

Imagine this barren, dead world, chained to our earth by links forged from unbreakable gravity, with never a breath of air, a drop of rain or flake of snow, with no streams, nor seas, nor graced by any green thing--not even a blade of grass--a tree, nor by the presence of any living creature! Out there in space it whirls its dreary round, with its stupendous mountains cutting the black skies with their jagged peaks above, and casting their inky shadows below; heated by the sun’s rays until hotter than the flame of a blast furnace, then suddenly immersed into cold that would freeze our air into solid ice, its only companion the terrific rain of meteoric stones driven against it with a force far beyond that of cannon balls, and yet with never a sound as loud as a whisper to break the terrible stillness which envelops it.

LESSON CCXXXIV

THE MOON

_Leading thought_--The moon always has the same side turned toward us so we do not know what is on the other side. The moon shines by reflected light from the sun, and is always half in light and half in shadow. The moon has neither air nor water on its surface and what we call the moon phases depend on how much of the lighted surface we see.

_Method_--Have the pupils observe the moon as often as possible for a month, beginning with the full moon. After the suggested experiment, the questions which follow may be given a few at a time.

_Experiment for recess_--Darken the room as much as possible; use a lighted lamp or gas jet or electric light for the sun, which is, of course, stationary. Take a large apple to represent the earth and a small one to represent the moon. Thrust a hat pin through the big apple to represent the axis of the earth and also the axis about which the moon revolves. Tie a string about a foot long to the stem of the moon apple and make fast the other end to the hat pin just above the earth apple. Hold the hat pin in one hand and revolve the apple representing the moon slowly with the other hand letting the children see that if they were living on the earth apple the following things would be true:

1. Moving from right to left when the moon is between the earth and the sun it reflects no light.

2. Moving a little to the left a crescent appears.

3. Moving a quarter around shows the first quarter.

4. When just opposite the lamp, it shows its whole face lighted turned toward the earth.

5. Another quarter around shows a half disc, which is the third quarter.

6. When almost between the sun and the earth the crescent of the old moon appears.

7. Note that the moon always keeps one face toward the earth.

8. Note that the new moon crescent is the lighted edge of one side of the moon, while the old moon crescent is the lighted edge of the opposite side.

9. Make an eclipse of the moon by letting the shadow of the earth fall upon it, and an eclipse of the sun by revolving the moon apple between the sun and the earth. The earth’s orbit and the moon’s orbit are such that this relative position of the two bodies occurs but seldom.

_Observations_--1. Describe how the moon looks when it is full.

2. What do you think you see in the moon?

3. Describe the difference in appearance between the new moon and the full moon, and explain this difference.

4. Where does the new moon rise and where does it set?

5. When does it rise and when does it set?

6. Where and when does the full moon rise and where and when does it set?

7. How does the old moon look?

8. Could the crescent moon which is seen in early evening be the old moon instead of the new; and, if not, why not?

9. When and where do we ordinarily see the old moon when it is crescent shaped?

10. Does the moon rise earlier or later on succeeding nights? What is approximately the difference in time of moonrise on two successive nights?

11. Do you think we always look at the same side of the moon? If so, why?

12. Is more than one side of the moon luminous? Why?

13. How many days from one new moon until the next?

14. How long is the day on the moon and how long the night?

15. How many times does the moon go around the earth in a year?

16. What is the difference between the disappearance of the old moon and an eclipse of the moon? In both cases the moon is hidden from us.

_The Physical Geography of the Moon_

_Questions for the pupils to think about and answer if they can_--17. Since it has been proved that there is no air or water on the moon, could there be any life there?

18. Supposing you could do without air or water and should be able to visit the moon, what would you find to be the color of the sky there?

19. Would there be a red glow before sunrise or beautiful colors at sunset?

20. Would the sun appear to have rays? Could you look at the sun without being blinded?

21. Would the stars appear to twinkle? Could you see the stars in the daytime?

22. How would the shadows look? If you could step into the shadow of a rock at midday, could you be seen?

23. Could you tell by looking at it whether a mountain was far or near?

24. It is estimated that the temperature of outer space is 250 degrees below zero, and the sun’s direct heat is 500 degrees above zero. If this be correct, how hot would it be in the sunshine on the moon? How cold would it be at midnight?

