Chapter XIV: Part II: Animal Life (7)

Almost any of the fishes found in brook or pond may be kept in an aquarium for a few days of observation in the schoolroom. A water pail or bucket does very well if there is no glass aquarium. The water should be changed every day and at least once a day it should be aerated by dipping it up and pouring it back from some distance above. The practice should be established, once for all, of putting these finny prisoners back into the brook after they have been studied.

THE GOLDFISH

_Teacher’s Story_

Once upon a time, if stories are true, there lived a king called Midas, whose touch turned everything to gold. Whenever I see goldfish, I wonder if, perhaps, King Midas were not a Chinese and if he perchance did not handle some of the little fish in Orient streams. But common man has learned a magic as wonderful as that of King Midas, although it does not act so immediately, for it is through his agency in selecting and breeding that we have gained these exquisite fish for our aquaria. In the streams of China the goldfish, which were the ancestors of these effulgent creatures, wore safe green colors like the shiners in our brooks; and if any goldfish escape from our fountains and run wild, their progeny return to their native olive-green color. There are many such dull-colored goldfish in the Delaware and Potomac and other eastern rivers. It is almost inconceivable that one of the brilliant colored fishes, if it chanced to escape into our ponds, should escape the fate of being eaten by some larger fish attracted by such glittering bait.

The goldfish, as we see it in the aquarium, is brilliant orange above and pale lemon-yellow below; there are many specimens that are adorned with black patches. And as if this fish were bound to imitate the precious metals, there are individuals which are silver instead of gold: they are oxydized silver above and polished silver below. The goldfish are closely related to the carp and can live in waters that are stale. However, the water in the aquarium should be changed at least twice a week to keep it clear. Goldfish should not be fed too lavishly. An inch square of one of the sheets of prepared fish food, we have found a fair daily ration for five medium sized fish; these fish are more likely to die from overfeeding than from starving. Goldfish are naturally long-lived; Miss Ada Georgia has kept them until seven years old in a school aquarium; and there is on record one goldfish that lived nine years.

Too often the wonderful common things are never noticed because of their commonness; and there is no better instance of this than the form and movements of a fish. It is an animal in many ways similar to animals that live on land; but its form and structure are such that it is perfectly adapted to live in water all its life; there are none of the true fishes which live portions of their lives on land as do the frogs. The first peculiarity of the fish is its shape. Looked at from above, the broader part of the body is near the front end which is rounded or pointed so as to cut the water readily. The long, narrow, hind portion of the body with the tail acts as a propeller. Seen from the side, the body is a smooth, graceful oval and this form is especially adapted to move through the water swiftly, as can be demonstrated to the pupil by cutting a model of the fish from wood and trying to move it through the water sidewise.

_Goldfish with the parts named._

This figure should be copied on the blackboard for reference.]

Normally, the fish has seven fins, one along the back called the dorsal, one at the end of the tail called the tail or caudal fin, one beneath the rear end of the body called the anal, a pair on the lower side of the body called the ventrals, and a pair just back of the gill openings called the pectorals. All these fins play their own parts in the movements of the fish. The dorsal fin is usually higher in front than behind and can be lifted or shut down like a fan. This fin when it is lifted gives the fish greater height and it can be twisted to one side or the other and thus be made a factor in steering. The anal fin on the lower side acts in a similar manner. The tail fin is the propeller and sends the body forward by pressing backward on the water, first on one side and then on the other, being used like a scull. The tail fin varies in shape very much in different species. In the goldfish it is fanlike, with a deeply notched hind edge, but in some it is rounded or square.

The paired fins correspond anatomically to our arms and legs, the pectorals representing the arms, the ventrals the legs. Fins are made up of rays, as the bony rods are called which support the membrane; these rays are of two kinds, those which are soft, flexible, many jointed and usually branched at the tip; and those which are bony, not jointed and which are usually stiff spines. When the spines are present in a fin they precede the soft rays.

Fishes’ eyes have no eyelid but the eyeball is movable, and this often gives the impression that the fish winks. Fishes are necessarily near-sighted since the lens of the eye has to be spherical in order to see in the water. The sense of smell is located in a little sac to which the nostril leads; the nostrils are small and often partitioned and may be seen on either side of the snout. The nostrils have no connection whatever with breathing, in the fish.

The tongue of the fish is very bony or bristly and immovable. There is very little sense of taste developed in it. The shape, number and position of the teeth vary according to the food habits of the fish. The commonest type of teeth are fine, sharp and short and are arranged in pads, as seen in the bullhead. Some fish have blunt teeth suitable for crushing shells. Herbivorous fishes have sharp teeth with serrated edges, while those living upon crabs and snails have incisor-like teeth. In some specimens we find several types of teeth, in others the teeth may be entirely absent. The teeth are borne not only on the jaws but also in the roof of the mouth, on the tongue and in the throat.

