Chapter XIX: Part II: Animal Life (12)

The little brown bat’s wings often measure nine inches from tip to tip, and yet he folds them so that they scarcely show, he does not fold them like a fan, but rather like a pocket knife. The hind legs merely act as a support for the side wing, and the little hip bones look pitifully sharp, the membrane reaches only to the ankle, the tiny emaciated foot projecting from it is armed with five, wirelike toes, tipped with sharp hooked claws. It is by these claws that he hangs when resting during the day, for he is upside-down-y in his sleeping habits, slumbering during the daytime, while hanging head downward, without any inconvenience from a rush of blood to the brain; when thus suspended, the tail is folded down. Sometimes he hangs by one hind foot and a front hook; and he is a wee thing when all folded together and hung up, with his nose tucked between his hooked thumbs, in a very babyish fashion.

The bat is very particular about his personal cleanliness. People who regard the bat as a dirty creature, had better look to it that they are even half as fastidious as he. He washes his face with the front part of his wing, and then licks his wash-cloth clean; he scratches the back of his head with his hind foot and then licks the foot; when hanging head down, he will reach one hind foot down and scratch behind his ear with an _aplomb_ truly comical in such a mite; but it is most fun of all to see him clean his wings; he seizes the edges in his mouth and stretches and licks the membrane until we are sure it is made of silk elastic, for he pulls and hauls it in a way truly amazing.

The bat has a voice which sounds like the squeak of a toy wheelbarrow, and yet it is expressive of emotions. He squeaks in one tone when holding conversation with other bats, and squeaks quite differently when seized by the enemy.

The mother bat feeds her little ones from her breasts as a mouse does its young, only she cradles them in her soft wings while so doing; often she takes them with her when she goes out for insects in the evenings; they cling to her neck during these exciting rides; but when she wishes to work unencumbered, she hangs her tiny youngsters on some twig and goes back to them later. The little ones are born in July and usually occur as twins. During the winter, bats hibernate like woodchucks or chipmunks. They select for winter quarters some hollow tree or cave or other protected place. They go to sleep when the cold weather comes, and do not awake until the insects are flying; they then come forth in the evenings, or perhaps early in the morning, and do their best to rid the world of mosquitoes and other insect nuisances.

There are many senseless fears about the bat; for instance, that he likes to get tangled in a lady’s tresses, a situation which would frighten him far more than the lady; or that he brings bedbugs into the house, when he enters on his quest for mosquitoes, which is an ungrateful slander. Some people believe that all bats are vampires, and only await an opportunity to suck blood from their victims. It is true that in South America there are two species which occasionally attack people who are careless enough to sleep with their toes uncovered, but feet thus injured seem to recover speedily; and these bats do little damage to people, although they sometimes pester animals; but there are no vampires in the United States. Our bats, on the contrary, are innocent and beneficial to man; and if we had more of them we should have less malaria. There a few species in our country, which have little, leaf-like growths on the end of the nose; and when scientists study the bat from a nature-study instead of an anatomical standpoint, we shall know what these leafy appendages are used for.

LESSON LIX

THE BAT

_Leading thought_--Although the bat’s wings are very different from those of the bird’s yet it is a rapid and agile flier. It flies in the dusk and catches great numbers of mosquitoes and other troublesome insects, upon which it feeds.

_Method_--This lesson should not be given unless there is a live bat to illustrate it; the little creature can be cared for comfortably in a cage in the schoolroom, as it will soon learn to take flies or bits of raw meat when presented on the point of a pencil or toothpick. Any bat will do for this study, although the little brown bat is the one on which my observations were made.

_Observations_--1. At what time of day do we see bats flying? Describe how the bat’s flight differs from that of birds. Why do bats dart about so rapidly?

2. Look at a captive bat and describe its wings. Can you see what makes the framework of the wings? Do you see the three finger bones extending out into the wings? How do the hind legs support the wing? The tail? Is the wing membrane covered with fur? Is it thick and leathery or thin and silky and elastic? How does the bat fold up its wings?