25. Why is it so much hotter and colder on the moon than upon the earth?

26. If you could shout on the moon, how would it sound? If one hundred cannons should be fired at once on the moon, how would it sound?

27. Is there any rain or snow on the moon? Are there any clouds there? If there are no air and water on the moon, would the intense heat and the powerful cold affect the soils or rocks, as freezing and thawing affect our rocks?

28. Professor Newton estimated that the earth meets seven million meteorites (shooting stars) every twenty-four hours. Why do we not see more of these? What happens when a meteorite strikes the moon?

29. The moon is so small that the force of gravity on its surface is one-sixth that on the earth’s surface. If a man can carry seventy-five pounds on his back here, how much could he carry on the moon? If a boy can throw a ball one hundred yards here, how many yards could he throw on the moon? If a boy can kick a football one hundred and thirty-five feet in the air here, how far could he kick it on the moon?

BOOKS OF REFERENCE

The following list of nature books is by no means complete. It simply includes books which the author has consulted in her work as a teacher, and to which she naturally referred in the lessons. The list is given with the publishers for the convenience of those who may use this volume.

BIRD STUDY

American Birds--Wm. L. Finley--Scribners.
Birdcraft--Wright--MacMillan.
Bird Life--Chapman--Appleton.
Bird Neighbors--Blanchan--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Birds that Hunt and are Hunted--Blanchan--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Bird Homes--Dugmore--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Birds and Bees--John Burroughs--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Birds of New York--Eaton and Fuertes--University of State of New
York Press.
Birds of the United States--Apgar--American Book Co.
Birds of Song and Story--Grinnell--Mumford, Chicago.
Birds in their Relation to Man--Weed & Dearborn--Lippincott.
Birds of Village and Field--Merriam--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Birds through an Opera Glass--Merriam--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Bob: The Story of a Mockingbird--Lanier--Scribner.
Citizen Bird--Wright--MacMillan.
Everyday Birds--Torrey--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Field Book of Wild Birds and their Music--Mathews--Putnams.
First and Second Book of Birds--Miller--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Guide to the Birds--Hoffman--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Handbook of Birds of Eastern N. America--Chapman--Appletons.
How to Attract the Birds--Blanchan--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Leaflets of National Association of Audubon Societies--141 Broadway,
N. Y.
Mother Nature’s Children--Gould--Ginn & Co.
Nestlings of Forest and Marsh--Wheelock--A. C. McClurg & Co.
Neighbors with Wings and Fins--Johonnot--American Book Co.
Notes on New England Birds--H. D. Thoreau--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Our Birds and their Nestlings--Walker--American Book Co.
Sharp Eyes--John Burroughs--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Story of the Birds--Baskett--Appletons.
Stories About Birds--Kirby--Educational Publishing Co.
The Bird: Its Form and Function--Beebe--Henry Holt & Co.
The Bird Book--Eckstorm--D. C. Heath & Co.
The Song of the Cardinal--Porter--Bobbs, Merrill & Co.
The Woodpeckers--Eckstorm--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
True Bird Stories--Miller--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Useful Birds and Their Protection--Forbush--Mass. Board of Agri.

FISH STUDY

American Food and Game Fishes--Jordan & Everman--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Fish Stories--Holder & Jordan--Henry Holt & Co.
Fisherman’s Luck--Van Dyke--Scribners.
Guide to the Study of the Fishes--Jordan--Henry Holt & Co.
Neighbors with Wings and Fins--Johonnot--American Book Co.
Science Sketches--Jordan--McClurg.
The Complete Angler--Isaac Walton--Little Brown & Co.
The Freshwater Aquarium--Eggeling & Ehrenberg--Henry Holt & Co.
The Home Aquarium--Eugene Smith--E. P. Dutton & Co.
The Story of the Fishes--Baskett--Appletons.

BATRACHIAN AND REPTILE STUDY

American Natural History--Hornaday--Scribner.
Elementary Zoology--Kellogg--Henry Holt & Co.
Familiar Life of Field and Forest--Mathews--Appletons.
The Frog Book--Dickerson--Doubleday, Page & Co.
The Reptile Book--Ditmars--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Serpents of Pennsylvania--Surface--State College, Penn.