The ear of the fish has neither outside form nor opening and is very imperfect in comparison with that of man. Extending along the sides of the body from head to tail is a line of modified scales containing small tubes connecting with nerves; this is called the lateral line and it is believed that it is in some way connected with the fish’s senses, perhaps with the sense of hearing.

Since fishes must push through water, which is more difficult than moving through air, they need to have the body well protected. This protection is, in most fishes, in the form of an armor of scales which are smooth and allow the body to pass through the water with little friction. These scales overlap like shingles in a roof and are all directed backward. The study of the fish scale shows that it grows in layers.

In order to understand how the fish breathes we must examine its gills. In front, just above the entrance to the gullet are several bony ridges which bear two rows of pinkish fringes; these are the gill arches and the fringes are the gills. The gills are filled with tiny blood vessels, and as the water passes over them, the impurities of the blood pass out through the thin skin of the gills and the life-giving oxygen passes in. Since fish cannot make use of air unless it is dissolved in water, it is very important that the water in the aquarium jar should often be replenished. The gill arches also bear a series of bony processes called gill-rakers. Their function is to prevent the escape of food through the gills while it is being swallowed, and they vary in size according to the food habits of the fish. We note that the fish in the aquarium constantly opens and closes the mouth; this action draws the water into the throat and forces it out over the gills and through the gill openings; this then, is the act of breathing.

LESSON XXXVI

A STUDY OF THE FISH

_Leading thought_--A fish lives in the water where it must breathe, move and find its food. The water world is quite different from the air world and the fish have developed forms, senses and habits which fit them for life in the water.

_Method_--The goldfish is used as a subject for this lesson because it is so conveniently kept where the children may see it. However, a shiner or minnow would do as well.

Before the pupils begin the study, place the diagram shown on p. 150 on the blackboard, with all the parts labelled; thus the pupils will be able to learn the parts of the fish by consulting it, and not be compelled to commit them to memory arbitrarily. It would be well to associate the goldfish with a geography lesson on China.

_Observations_--1. Where do fishes live? Do any fishes ever live any part of their lives on land like the frogs? Could a salt-water fish live in fresh water, or vice versa?

2. What is the shape of a fish when seen from above? Where is the widest part? What is its shape seen from the side? Think if you can in how many ways the shape of the fish is adapted for moving swiftly through the water.

3. How many fins has the fish? Make a sketch of the goldfish with all its fins and name them from the diagram on the blackboard.

4. How many fins are there in all? Four of these fins are in pairs; where are they situated? What are they called? Which pair corresponds to our arms? Which to our legs?

5. Describe the pectoral fins. How are they used? Are they kept constantly moving? Do they move together or alternately? How are they used when the fish swims backwards?

6. How are the ventral fins used? How do they assist the fish when swimming?

7. Sketch a dorsal fin. How many spines has it? How many soft rays are there in it? What is the difference in structure between the stiff spines in the front of the dorsal fin and the rays in the hind portion? Of what use to the fish are these two different kinds of fin supports?

8. Sketch the anal fin. Has it any spines in front? How many rays has it? How is this fin used when the fish is swimming?

9. With what fin does the fish push itself through the water? Make a sketch of the tail. Note if it is square, rounded, or notched at the end. Are the rays of the tail fin spiny or soft in character?

10. Watch the goldfish swim and describe the action of all the fins while it is in motion. In what position are the fins when the fish is at rest?

11. What is the nature of the covering of the fish? Are the scales large or small? In which direction do they seem to overlap? Of what use to the fish is this scaly covering?

12. Can you see a line which extends from the upper part of the gill opening, along the side to the tail? This is called the lateral line. Do you think it is of any use to the fish?

13. Note carefully the eyes of the fish. Describe the pupil and the iris. Are the eyes placed so that the fish can see in all directions? Can they be moved so as to see better in any direction? Does the fish wink? Has it any eyelids? Do you know why fish are near-sighted?

14. Can you see the nostrils? Is there a little wartlike projection connected with the nostril? Do you think fishes breathe through their nostrils?

15. Describe the mouth of the fish. Does it open upward, downward, or directly in front? What sort of teeth have fish? How does the fish catch its prey? Does the lower or upper jaw move in the process of eating?

16. Is the mouth kept always in motion? Do you think the fish is swallowing water all the time? Do you know why it does this? Can you see a wide opening along the sides of the head behind the gill cover? Does the gill cover move with the movement of the mouth? How does a fish breathe?

17. What are the colors of the goldfish above and below? What would happen to our beautiful goldfish if they were put in a brook with other fish? Why could they not hide? Do you know what happens to the colors of the goldfish when they run wild in our streams and ponds?

18. Can you find in books or cyclopedias where the goldfish came from? Are they gold and silver in color in the streams where they are native? Do you think that they had originally the long, slender, swallow tails which we see sometimes in goldfish? How have the beautiful colors and graceful forms of the gold and silver fishes been developed?