3. In what position does the bat rest? Does it ever hang by his thumb hooks?

4. Can you see whether the knees of the hind legs bend upward or downward? How does the bat act when trying to walk or crawl? How does it use its thumb hooks in doing this?

5. What does the bat do daytimes? Where does it stay during the day? Do many bats congregate together in their roosts?

6. Describe the bat’s head, including the ears, eyes, nose and mouth. What is its general expression? Do you think it can see and hear well? How is its mouth fitted for catching insects? Does it shut its mouth while chewing or keep it open? Do you think that bats can see by daylight?

7. What noises does a bat make? How does it act if you try to touch it? Can it bite severely? Can you understand why the Germans call it a flitter-mouse?

8. Do you know how the mother bat cares for her young? How does she carry them? At what time of year may we expect to find them?

9. When making its toilet, how does a bat clean its wings? Its face? Its back? Its feet? Do you know if it is very clean in his habits?

10. How and where do the bats pass the winter? How are they beneficial to us? Are they ever harmful?

_Supplementary reading_--American Animals, Stone and Cram.

* * * * *

_Nature-study should not be unrelated to the child’s life and
circumstances. It stands for directness and naturalness. It
is astonishing when one comes to think of it, how indirect
and how remote from the lives of pupils much of our education
has been. Geography still often begins with the universe, and
finally, perhaps, comes down to some concrete and familiar
object or scene that the pupil can understand. Arithmetic has
to do with brokerage and partnerships and partial payments and
other things that mean nothing to the child. Botany begins
with cells and protoplasm and cryptogams. History deals with
political and military affairs, and only rarely comes down to
physical facts and to those events that express the real lives
of the people; and yet political and social affairs are only
the results of expressions of the way in which people live.
Readers begin with mere literature or with stories of scenes
the child will never see. Of course these statements are meant
to be only general, as illustrating what is even yet a great
fault in educational methods. There are many exceptions, and
these are becoming commoner. Surely, the best education is
that which begins with the materials at hand. A child knows a
stone before it knows the earth._
--L. H. BAILEY in “THE NATURE-STUDY IDEA.”

THE SKUNK

_Teacher’s Story_

Those who have had experience with this animal, surely are glad that it is small; and the wonder always is, that so little a creature can make such a large impression upon the atmosphere. A fully grown skunk is about two feet long: its body is covered with long, shining, rather coarse hair, and the tail which is carried like a flag in the air, is very large and bushy. In color, the fur is sometimes entirely black, but most often has a white patch on the back of the neck, with two stripes extending down the back and along the sides to the tail; the face, also, has a white stripe.

The skunk has a long head and a rather pointed snout; its front legs are very much shorter than its hind legs, which gives it a very peculiar gait. Its forefeet are armed with long, strong claws, with which it digs its burrow, which is usually made in light soil. It also often makes its home in some crevice in rocks, or even takes possession of an abandoned woodchuck’s hole; or trusting to its immunity from danger, makes its home under the barn. In the fall, it becomes very fat, and during the early part of winter, hibernates within its den; it comes out during the thaws of winter and early spring.

The young skunks appear in May; they are born in an enlarged portion of the burrow, where a nice bed of grass and leaves is made for them; the skunk is scrupulously neat about its own nest. The young skunks are very active, and interesting to watch, when playing together like kittens.

Photo by Verne Morton.

_The skunk._]

The skunk belongs to the same family as the mink and weasel, which also give off a disagreeable odor when angry. The fetid material which is the skunk’s defence, is contained in two capsules under the root of the tail. These little capsules are not larger than peas, and the quantity of liquid forced from them in a discharge is scarcely more than a large drop; yet it will permeate the atmosphere with its odor for a distance of a mile. The fact that this discharge is so disagreeable to all other animals, has had a retarding influence upon the skunk’s intelligence. It has not been obliged to rely upon its cunning to escape its enemies, and has therefore never developed either fear or cleverness. It marches abroad without haste, confident that every creature which sees it will give it plenty of room. It is a night prowler, although it is not averse to a daytime promenade. The white upon its fur gives warning at night, that here is an animal which had best be left alone. This immunity from attack makes the skunk careless in learning wisdom from experience; it never learns to avoid a trap or a railway or trolley track.