MAMMAL STUDY

American Animals--Stone & Cram--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Animals of the World--Knight & Jenks--Frederick Stokes Co.
Animal Heroes--Thompson-Seton--Scribners.
A Country Reader--Buchanan--MacMillan.
A Watcher in the Woods--Dallas Lore Sharp--Century Co.
Black Beauty--Sewell--Lothrop.
Bob, Son of Battle--Olliphant--McClure, Phillips & Co.
Campfires of a Naturalist--Edwards--Appletons.
Camp Life in the Woods--Gibson--Harpers.
Concerning Cats--Winslow--Lothrop.
Domestic Animals--Burkett--Ginn & Co.
Domesticated Animals--Shaler--Scribners.
Dog of Flanders--Ouida--.
Familiar Life of Field and Forest--Mathews--Appletons.
Familiar Wild Animals--Lottridge--Henry Holt & Co.
Forest Neighbors--Hurlbert--McClure, Phillips & Co.
Half Hours with Mammals--Holder--American Book Co.
In Praise of the Dog--Bicknell--E. P. Dutton & Co.
Jack of the Bush Veldt--Fitz Patrick--Longmans, Green & Co.
Jungle Books, First and Second--Kipling--Century Co.
Kindred of the Wild--Roberts--L. C. Page & Co.
Life of Animals--Ingersoll--MacMillan.
Lives of the Hunted--Thompson-Seton--Scribners.
Little Beasts of Field and Wood--Cram--Small, Maynard & Co.
Little Brother of the Bear--Long--Ginn & Co.
Little People of the Sycamore--Roberts--L. C. Page & Co.
Mack, His Book--Florence Leigh--Frederick Stokes Co.
Neighbors of Field, Wood and Stream--Grinnell--Frederick Stokes.
Neighbors with Claws and Hoofs--Johonnot--American Book Co.
Nights with Uncle Remus--Harris--McClure, Phillips & Co.
Rab and his Friends--Dr. John Brown--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Red Fox--Roberts--L. C. Page & Co.
Roof and Meadow--Dallas Lore Sharp--Century Co.
Secrets of the Woods--Wm. J. Long--Ginn & Co.
Squirrels and other Fur-bearers--Burroughs--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Stickeen--John Muir--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Animals and Man--Kellogg--Henry Holt & Co.
The Horse--I. P. Roberts--MacMillan.
The Fireside Sphinx--Repplier--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Face of the Fields--D. Lore Sharp--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Case for the Goat--Various Authors--E. P. Dutton.
The Silver Fox--Seton--Century Co.
Two Little Savages--Seton--Doubleday, Page & Co.
True Tales of Birds and Beasts--Jordan--.
Ways of Wood Folk--Wm. J. Long--Ginn & Co.
Wild Animals I Have Known--Seton--Scribners.
Wild Life Near Home--Dallas Lore Sharp--Century Co.
Wild Life in Orchard and Field--Ingersoll--Harpers.
Wild Neighbors--Ingersoll--MacMillan.
Wild Mammals of North America--Merriam--Henry Holt & Co.

INSECTS AND OTHER INVERTEBRATES

American Insects--Kellogg--Henry Holt & Co.
A. B. C. of Bee Culture--A. I. Root--A. I. Root Co., Medina, O.
Ant Communities--McCook--Harpers.
Ants. W. M. Wheeler--Columbia University Press.
Caterpillars and their Moths--Elliot & Soule--Century Co.
Common Spiders--Emerton--Ginn & Co.
Earthworms--Darwin--Appletons.
Economic Entomology--Smith--Lippincotts.
Everyday Butterflies--Scudder--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Grasshopper Land--Morley--A. C. McClurg & Co.
Home Studies in Nature--Treat--American Book Co.
How to Keep Bees--Comstock--Doubleday, Page & Co.
How to Know the Butterflies--Comstock--Appletons.
Insect Book--Howard--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Insect Life--Comstock--Appletons.
Insect Stories--Kellogg--Henry Holt & Co.
Life Histories of American Insects--Weed--MacMillan.
Life of the Honey Bee--Ticknor Edwards--Methuen & Co.
Manual for the Study of Insects--Comstock--Comstock Pub. Co.
Mosquito Life--Mitchell--Putnams.
Moths and Butterflies--Ballard--Putnams.
Moths and Butterflies--Dickerson--Ginn & Co.
Nature Biographies--Weed--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Nature’s Craftsmen--McCook--Harpers.
Outdoor Studies--Needham--American Book Co.
The Bee People--Morley--A. C. McClurg & Co.
The House Fly--Howard--Frederick S. Stokes Co.
The Natural History of Some Common Animals--Latter--Cambridge Press.
The Spider Book--Comstock--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Wasps and their Ways--Morley--A. C. McClurg & Co.
Wasps, Social and Solitary--Peckham--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Ways of the Six-footed--Comstock--Ginn & Co.