* * * * *

“_I have my world, and so have you,
A tiny universe for two,
A bubble by the artist blown,
Scarcely more fragile than our own,
Where you have all a whale could wish,
Happy as Eden’s primal fish.
Manna is dropt you thrice a day
From some kind heaven not far away,
And still you snatch its softening crumbs,
Nor, more than we, think whence it comes.
No toil seems yours but to explore
Your cloistered realm from shore to shore;
Sometimes you trace its limits round,
Sometimes its limpid depths you sound,
Or hover motionless midway,
Like gold-red clouds at set of day;
Erelong you whirl with sudden whim
Off to your globe’s most distant rim,
Where, greatened by the watery lens,
Methinks no dragon of the fens
Flashed huger scales against the sky,
Roused by Sir Bevis or Sir Guy;
And the one eye that meets my view,
Lidless and strangely largening, too,
Like that of conscience in the dark,
Seems to make me its single mark.
What a benignant lot is yours
That have an own All-out-of-doors,
No words to spell, no sums to do,
No Nepos and no parlyvoo!
How happy you, without a thought
Of such cross things as Must and Ought--
I too the happiest of boys
To see and share your golden joys!_”
--“THE ORACLE OF THE GOLDFISHES,” LOWELL.

Photo by Verne Morton.]

THE BULLHEAD

_Teacher’s Story_

“_The bull-head does usually dwell and hide himself in holes
or amongst stones in clear water; and in very hot days will
lie a long time very still and sun himself and will be easy
to be seen on any flat stone or gravel; at which time he will
suffer an angler to put a hook baited with a small worm very
near into his mouth; and he never refuses to bite, nor indeed,
to be caught with the worst of anglers._”--ISAAK WALTON.

When one looks a bullhead in the face one is glad that it is not a real bull for its barbels give it an appearance quite fit for the making of a nightmare; and yet from the standpoint of the bullhead, how truly beautiful those fleshy feelers are! For without them how could it feel its way about searching for food in the mud where it lives? Two of these barbels stand straight up; the two largest ones stand out on each side of the mouth, and two pairs of short ones adorn the lower lip, the smallest pair at the middle.

As the fish moves about, it is easy to see that the large barbels at the side of the mouth are of the greatest use; it keeps them in a constantly advancing movement, feeling of everything it meets. The upper ones stand straight up, keeping watch for whatever news there may be from above; the two lower ones spread apart and follow rather than precede the fish, seeming to test what lies below. The upper and lower pairs seem to test things as they are, while the large side pair deal with what is going to be. The broad mouth seems to be formed for taking in all things eatable, for the bullhead lives on almost anything alive or dead that it discovers as it noses about in the mud. Nevertheless, it has its notions about its food for I have repeatedly seen one draw material into its mouth through its breathing motion and then spew it out with a vehemence one would hardly expect from such a phlegmatic fish.

Although it has feelers which are very efficient, it also has perfectly good eyes which it uses to excellent purpose; note how promptly it moves to the other side of the aquarium when we are trying to study it. The eyes are not large; the pupils are black and oval and are rimmed with a narrow band of shiny pale yellow. The eyes are prominent so that when moved backward and forward they gain a view of the enemy in the rear or at the front while the head is motionless. It seems strange to see such a pair of pale yellow, almost white eyes in such a dark body.

The general shape of the front part of the body is flat, in fact, it is decidedly polywogy; this shape is especially fitted for groping about muddy bottoms. The flat effect of the body is emphasized by the gill covers opening below rather than at the sides, every pulsation widening the broad neck. The pectoral fins also open out on the same plane as the body although they can be turned at an angle if necessary; they are thick and fleshy and the sharp tips of their spines offer punishment to whomsoever touches them. The dorsal fin is far forward and not large; it is usually raised at a threatening angle.

There is a little fleshy dorsal fin near the tail which stands in line with the body and one wonders what is its special use. The ventral fins are small. The anal fin is far back and rather strong, and this with the long, strong tail gives the fish good motor power and it can swim very rapidly if occasion requires.

After Gill.]

The bullhead is mud-colored and has no scales; and since it lives in the mud, it does not need scales to protect it; but because of its scaleless condition it is a constant victim of the lampreys, and it would do well, indeed, if it could develop an armor of scales against this parasite. The skin is very thick and leathery so that it is always removed before the fish is cooked. The bullhead is the earliest fish of the spring. This is probably because it burrows deep into the mud in the fall and remains there all winter; when the spring freshets come, it emerges and is hungry for fresh meat.

The family life of the bullheads and other catfishes seems to be quite ideal. Dr. Theodore Gill tells us that bullheads make their nests by removing stones and gravel from a more or less irregularly circular area in shallow water, and on sandy or gravelly ground. The nest is somewhat excavated, both parents removing the pebbles by sucking them into the mouth and carrying them off for some distance. After the eggs are laid, the male watches over and guards the nest and seems to have great family responsibilities. He is the more active of the two in stirring and mixing the young fry after they are hatched. Smith and Harron describe the process thus: “With their chins on the bottom, the old fish brush the corners where the fry were banked, and with the barbels all directed forward, and flexed where they touch the bottom, thoroughly agitate the mass of fry, bringing the deepest individuals to the surface. This act is usually repeated several times in quick succession.”