The skunk’s food consists largely of insects, mice, snakes and other small animals. It also destroys the eggs and young of birds which nest upon the ground. It uses its strong forepaws in securing its prey. Dr. Merriam, who made pets of young skunks after removing their scent capsules, found them very interesting. He says of one which was named “Meph”: “We used to walk through the woods to a large meadow that abounded in grasshoppers. Here, Meph would fairly revel in his favorite food, and it was rich sport to watch his manœuvres. When a grasshopper jumped, he jumped, and I have seen him with as many as three in his mouth and two under his forepaws at the same time.”

The only injury which the skunk is likely to do to the farmers, is the raiding of the hens’ nests, and this can be obviated by properly housing the poultry. On the other hand, the skunk is of great use in destroying injurious insects and mice. Often when skunks burrow beneath barns, they completely rid the place of mice. Skunk fur is very valuable and is sold under the name of Alaskan sable. The skunk takes short steps, and goes so slowly that it makes a double track, the imprints being very close together. The foot makes a longer track than that of the cat, as the skunk is plantigrade; that is, it walks upon its palms and heels as well as its toes.

_References_--Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, Mathews; American Animals, Stone and Cram; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

LESSON LX

THE SKUNK

_Leading thought_--The skunk has depended so long upon protecting itself from its enemies by its disagreeable odor, that it has become stupid in this respect, and seems never to be able to learn to keep off of railroad tracks. It is a very beneficial animal to the farmer because its food consists so largely of injurious insects and rodents.

_Method_--The questions should be given the pupils and they should answer them from personal observations or inquiries.

_Observations_--1. How large is a skunk? Describe its fur. Where does the black and white occur in the fur? Of what use is the white to the skunk? Is the fur valuable? What is its commercial name?

2. What is the shape of the skunk’s head? The general shape of the body? The tail? Are the front legs longer or shorter than the hind legs? Describe the front feet. For what are they used?

3. Where and how does the skunk make its nest? Does it sleep like a woodchuck during the winter? What is its food? How does it catch its prey? Does it hunt for its food during the day or the night? Does the skunk ever hurry? Is it afraid? How does it protect itself from its enemies? Do you think that the skunk’s freedom from fear has rendered the animal less intelligent?

4. At what time do the skunk kittens appear? Have you ever seen little skunks playing? If so, describe their antics. How is the nest made soft for the young ones?

5. How does the skunk benefit farmers? Does it ever do them any injury? Do you think that it does more good than harm?

6. Describe the skunk’s track as follows: How many toes show in the track? Does the palm or heel show? Are the tracks near together? Do they form a single or a double line?

_Supplementary reading_--Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, Burroughs.

* * * * *

_Saw a little skunk coming up the river bank in the woods at
the white oak, a funny little fellow, about six inches long
and nearly as broad. It faced me and actually compelled me to
retreat before it for five minutes. Perhaps I was between it
and its hole. Its broad black tail, tipped with white, was
erect like a kitten’s. It had what looked like a broad white
band drawn tight across its forehand or top-head, from which
two lines of white ran down, one on each side of its back, and
there was a narrow white line down its snout. It raised its
back, sometimes ran a few feet forward, sometimes backward,
and repeatedly turned its tail to me, prepared to discharge
its fluid, like the old ones. Such was its instinct, and all
the while it kept up a fine grunting like a little pig or a
red squirrel._
--HENRY THOREAU.