PLANT LIFE--FLOWERS

Beginner’s Botany--Bailey--MacMillan.
Blossom Hosts and Insect Guests--Gibson--Newson & Co.
Botany Reader--Newell--Ginn & Co.
Botany; Elementary Textbook--Bailey--MacMillan.
Childs Own Book of Wild Flowers--Comstock--American Book Co.
Field Book of American Wild Flowers--Mathews--Putnams.
Field, Forest and Garden Botany--Gray--American Book Co.
Field, Forest and Wayside Flowers--Going--Baker, Taylor Co.
First Lessons in Plant Life--Atkinson--Ginn & Co.
First Lessons with Plants--Bailey--MacMillan.
Flowers and their Friends--Morley--Ginn & Co.
Flowers of Field, Hill and Swamp--Creevy--Harpers.
Flowers of Northeastern United States--Miller & Whitney--Putnams.
Guide to the Wild Flowers--Lounsberry--Frederick S. Stokes Co.
How Plants Behave--Gray--American Book Co.
How Plants Grow--Gray--American Book Co.
How to Know the Wild Flowers--Dana--Scribners.
Manual of Botany--Gray--American Book Co.
Our Garden Flowers--Keeler--Scribners.
Plants and their Children--Dana--American Book Co.
Plant Life--Coulter--Appletons.
Procession of the Flowers--Higginson--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Recreations in Botany--Creevy--Harpers.
Who’s Who Among the Wild Flowers--Beecroft--Moffatt Yard & Co.

FLOWERLESS PLANTS

Bacteria in Relation to Country Life--Lipman--Macmillan.
Dust and its Dangers--Prudden--Putnams.
Ferns--Waters--Henry Holt & Co.
Fern Allies of North America--Clute--Frederick Stokes.
Fungi: Their Nature and Uses--McCook--Appletons.
How to Know the Ferns--Parsons--Scribners.
Mosses with a Hand Lens--A. J. Grout--O. T. Lewis Co., N. Y.
Moulds, Mildews and Mushrooms--Underwood--Henry Holt & Co.
Mushrooms--Atkinson--Henry Holt & Co.
New England Ferns--Eastman--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Our Edible Toadstools and Mushrooms--Gibson--Harpers.
Our Ferns in their Haunts--Clute--Frederick Stokes.
One Thousand American Fungi--McIlvaine--Bobbs, Merrill & Co.
Story of the Bacteria--Prudden--Putnam.

PLANT LIFE--GARDENING AND AGRICULTURE

Agriculture for Beginners--Burkett, Stevens & Hill--Ginn & Co.
Agricultural Botany--Percival--Henry Holt & Co.
All the Year in the Garden--Matson--Crowell.
Among School Gardens--Greene--Sage Foundation.
An Island Garden--Thaxter--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Book of Corn--Myrick--Orange, Judd Co.
Bulbs and How to Grow them--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Common Weeds of Field and Garden--Long--Smith, Elder & Co.
Corn Plants--Sargent--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Elements of Agriculture--Warren--MacMillan.
Encyclopedia of Horticulture--Bailey--MacMillan.
Farm Grasses of United States--Spillman--Orange, Judd Co.
First Principles of Agriculture--Goff & Mayne--American Book Co.
First Book of Farming--Goodrich--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Four Seasons in a Garden--Rexford--Lippincott.
Handy Book of Agriculture--Hayes--E. P. Dutton & Co.
Indoor Gardening--Rexford--Lippincotts.
Living Plant, the--Knight--Hutchinson & Co.
Mary’s Garden and How it Grew--Duncan--Century Co.
Manual of Gardening--Bailey--MacMillan.
School Garden Book--Weed & Emerson--Scribners.
Seed Dispersal--Beal--Ginn & Co.
Spraying of Plants--Lodeman--MacMillan.
Story of a Grain of Wheat--Edgar--Appletons.
Survival of the Unlike--Bailey--MacMillan.
The Amateur’s Practical Garden-Book--Hunn and Bailey--MacMillan.