“The nests are usually made beneath logs or other protecting objects and in shallow water. The paternal care is continued for many days after the birth of the young. At first these may be crowded together in a dense mass, but as time passes they disperse more and more and spread around the father. Frequently, especially when the old one is feeding, some--one or more--of the young are taken into the mouth, but they are instinctively separated from the food and spit out. At last the young swarm venture farther from their birthplace, or perhaps they are led away by their parents.”

LESSON XXXVII

THE BULLHEAD, OR HORNED POUT

_Leading thought_--The bullhead lives in mud bottoms of streams and ponds and is particularly adapted for life in such locations.

_Method_--A small bullhead may be placed in a small aquarium jar. At first let the water be clear and add a little pond weed so as to observe the natural tendency of the fish to hide. Later add mud and gravel to the aquarium and note the behavior of the fish.

_Observations_--1. What at the first glance distinguishes the bullhead from other fish? Describe these strange “whiskers” growing about the mouth; how many are there and where are they situated? Which are the longest pair? Can the fish move them in any direction at will?

2. Where do we find bullheads? On what do they feed? Would their eyes help them to find their food in the mud? How do they find it?

3. Explain, if you can, why the bullhead has barbels, or feelers, while the trout and bass have none.

4. What is the shape of the bullhead’s mouth?

5. What is the general shape of the body? What is its color? Has it any scales?

6. Why should the bullhead be so flat horizontally while the sunfish is so flat in the opposite direction?

7. Describe the bullhead’s eyes. Are they large? What is their color? Where are they placed?

8. Describe the dorsal fin, giving its comparative size and position. Do you see another dorsal fin? Where is this peculiar fin and how does it differ from the others?

9. Describe the tail fin. Does it seem long and strong? Is the bullhead a good swimmer?

10. Is the anal fin large or small as compared with that of the goldfish?

11. How do the pectoral fins move as compared with those of the sunfish? Why is the position of the pectoral and dorsal fins of benefit to this fish?

12. How does the bullhead inflict wounds when it is handled? Tell how these spines protect it from its natural enemies.

13. When is the best season for fishing for bullheads? Does the place where they are found affect the flavor of their flesh? Why?

14. What is the spawning season? Do you know about the nests the bullheads build and the care they give their young?

15. Write an essay on the nest-making habits of the bullheads and the care given the young by the parents.

* * * * *

“_And what fish will the natural boy naturally take? In
America, there is but one fish which enters fully into the
spirit of the occasion. It is a fish of many species according
to the part of the country, and of as many sizes as there
are sizes of boys. This fish is the horned pout, and all the
rest of the species of Ameiurus. Horned pout is its Boston
name. Bullhead is good enough for New York; and for the rest
of the country, big and little, all the fishes of this tribe
are called catfish. A catfish is a jolly blundering sort of
a fish, a regular Falstaff of the ponds. It has a fat jowl,
and a fat belly, which it is always trying to fill. Smooth
and sleek, its skin is almost human in its delicacy. It wears
a long mustache, with scattering whiskers of other sort.
Meanwhile it always goes armed with a sword, three swords, and
these it has always on hand, always ready for a struggle on
land as well as in the water. The small boy often gets badly
stuck on these poisoned daggers, but, as the fish knows how to
set them by a muscular twist, the small boy learns how, by a
like untwist, he may unset and leave them harmless._”

“_The catfish lives in sluggish waters. It loves the millpond
best of all, and it has no foolish dread of hooks when it
goes forth to bite. Its mouth is wide. It swallows the hook,
and very soon it is in the air, its white throat gasping in
the untried element. Soon it joins its fellows on the forked
stick, and even then, uncomfortable as it may find its new
relations, it never loses sight of the humor of the occasion.
Its large head and expansive forehead betoken a large mind.
It is the only fish whose brain contains a Sylvian fissure,
a piling up of tissue consequent on the abundance of gray
matter. So it understands and makes no complaint. After it has
dried in the sun for an hour, pour a little water over its
gills, and it will wag its tail, and squeak with gratitude.
And the best of all is, there are horned pouts enough to go
around._”

“_The female horned pout lays thousands of eggs, and when
these hatch, she goes about near the shore with her school of
little fishes, like a hen with myriad chicks. She should be
respected and let alone, for on her success in rearing this
breed of “bullying little rangers” depends the sport of the
small boy of the future._”
--DAVID STARR JORDAN, IN FISH STORIES.

Photo by Verne Morton.]