* * * * *

_Few animals are so silent as the skunk. Zoological works
contain no information as to its voice, and the essayists
rarely mention it except by implication. Mr. Burroughs says:
“The most silent creature known to me, he makes no sound, so
far as I have observed, save a diffuse, impatient noise, like
that produced by beating your hand with a whisk-broom, when
the farm-dog has discovered his retreat in the stone fence.”
Rowland Robinson tells us that: “The voiceless creature
sometimes frightens the belated farm-boy, whom he curiously
follows with a mysterious hollow beating of his feet upon the
ground.” Thoreau, as has been mentioned, heard one keep up
a “fine grunting, like a little pig or a squirrel;” but he
seems to have misunderstood altogether a singular loud patting
sound heard repeatedly on the frozen ground under the wall,
which he also listened to, for he thought it “had to do with
getting its food, patting the earth to get the insects or
worms.” Probably he would have omitted this guess if he could
have edited his diary instead of leaving that to be done after
his death. The patting is evidently merely a nervous sign of
impatience or apprehension, similar to the well-known stamping
with the hind feet indulged in by rabbits, in this case
probably a menace like a doubling of the fists, as the hind
legs, with which they kick, are their only weapons. The skunk,
then, is not voiceless, but its voice is weak and querulous,
and it is rarely if ever heard except in the expression of
anger._
--ERNEST INGERSOL IN “WILD NEIGHBORS.”

Photo by George Fiske, Jr.]

THE RACCOON

_Teacher’s Story_

None other of our little brothers of the forest, has such a mischievous countenance as the coon. The black patch across the face and surrounding the eyes, like large goggles, and the black line extending from the long, inquisitive nose directly up the forehead give the coon’s face an anxious expression; and the keenness of the big, beady, black eyes and the alert, “sassy” looking, broadly triangular ears, convince one that the anxiety depicted in the face is anxiety lest something that should _not_ be done be left undone; and I am sure that anyone who has had experience with pet coons will aver that their acts do not belie their looks.

1 Walking 2 Jumping ]

What country child, wandering by the brook and watching its turbulence in early spring, has not viewed with awe, a footprint on the muddy banks looking as if it were made by the foot of a very little baby. The first one I ever saw, I promptly concluded was made by the foot of a brook fairy. However, the coon is no fairy; it is a rather heavy, logy animal and, like the bear and skunk, is plantigrade, walking on the entire foot instead of on the toes, like a cat or dog. The hind foot is long, with a well-marked heel, and five comparatively short toes, giving it a remarkable resemblance to a human foot. The front foot is smaller and looks like a wide, little hand, with four long fingers and a rather short thumb. The claws are strong and sharp. The soles of the feet and the palms of the hands look as if they were covered with black kid, while the feet above and the backs of the hands are covered with short fur. Coon tracks are likely to be found during the first thawing days of winter, along some stream or the borders of swamps, often following the path made by cattle. The full-length track is about 2 inches long; as the coon puts the hind foot in the track made by the front foot on the same side, only the print of the hind feet is left, showing plainly five toe prints and the heel. The tracks may vary from one-half inch to one foot or more apart, depending on how fast the animal is going; when it runs it goes on its toes, but when walking sets the heel down; the tracks are not in so straight a line as those made by the cat. Sometimes it goes at a slow jump, when the prints of the hind feet are paired, and between and behind them are the prints of the two front feet.

The coon is covered with long, rather coarse hair, so long as to almost drag when the animal is walking; it really has two different kinds of hair, the long, coarse, gray hair, blackened at the tips, covering the fine, short, grayish or brownish under coat. The very handsome bushy tail is ringed with black and gray.

The raccoon feeds on almost anything eatable, except herbage. It has a special predilection for corn in the milk stage and, in attaining this sweet and toothsome luxury, it strips down the husks and often breaks the plant, doing much damage. It is also fond of poultry and often raids hen houses; it also destroys birds’ nests and the young, thus damaging the farmer by killing both domestic and wild birds. It is especially fond of fish and is an adept at sitting on the shore and catching them with its hands; it likes turtle eggs, crayfish and snakes; it haunts the bayous of the Gulf Coast for the oysters which grow there; it is also a skillful frog catcher. Although fond of animal diet, it is also fond of fruit, especially of berries and wild grapes.