TREE STUDY

A Guide to the Trees--Lounsberry--Stokes.
A First Book of Forestry--Roth--Ginn & Co.
Among Green Trees--Rogers--Mumford--Chicago.
Familiar Trees and their Leaves--Mathews--Appletons.
Forestry in Nature-Study--Jackson--Office of Expt. Sta.,
Washington, D. C.
Getting Acquainted with the Trees--McFarland--Outlook Co.
Handbook of the Trees--Romeyn Hough--Harpers.
Manual of Trees of N. America--Sargent--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
North American Trees--N. L. Britton--Henry Holt & Co.
North American Forests and Forestry--Bruncken--Putnams.
Our Native Trees--Keeler--Scribners.
Our Northern Shrubs--Keeler--Scribners.
Our Trees and How to Know Them--Emerson & Weed--Lippincott.
Practical Forestry--Gifford--Appletons.
Primer of Forestry--Pinchot--Bureau of Forestry, Washington, D. C.
Studies of Trees--Mosher, 3 vols--C. W. Bardeen.
Studies of Trees in Winter--Huntingdon--Knight & Mellet.
The Tree Book--Rogers--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Trees of Northern United States--Apgar--American Book Co.
Trees, Shrubs and Vines--Parkhurst--Scribners.
Trees in Prose and Poetry--Stone & Pickett--Ginn & Co.
With the Trees--Going--Baker Taylor & Co.

ASTRONOMY--GEOLOGY--METEOROLOGY

Astronomy for Everybody--Newcomb--McClure, Phillips & Co.
Astronomy Through an Opera-Glass--Serviss--Appletons.
Children’s Book of Stars--Milton--Adam, Black & Co.
Earth and Sky--Holden--Appletons.
Fieldbook of the Stars--Olcutt--Putnams.
Friendly Stars--Martin--Harpers.
New Astronomy--Todd--American Book Co.
Other Suns than Ours--Proctor--Longman, Green & Co.
Other Worlds than Ours--Proctor--Longman, Green & Co.
The Planisphere--Thos. Whittaker.
Starland--Ball--Ginn & Co.
Stars in Song and Legend--Porter--Ginn & Co.
Storyland of Stars--Pratt--Educational Publishing Co.
Stories of Star Land--Miss Proctor--Potter & Putnam Co.
Study of the Sky--Howe--Flood & Vincent.
The Moon--Nasmyth & Carpenter--Murray, London.
The Stars in their Seasons--Proctor--Longmans Green & Co.
Brooks and Brook Basins--Frye--Ginn & Co.
Brook Book--Miller--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Geological Story Briefly Told--Dana--American Book Co.
Great World’s Farm--Gaye--MacMillan.
Introduction to Physical Geography--Gilbert & Brigham--Appletons.
Physical Geography--Tarr--MacMillan.
Soils--King--MacMillan.
Soils--Fletcher--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Story of our Continent--Shaler--Appletons.
Up and Down the Brooks--Bamford--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Water Wonders--Thompson--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Wonder Book of the Atmosphere--Houston--Stokes.
Wonder Book of Magnetism--Houston--Stokes.