THE COMMON SUCKER

_Teacher’s Story_

He who loves to peer down into the depths of still waters, often sees upon the sandy, muddy or rocky bottom several long, wedge-shaped sticks lying at various angles one to another. But if he thrust down a real stick, behold, these inert, water-logged sticks move off deftly! And then he knows that they are suckers. He may drop a hook baited with a worm in front of the nose of one, and if he waits long enough before he pulls up he may catch this fish, not by its gills but by the pit of its stomach; for it not only swallows the hook completely but tries to digest it along with the worm. Its food is made up of soft-bodied insects and other small water creatures; it is also a mud eater and manages to make a digestive selection from the organic material of silt. For this latter reason, it is not a desirable food fish although its flesh varies in flavor with the locality where it is found. The suckers taken along the rocky shores of Cayuga Lake are fairly palatable, while those taken in the mud of the Cayuga Inlet are very inferior in flavor and often uneatable.

Seen from above, the sucker is wedge-shaped, being widest at the eyes; seen from the side it has a flat lower surface and an ungracefully rounded contour above which tapers only slightly toward the tail. The profile of the face gives the impression of a Roman nose. The young specimens have an irregular scale-mosaic pattern of olive-green blotches on a paler ground color, while the old ones are quite brown above and on the sides. The suckers differ from most other fishes in having the markings of the back extend down the sides almost to the belly. This is a help in concealing the fish, since its sides show from above quite as distinctly as its back because of its peculiar form. The scales are rather large and are noticeably larger behind than in the region of the head. Like other fish it is white below.

The dorsal fin is placed about midway the length of the fish as measured from nose to tail. It is not large and appears to have twelve rays; but there is a short spine in front and a delicate soft ray behind so that it really has fourteen. The tail is long and strong and deeply notched: the anal fin extends back to where the tail begins. The ventral fins are small and are directly opposite the hind half of the dorsal fin. The pectorals are not large but are strong and are placed low down. The sucker has not a lavish equipment of fins but its tail is strong and it can swim swiftly; it is also a tremendous jumper; it will jump from the aquarium more successfully than any other fish. When resting on the bottom, it is supported by its extended pectoral and ventral fins, which are strong although not large.

The eyes are fairly large but the iris is not shiny; they are placed so that the fish can easily see above it as well as at the sides; the eyes move so as to look up or down and are very well adapted to serve a fish that lives upon the bottom. The nostrils are divided, the partition projecting until it seems a tubercle on the face. The mouth opens below and looks like the puckered opening of a bag. The lips are thick but are very sensitive; it is by projecting these lips, in a way that reminds one of a very short elephant’s trunk, that it is enabled to reach and find its food in the mud or gravel; so although the sucker’s mouth is not a beautiful feature, it is doubly useful. The sucker has the habit of remaining motionless for long periods of time. It breathes very slowly and appears sluggish; it never seizes its food with any spirit but simply slowly engulfs it; and for this reason it is considered poor game. It is only in the spring when they may be speared through the ice that there is any fun in catching suckers; it is at this season of the year that they move to shallow water to spawn; those in the lakes move to the rivers, those in the rivers to the creeks, those in the creeks to the brooks. Even so lowly a creature as the sucker seems to respond to influences of the springtime, for at that period the male has a faint rosy stripe along his sides. In the winter these fish burrow in the mud of the river or pond bottoms; they may be frozen and thawed without harming them.

There are many species of suckers and they vary in size from six inches to three feet in length. They inhabit all sorts of waters, but they do not like a strong current and are, therefore, found in still pools. The common sucker (_Catostomus commersoni_), which is the subject of this lesson, sometimes attains the length of twenty-two inches and the weight of five pounds. The ones under observation were about eight inches long, and proved to be the acrobats of the aquarium, since they were likely at any moment to jump out; several times I found one languishing on the floor.

LESSON XXXVIII

THE COMMON SUCKER

_Leading thought_--The sucker is especially adapted by shape for lying on the bottom of ponds under still water where its food is abundant.

_Method_--If still water pools along river or lakesides are accessible, it is far more interesting to study a sucker in its native haunts, as an introduction to the study of its form and colors when it is in the aquarium.

_Observations_--1. Where do you find suckers? How do you catch them? Do they take the hook quickly? What is the natural food of the sucker?

2. What is the shape of this fish’s body when seen from above? From the side? What is the color above? On the sides? Below? Does the sucker differ from most other fishes in the coloring along its sides? What is the reason for this? What do suckers look like on the bottom of the pond? Are they easily seen?

3. Describe or sketch a sucker, showing the position, size and shape of the fins and tail. Are its scales large or small? How does it use its fins when at rest? When moving? Is it a strong swimmer? Is it a high jumper?

4. Describe the eyes; how are they especially adapted in position and in movement to the needs of a fish that lives on the bottom of streams and ponds?

5. Note the nostrils; what is there peculiar about them?

6. Where is the mouth of the sucker situated? What is its form? How is it adapted to get the food which the sucker likes best?