It usually chooses for a nest a hollow tree or a cavern in a ledge near a stream, because of its liking for water creatures; and also because of its strange habit of washing its meat before eating it. I have watched a pet coon performing this act; he would take a piece of meat in his hands, dump it into the pan of drinking water and souse it up and down a few times; then he would get into the pan with his splay feet and roll the meat beneath and between them, meanwhile looking quite unconcernedly at his surroundings, as if washing the meat were an act too mechanical to occupy his mind. After the meat had become soaked until white and flabby, he would take it in his hands and hang on to it with a tight grip while he pulled off pieces with his teeth; or sometimes he would hold it with his feet, and use hands as well as teeth in tearing it apart. The coon’s teeth are very much like those of the cat, having long, sharp tushes or canines, and sharp, wedge-shaped grinding teeth, which cut as well as grind. After eating, the pet coon always washed his feet by splashing them in the pan.

It is a funny sight to watch a coon arrange itself for a nap, on a branch or in the fork of a tree, it adapts its fat body to the unevenness of the bed with apparent comfort; it then tucks its nose down between its paws and curls its tail about itself, making a huge, furry ball. In all probability, the rings of gray and black on the tail, serve as protective color to the animal sleeping in a tree during the daytime, when sunshine and shadow glance down between the leaves with ever-changing light. The coon spends much of its days asleep in some such situation, and comes forth at night to seek its food.

In the fall, the coon lays on fat enough to last it during its winter sleep. Usually several inhabit the same nest in winter, lying curled up together in a hollow tree, and remaining dormant all winter except when awakened by the warmth of a thaw. They then may come forth to see what is happening, but return shortly to wait until March or April; then they issue to hunt for the scant food, and are so lean and weak that they fall easy prey to their enemies.

The young are born in April and May; there are from three to six in a litter; they are blind and helpless at first, and are cared for carefully by their parents, the family remaining together for a year, until the young are fully grown. If removed from their parents the young ones cry pitifully, almost like babies. The cry or whistle of the fully grown coon is anything but a happy sound, and is quite impossible to describe. I have been awakened by it many a night in camp, and it always sounded strange, taking on each time new quavers and whimperings. As a cry, it is first cousin to that of the screech-owl.

The stories of pet coons are many. I knew one which, chained in a yard, would lie curled up near its post looking like an innocent stone except for one eye kept watchfully open. Soon a hen, filled with curiosity would come warily near, looking longingly at remains of food in the pan; the coon made no move until the disarmed biddy came close to the pan. Then, there was a scramble and a squawk and with astonishing celerity he would wring her neck and strip off her feathers. Another pet coon was allowed to range over the house at will, and finally had to be sent away because he had learned to open every door in the house, including cupboard doors, and could also open boxes and drawers left unlocked; and I have always believed he could have learned to unlock drawers if he had been given the key. All coons are very curious, and one way of trapping them is to suspend above the trap a bit of bright tin; in solving this glittering mystery, traps are forgotten.

LESSON LXI

THE RACCOON

_Leading thought_--The raccoon lives in hollow trees or caves along the banks of streams. It sleeps during the day and seeks its food at night. It sleeps during the winter.

_Method_--If there are raccoons in the vicinity, ask the older boys to look for their tracks near the streams and to describe them very carefully to the class. The ideal method of studying the animal, is to have a pet coon where the children may watch at leisure its entertaining and funny performances. If this is impossible, then follow the less desirable method of having the pupils read about the habits of the coon and thus arouse their interest and open their eyes, so that they may make observations of their own when opportunity offers. I would suggest the following topics for oral or written work in English:

“How and Where Coons Live and What They Do;” “The Autobiography of a Coon One Year Old;” “The Queer Antics of Pet Coons;” “Stories of the Coon’s Relative, the Bear.”