NATURE-STUDY--MANUALS AND LITERATURE

Education through Nature--Munson--E. L. Kellogg & Co.
Field Work in Nature-Study--Jackman--Flanagan.
Handbook of Nature-Study--Lange--MacMillan.
How Nature-Study Should be Taught--Bigelow--Hinds & Noble.
How to Study Nature--J. D. Wilson--Bardeen.
Lessons in Nature-Study--Jenkins & Kellogg--Whittaker & Ray, San
Francisco.
Nature-Study Idea--L. H. Bailey--MacMillan.
Nature-Study and Life--Hodge--Ginn & Co.
Nature-Study and the Child--Scott--D. C. Heath & Co.
Nature-Study in the Common Schools--Jackman--Henry Holt & Co.
Nature-Study for Grammar Grades--Jackman--MacMillan.
Nature-Study--Holtz--Scribner’s.
Nature-Study in the Lower-Grades--Cummings--American Book Co.
Nature-Study in Elementary Schools--L. L. Wilson--MacMillan.
Nature-Study Lessons--Various Authors--Hinds, Noble & Co.
Nature-Study--Overton & Hill--American Book Co.
Nature Teaching--Watts & Freeman--E. P. Dutton & Co.
Outlines in Nature-study--Engel--Silver, Burdett & Co.
Outlook to Nature--L. H. Bailey--MacMillan.
Practical Nature-Study--Coulter & Patterson--Appletons.
Study of Nature--Schmucker--Lippincott.
Writings of H. D. Thoreau--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Works of John Burroughs--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Land of Little Rain--Mary Austin--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
The Flock--Mary Austin--Houghton, Mifflin & Co.
Songs of Nature, edited by John Burroughs--McClure, Phillips & Co.
Golden Numbers, edited by Wiggin & Smith--McClure, Phillips & Co.
The Posy Ring, edited by Wiggin & Smith--Doubleday, Page & Co.
Among Flowers and Trees with the Poets, edited by Wait & Leonard--Lee
& Shepard.
Nature in Verse, comp. by Mary I. Lovejoy--Silver, Burdett Co.
Poetry of the Seasons, comp. by Mary I. Lovejoy--Silver, Burdett Co.
Nature Pictures by American Poets, Annie R. Marble--MacMillan Co.
Trees in Prose and Poetry--Stone & Fickett--Ginn & Co.
Stars in Song and Legend--Jermain G. Porter--Ginn & Co.
Sharp Eyes, by Hamilton Gibson--Harpers.
Pageant of Summer--by Richard Jefferies--Mosher, Portland, Me.
“Ye Gardeyne Boke,” J. D. Haines--Paul Elder & Co., San Francisco.

INDEX

Page

Abbe, Prof. Henry, 860

Abdomen (of insect), 312–314

Acid Soils, 848

Acorns, =731=

Acorn--cup and saucer, =752=
of Burr Oak, =754=
of Chestnut Oak, =751=
of Red Oak, =753=
of Scarlet Oak, =754=
of Swamp White Oak, =750=

Acorn plum-gall, =360=

Adder’s Tongue or Dogtooth Violet, =499=, =500=, =501=, 502

Adult Stage or Imago (of insects), 311

_Agaricus Campestris_, =708=, =710=, =711=

Agate, 830

Ailanthus tree, 330

Air, as a gas, 860
Composition of, 861

Akers, Elizabeth, 475, 477, 509

Allen, A. A., =115=, =117=, =122=, =123=

Aldebaran, 896, =897=, 898, 912

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 62, 598

Allen, James Lane, 133

Altair, =904=

Alfalfa, 654, =653=, =654=

Altenburger Cheese, 278

Alum, 826

_Amanita phalloides_, =707=, =709=

Ames, Mary Clemmer, 557

Amethyst, 830

Animal Life, 25

_Anopheles_, 402

Antares, =904=, 901

Ants, 419, =420=, =425=, =426=, 422
agricultural, 480

Ant-nest, =424=, 425

Antennæ, 312, 314
of male mosquito, =402=

Antenna-comb on ant’s leg, =426=
on wasp, =434=

Anther-tube, 631, =632=

_Antheridii_, 704

_Anthomyinæ_, 354

Ant-lion, =395=, 396

Anti-cyclone, 879, 880

Aphids, =392=, =393=, 394, 421

Aphid stable, =421=

Aphis-lion, =397=, =398=, 399

Apple, 73, 779, 785, =787=, 789

Apple, The, 778–788

Apples--basket of, =787=

Apple--blossoms, =783=
the core-lines, =787=
just ready to spray, =350=, =783=
too late to spray, =351=
the tree, =778=–781

Aquarium, tadpole, 185

Aquarium, how to make
for insects, 380

Aquarius (the Water Carrier), =912=

Arcturus, 902, =903=, 904

Argon, 862

Arided, =904=

Aries (the Ram), 912

Arnold, Edwin, 595

Ash, white, =774=, =775=, =776=

Asters, =558=, =559=, 560

Atmosphere, 860
height of, 863
temperature of, 865

Atmosphere pressure, 860, 863
High, 868, 869, 879
Low, 869, 879, 885

Atkinson, Prof. Geo. F., 496, 697, =708=, 715, =717=, =718=, =719=,
=720=

Aurora Borealis, 839

Austin, Mary, 281

Averill--Anna Boynton, 550

Babcock Milk Tester, 300

Bachelor’s Button, =636=

Bacteria, =723=

Bailey Prof. L. H., 38, 180, 189, 246, 495, 496, 539, 602, 610,
640, 642, 725, 824