7. Tell all you know about the habits of the suckers. When do you see them first in the spring? Where do they spend the winter? Where do they go to spawn? How large is the largest one you have ever seen? Why is their flesh usually considered poor in quality as food? Is there a difference in the flavor of its flesh depending upon the locality in which the fish lives? Why?

THE SHINER

_Teacher’s Story_

“_This is a noteworthy and characteristic lineament, or
cipher, or hieroglyphic, or type of spring. You look into some
clear, sandy bottomed brook where it spreads into a deeper
bay, yet flowing cold from ice and snow not far off, and see
indistinctly poised over the sand on invisible fins, the
outlines of the shiner, scarcely to be distinguished from the
sands behind it as if it were transparent._”--THOREAU.

There are many species of shiners and it is by no means easy to recognize them nor to distinguish them from chub, dace and minnows since all these belong to one family; they all have the same arrangement of fins and live in the same water; and the plan of this lesson can with few changes be applied to any of them.

Never were seen more exquisite colors than shimmer along the sides of the common shiner (_Notropis cornutus_). It is pale olive-green above, just a sunny brook-color; this is bordered at the sides by a line of iridescent blue-purple, while the shining silver scales on the sides below, flash and glimmer with the changing hues of the rainbow. The minnows are darker than the shiners; the horned dace develops little tubercles on the head during the breeding season, which are lost later.

The body of the shiner is ideal for slipping through the water. Seen from above it is a narrow wedge, rounded in front and tapering to a point behind; from the side, it is long, oval, lance-shaped. The scales are large and beautiful, the lateral line looks like a series of dots embroidered at the center of the diamond-shaped scales.

The dorsal fin is placed just back of the center of the body and is not very large; it is composed of soft rays, the first two being stiff and unbranched. The tail is long, large, graceful and deeply notched. The anal fin is almost as large as the dorsal. The ventral pair is placed on the lower side, opposite the dorsal fin; the pectorals are set at the lower margin of the body, just behind the gill openings. The shiner and its relatives use the pectoral fins to aid in swimming, and keep them constantly in motion when moving through the water. The ventrals are moved only now and then and evidently help in keeping the balance. When the fish moves rapidly forward, the dorsal fin is raised so that its front edge stands at right angles to the body and the ventral and anal fins are expanded to their fullest extent. But when the fish is lounging, the dorsal, anal and ventral fins are more or less closed, although the tip of the dorsal fin swings with every movement of the fish.

The eyes are large, the pupils being very large and black; the iris is pale yellow and shining; the whole eye is capable of much movement forward and back. The nostril is divided by a little projecting partition which looks like a tubercle. The mouth is at the front of the head; to see the capabilities of this mouth, watch the shiner yawn, if the water of the aquarium becomes stale. Poor fellow! He yawns just as we do in the effort to get more oxygen.

The shiners are essentially brook fish although they may be found in larger bodies of water. They lead a precarious existence, for the larger fish eat them in all their stages. They only hold their own by laying countless numbers of eggs. They feed on water insects and get even with their big fish enemies by eating their eggs. They are pretty and graceful little creatures and may be seen swimming up the current in the middle of the brook. They often occur in schools or flocks, especially when young.

LESSON XXXIX

THE SHINER

_Leading thought_--The shiners are among the most common of the little fish in our small streams. They are beautiful in form and play an important part in the life of our streams.

_Method_--Place in the aquarium shiners and as many as possible of the other species of small fish found in our creeks and brooks. The aquarium should stand where the pupil may see it often. The following questions may be asked, giving the children plenty of time for the work of observation:

_Observations_--1. Do you know how the shiner differs in appearance from the minnow and chub and dace?

2. What is the shape of the shiner’s body when seen from above? When seen from the side? Do you think that its shape fits it for moving rapidly through the water?

3. What is the coloring above? On the sides? Below?

4. Are the scales large and distinct, or very small? Can you see the lateral line? Where are the tiny holes, which make this line, placed in the scales?

5. Describe or sketch the fish, showing position, relative size and shape of all the fins and the tail.

6. Describe the use and movements of each of the fins when the fish is swimming.

7. Describe the eyes. Do they move?

8. Describe the nostrils. Do you think each one is double?

9. Does the mouth open upwards, downwards or forwards? Have you ever seen the shiner yawn? Why does it yawn? Why do you yawn?

10. Where do you find the shiners living? Do they haunt the middle of the stream or the edges? Do you ever see them in flocks or schools?

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_MINNOWS_

_How silent comes the water round that bend;
Not the minutest whisper does it send
To the o’er hanging sallows; blades of grass
Slowly across the chequer’d shadows pass,
Why, you might read two sonnets, ere they reach
To where the hurrying freshnesses aye preach
A natural sermon o’er their pebbly beds;
Where swarms of minnows show their little heads,
Staying their wavy bodies ’gainst the streams,
To taste the luxury of sunny beams
Tempered with coolness. How they ever wrestle
With their own sweet delight, and ever nestle
Their silver bellies on the pebbly sand!
If you but scantily hold out the hand,
That very instant not one will remain;
But turn your eye, and there they are again.
The ripples seem right glad to reach those cresses,
And cool themselves among the em’rald tresses;
The while they cool themselves, they freshness give,
And moisture, that the bowery green may live._
--JOHN KEATS.