_Observations_--1. Where have you found raccoon tracks? How do they differ from those of fox or dog? How far are the footprints apart? Can you see the heel and toe prints? Do you see the tracks of all four feet? Are the tracks in a straight line like those of the cat? What is the size of the track, the length, the breadth?

2. What do coons eat and how do they get their food? Which of our crops are they likely to damage? What other damage do they do? Have you ever heard coons cry or whistle during August nights in the cornfields?

3. Why do raccoons like to live near the water? What do they find of interest there? How do they prepare their meat before eating it? How does a coon handle its meat while eating it?

4. What kind of fur has the coon? Why does it need such a heavy covering? Describe the color of the fur. Describe the tail. Of what use is such a large and bushy tail to this animal?

5. Describe the coon’s face. How is it marked? What is its expression? Describe the eyes and ears. The nose. Has it teeth resembling those of the cat and dog?

6. Describe the coon’s feet. How many toes on the front feet? How many on the hind feet? How does this differ from the cat and dog? How do the front and hind feet differ in appearance? Can both be used as hands?

7. How do coons arrange themselves for a nap in a tree? How do they cover the head? How is the tail used? Do you think this bushy tail used in this way would help to keep the animal warm in winter? Do coons sleep most daytimes or nights?

8. At what time of year are coons fattest? Leanest? Why? Do they ever come out of their nests in winter? Do they live together or singly in winter?

9. At what time of year are the young coons born? Do you know how they look when they are young? How are they cared for by their parents?

10. Are the coon’s movements slow or fast? What large animal is a near relative of the coon?

_Supplementary reading_--American Animals, Stone and Cram; Wild Neighbors, Ingersoll; Familiar Life of Field and Forest, Mathews; Little People of the Sycamore, Roberts; Life of Animals, Ingersoll; “Mux” in Roof and Meadow, Sharp; Little Brother of the Bear, Long.

THE WOLF

The study of the wolf should precede the lessons on the fox and the dog. After becoming familiar with the habits of wolves, the pupils will be much better able to understand the nature of the dog and its life as a wild animal. In most localities, the study of the wolf must, of course, be a matter of reading, unless the pupils have an opportunity to study the animal in traveling manageries or in zoological gardens. However, in all the government preserves, the timber wolf has multiplied to such an extent, that it may become a factor in the lives of many people in the United States. This wolf ranged in packs over New York State a hundred years ago, but was finally practically exterminated in most of the eastern forests, except in remote and mountainous localities. A glance at Bulletin 72 by Vernon Bailey, published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, is a revelation of the success of the timber wolf, in coming back to his own, as soon as the forest preserves furnished plenty of game, and forbade hunters. Timber wolves are returning of late years to Western Maine and Northern New Hampshire; Northern Michigan and Wisconsin have them in greater numbers; some have also been killed in the Appalachian Mountains of Tennessee, Virginia and West Virginia, but their stronghold is in the great Rocky Mountain Region and the Northwestern Sierras, from which they have never been driven.

It might be well to begin this lesson on the wolf with a talk about the gray wolves which our ancestors had to contend with, and also with stories of the coyote or prairie wolf which has learned to adapt itself to civilization and flourishes in the regions west of the Rocky Mountains, despite men and dogs. Literature is rich in wolf stories. Although Kipling’s famous Mowgli Stories belong to the realm of fiction, yet they contain interesting accounts of the habits of the wolves of India, and are based upon the hunter’s and tracker’s knowledge of these animals. We have many thrillingly interesting stories in our own literature which deal with our native wolves. The following are among the best:

“Lobo” in Wild Animals I Have Known; “Tito” in Lives of the Hunted; “Bad Lands Billy and the Winnipeg Wolf” in Animal Heroes all by Thompson Seton; “The Passing of Black Whelps” in Watchers of the Trail by Roberts; Northern Trails by Long; “Pico, Coyote” by Coolidge in True Tales of Birds and Beasts.