Bailey, Vernon, 255

Baker, W. C., =565=, =768=

Baker, Ida, =372=, =652=

Ball, Sir Robert, 889

Ballard, Julia P., 317, 323, 328, 334, 338, 343

Barb, (of feather), 27

Barbels, (of feather), 27, 154

Barker, Eugene, =170=, 526

Barometer, =878=

Baskett J. N., 64, 149, 167

Batrachian Study, 181

Bat, =245=

Bear, Great (Ursa Major), =890=, 891
Little (Ursa Minor), 891

Bee, 18, 20, 541, 679
Bumble, 21, 442, =444=, 579, 580, 624, 626, 655
Carpenter, 439, 440
Carpenter nest of, =441=
drone, 445, =446=, =447=, =448=, 449, 450
Honey, 445, 449
queen, 445, =446=, =447=, =448=, 450
Leaf-cutter, 11, =436=, 438, =437=
Mining, 526
worker, 445, =446=, =447=, =448=, 449

Beecher, H. W., 635

Bee larkspur, =623=, =624=, 625

Beetle, 61, 64, 310
Ground, 92
Colorado Potato, =409=, =410=, =411=

Beet leaf-miners, 88

Belgian Hares, =216=

Benefits of Nature-Study to Child, =1=
to Teachers, =2=

Bentley, W. J., =825=, =828=, =851=, =852=, =853=, =854=, =855=,
=856=, =857=, =858=, =860=, =863=, =866=, =874=, =875=, =876=,
=877=, =878=, =879=

Big Dipper, 889, =890=, 891, 892, =893=, 894, 900, 901, 902, 903

Big and Little Dippers, 894

Bindweed, =535=, 536

Birch, 73

Birds, 25
beaks of, 37
ears of, 36
eyes of, 36
feet of, 39
nostrils of, 37

Birds--Flight of, 33

Bird houses, 47, 60

Birds’ Nests, 147

Bird, parts named, 147

Bird Study, 25

Birthroot, 506, =508=

Blackbirds, 130
red-winged, =122=, =123=

Blade (of leaf), =493=, 687

Blanchan, Neltje, 131, 142, 146

Bleeding Heart, =611=, 612, 613

Blights, 721

Bloodroot, =503=, 504, =505=, 506

Bloodstone, 830

Bluebird, 60, =61=

Bluets, =523=, 524

Blue Hill Observatory, 860

Blue Vitriol, 825, 826

Bole or Trunk of Tree, 726, =727=

Boreas, 858

Box Elder, 738

Boulders, 844

Bracken, 689

Branch, =727=

Bread mold, enlarged, =721=

Breathing pores of insect, =314=

Brook Study, =817=

Brook, the, 818, 819, 844

Brown, Theron, 585, 591, 657, 816

Browning Robert, 515, 898

Bryant, W. C., 491

Buchanan, H. B. M., 294, 306

Buckeye, sweet, blossom, =761=

Budding, =780=

Buffalo, 18, 295

Bull, 295

Bullfrog, =193=

Bullhead, =154=, =155=, 156

Burdock, =566=, =567=, =568=, =569=, 594, 633

Burkett, W. B., 280

Burroughs, John, 72, 74, 76, 79

Burr, Prof. Geo. L., 838

Butter-and-eggs, 594

Buttercup, 528, =529=, =530=

Butterfly--Black swallow-tail, =315=, 318
changing to chrysalis, 317
scales on wing of, =321=
Cabbage, 317
Monarch, =320=, 324
_Papilio troilus_, 579
Viceroy, =321=, 322, 768

Byron, 785

Caddis-fly, =387=, =388=, =389=, =390=

Caddis-worms cases of, =387=, =389=, =390=, =391=
spiral ribbon, 390, 391
with a grating of silk, 389

Cage, bird, 8
breeding, 8
for crickets, =375=

Calcite, marble and limestone, =835=, 836

Calla lily, 512

Callisto, 891

Calves, dehorned, 301

Camel, 18