Photo by Verne Morton.]

THE BROOK TROUT

_Teacher’s Story_

“_Up and down the brook I ran, where beneath the banks so steep,
Lie the spotted trout asleep._”
--WHITTIER.

But they were probably not asleep as Mr. Whittier might have observed if he had cast a fly near one of them. There is in the very haunts of the trout, a suggestion of where it gets its vigor and wariness: The cold, clear streams where the water is pure; brooks that wind in and out over rocky and pebbly beds, here shaded by trees and there dashing through the open,--it makes us feel vigorous even to think of such streams. Under the overhanging bank or in the shade of some fallen log or shelving rock, the brook trout hides where he may see all that goes on in the world above and around him without being himself seen. Woe to the unfortunate insect that falls upon the surface of the water in his vicinity or even that flies low over the surface for the trout will jump easily far out of the water to seize its prey! It is this habit of taking the insect upon and above the water’s surface which has made trout fly-fishing the sport that it is. Man’s ingenuity is fairly matched against the trout’s cunning in this contest. I know of one old trout that has kept fishermen in the region around on the _qui vive_ for years; and up to date he is still alive, making a dash now and then at a tempting bait, showing himself enough to tantalize his would-be captors with his splendid size, but always retiring at the sight of the line.

The brook trout varies much in color, depending upon the soil and the rocks of the streams in which it lives. Its back is marbled with dark olive or black, making it just the color of shaded water. This marbled coloration also marks the dorsal and the tail fins. The sides, which vary much in color, are marked with beautiful vermilion spots, each placed in the center of a larger, brownish spot. In some instances the lower surface is reddish, in others whitish. All the fins on the lower side of the body have the front edges creamy or yellowish white, with a darker streak behind.

The trout’s head is quite large and somewhat blunt. The large eye is a little in front of the middle of the head. The dorsal fin is at about the middle of the body, and when raised is squarish in outline. Behind the dorsal fin, and near to the tail is the little, fleshy adipose fin, so called because it has no rays. The tail is fan-shaped, slightly notched at the end and is large and strong. The anal fin is rather large, being shaped much like the dorsal fin, only slightly smaller. The ventral fins are directly below the dorsal fin and a little behind its middle. The pectorals are low down, being below and just behind the gill arches.

In size the brook trout seldom is longer than seven or eight inches, but in the rivers of the Northeastern United States specimens weighing from six to eleven pounds are sometimes taken. It does not flourish in water which is warmer than 68°, but prefers a temperature of about 50°. It must have the pure water of mountain streams and cannot endure water of rivers which is polluted by mills or the refuse of cities. Where it has access to streams that flow into the ocean, it forms the salt water habit, going out to sea and remaining there during the winter. Such specimens become very large.

The trout can lay eggs when about six inches in length. The eggs are laid from September until late November, although, as Mr. Bream says, the brook trout are spawned at some locality in almost every month of the year except mid-summer. One mother trout lays from 400 to 600 eggs, but the large-sized ones lay more. The period of hatching depends upon the temperature of the water. In depositing their eggs the trout seek water with gravelly bottom, often where some mountain brook opens into a larger stream. The nest is shaped by the tail of the fish, the larger stones being carried away in the mouth. To make the precious eggs secure they are covered with gravel.

There have been strict laws enacted by almost all of our states with a view to protecting the brook trout and preserving it in our streams. The open season in New York is from the 15th of April to the 1st of September, and it is illegal to take from a stream a fish that is less than five inches in length. It is the duty of every decent citizen to abide by these laws and to see to it that his neighbors observe them. The teacher cannot emphasize enough upon the child the moral value of being law-abiding. There should be in every school in the Union children’s clubs which should have for their purpose civic honesty and the enforcement of laws which affect the city, village or township.

Almost any stream with suitable water may be stocked with trout from the national or the state hatcheries, but what is the use of this expense if the game laws are not observed and these fish are caught before they reach maturity, as is so often the case?

_References_--American Food and Game Fishes, Jordan & Everman; Guide to American Fishes, Jordan.

LESSON XL

THE BROOK TROUT

_Leading thought_--The brook trout have been exterminated in our streams largely because the game laws have not been observed. The trout is the most cunning and beautiful of our common fishes and the most valuable for food. If properly guarded, every pure mountain stream in our country, could be well stocked with the brook trout.

_Method_--A trout may be kept in an aquarium of flowing water indefinitely and should be fed upon liver and hard clams chopped. If there is no aquarium with running water, the trout may be kept in an ordinary jar long enough for this lesson. The object of this lesson should be not only the study of the habits of the fish, but also a lesson in its preservation.

_Observations_--1. In what streams are the brook trout found? Must the water be warm or cold? Can the trout live in impure water? Can it live in salt water?

2. Do the trout swim about in schools or do they live solitary? Where do they like to hide?

3. With what kind of bait is trout caught? Why does it afford such excellent sport for fly-fishing? Can you tell what the food of the trout is?

4. What is the color of the trout above? What colors along its sides? What markings make the fish so beautiful? What is its color below? Has the trout scales? Do you see the lateral line?

5. What is the general shape of the brook trout? Describe the shape, position and color of the dorsal fin. Describe the little fin behind the dorsal. Why is it unlike the other fins? What is the shape of the tail fin? Is it rounded, square or crescent-shaped across the end? What is the position and size of the anal fin compared with the dorsal? What colors on the ventral fins and where are they placed in relation to the dorsal fin? What color are the pectoral fins and how are they placed in relation to the gill arches?

6. Describe the trout’s eyes. Are they large and alert? Do you think the trout is keen-sighted?

7. When and where are the eggs laid? Describe how the nest is made. How are the eggs covered and protected?

8. Why are there no trout in the streams of your neighborhood? Could a trout live in these streams? Can you get state aid in stocking the streams?

9. What are the game laws concerning trout fishing? When is the open season? How long must the trout be to be taken legally? If you are a good citizen what do you do about the game laws?

10. Write a story telling all you know about the wariness, cunning and strength of the brook trout.

_Supplementary reading_--The following from Fish Stories by Holder and Jordan: “The Trout of Los Laurelles;” “The Golden Trout of the High Sierras;” “The Lure of the Rainbow.” “The Story of the Salmon” in Science Sketches; “The Master of the Golden Pool” in Watchers of the Trails; The Story of the Fishes, Baskett; Neighbors with Wings and Fins, Johonnet.

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_TROUT_

“_It is well for anglers not to make trout, of all fishes, the
prime objective of a day’s sport, as no more uncertain game
loves the sunlight. Today he is yours for the very asking;
tomorrow, the most luscious lure will not tempt him. One hour
he defies you, the next, gazes at you from some ensconcement
of the fishes, and knows you not, as you pass him, casting,
by._

_I believe I accumulated some of this angling wisdom years
ago, in a certain trout domain in New England, where there
were streams and pools, ripples, cascades and drooping trees;
where everything was fair and promising to the eyes for trout;
but it required superhuman patience to lure them, and many a
day I scored a blank. Yet on these very days when lures were
unavailing, the creel empty save for fern leaves, I found they
were not for naught; that the real fishing day was a composite
of the weather, the wind, even if it was from the east, the
splendid colors of forest trees, the blue tourmaline of the
sky that topped the stream amid the trees, the flecks of cloud
mirrored on the surface. The delight of anticipation, the
casting, the play of the rod, the exercise of skill, the quick
turns in the steam opening up new vistas, the little openings
in the forest, through which were seen distant meadows and
nodding flowers--all these went to make up the real trout
fishing, the actual catch being but an incident among many
delights._

_Just how long one could be content with mere scenery in lieu
of trout, I am not prepared to say; if pushed to the wall, I
confess that when fishing I prefer trout to scenic effects.
Still, it is a very impracticable and delightful sentiment
with some truth to it, the moral being that the angler should
be resourceful, and not be entirely cast down on the days when
the wind is in the east._

_I am aware that this method of angling is not in vogue with
some, and would be deemed fanciful, indeed inane, by many
more; yet it is based upon a true and homely philosophy, not
of today, the philosophy of patience and contentment. “How
poor are they that have not patience,” said Othello. It is
well to be content with things as we find them, and it is well
to go a-fishing, not to catch fish alone, but every offering
the day has to give. This should be an easy matter for the
angler, as Walton tells us that Angling is somewhat like
poetry, men are to be born so._”
--FISH STORIES, JORDAN AND HOLDER.

THE STICKLEBACK

_Teacher’s Story_

Drawn from nature.]

This is certainly the most sagacious of the Lilliputian vertebrates; scarcely more than an inch in length when full-grown, it gazes at you with large, keen, shining-rimmed eyes, takes your measure and darts off with a flirt of the tail that says plainly, “Catch me if you can.” The sticklebacks are delightful aquarium pets because their natural home is in still water sufficiently stagnant for algæ to grow luxuriously; thus we but seldom need to change the water in the aquarium, which, however, should be well stocked with water plants and have gravel at the bottom.

When the stickleback is not resting he is always going somewhere and he knows just where he is going and what he is going to do, and earthquakes shall not deter him. He is the most dynamic creature in all creation, I think, except perhaps the dragon fly, and he is so ferocious that if he were as large as a shark he would destroy all other fishes. Place an earthworm, cut into small sections, in the aquarium and while each section is wriggingly considering whether it may be able to grow both ends into another worm, the stickleback takes hold with a will and settles the matter in the negative. His ferocity is frightful to behold as he seizes his prey and shakes it as a terrier does a rat.