For more serious accounts of the wolves see American Animals, p. 277; The “Hound of the Plains,” in Wild Neighbors, and page 188 in the Life of Animals, both by Ingersoll. “The Coyote” by Bret Harte and “The Law of the Pack” in the Second Jungle Book bring the wolf into poetry.

From some or all of these stories, the pupils should get information about the habits of the wolves. This information should be incorporated in an essay or an oral exercise and should cover the following points: Where do the wolves live? On what do they feed? How do they get their prey? Do they hunt alone or in packs? How do they call to each other? Description of the den where the young are reared. The wolf’s cleverness in eluding hunters and traps.

THE FOX

_Teacher’s Story_

Do we not always, on a clear morning of winter, feel a thrill that must have something primitive in its quality, at seeing certain tracks in the snow that somehow suggest wildness and freedom! Such is the track of the fox. Although it is somewhat like that of a small dog yet it is very different. The fox has longer legs than most dogs of his weight, and there is more of freedom in his track and more of strength and agility expressed in it. His gait is usually an easy lope; this places the imprint of three feet in a line, one ahead of another, but the fourth is off a little at one side, as if to keep the balance. The fox lives in a den or burrow. The only fox home which I ever saw, was a rather deep cave beneath the roots of a stump, and there was no burrow or retreat beyond it. However, foxes often select woodchuck burrows, or make burrows of their own, and if they are caught within, they can dig rapidly, as many a hunter can attest. The mother usually selects an open place for a den for the young foxes; often an open field or side-hill is chosen for this. The den is carpeted with grass and is a very comfortable place for the fox puppies. The den of the father fox is usually not far away.

The face of the red fox shows plainly why he has been able to cope with man, and thrive despite and because of him. If ever a face showed cunning, it is his. Its pointed, slender nose gives it an expression of extreme cleverness, while the width of the head between the upstanding, triangular ears gives room for a brain of power. In color the fox is russet-red, the hind quarters being grayish. The legs are black outside and white inside; the throat is white, and the broad, triangular ears are tipped with black. The glory of the fox is his “brush,” as the beautiful, bushy tail is called. This is red, with black toward the end and white-tipped. This tail is not merely for beauty, for it affords the fox warmth during the winter, as any one may see who has observed the way it is wrapped around the sleeping animal. But this bushy tail is a disadvantage, if it becomes bedraggled and heavy with snow and sleet, when the hounds are giving close chase to its owner. The silver fox and the black fox are the same species as the red fox.

The fox is an inveterate hunter of the animals of the field; meadow mice, rabbits, woodchucks, frogs, snakes and grasshoppers, are all acceptable food; he is also destructive of birds. His fondness for the latter has given him a bad reputation with the farmer because of his attacks on poultry. Not only will he raid hen-roosts if he can force entrance, but he catches many fowls in the summer when they are wandering through the fields. The way he carries the heavy burden of his larger prey shows his cleverness: He slings a hen or a goose over his shoulders, keeping the head in his mouth to steady the burden. Mr. Cram says, in American Animals:

“Yet, although the farmer and the fox are such inveterate enemies, they manage to benefit each other in a great many ways quite unintentionally. The fox destroys numberless field mice and woodchucks for the farmer and in return the farmer supplies him with poultry, and builds convenient bridges over streams and wet places, which the fox crosses oftener than the farmer, for he is as sensitive as a cat about getting his feet wet. On the whole, I am inclined to believe that the fox gets the best part of the exchange, for, while the farmer shoots at him on every occasion, and hunts him with dogs in the winter, he has cleared the land of wolves and panthers, so that foxes are probably safer than before any land was ploughed.”

The bark of the fox is a high, sharp yelp, more like the bark of the coyote than of the dog. There is no doubt a considerable range of meaning in the fox’s language, of which we are ignorant. He growls when angry, and when pleased he smiles like a dog and wags his beautiful tail.

Many are the wiles of the fox to head off dogs following his track: he often retraces his own steps for a few yards and then makes a long sidewise jump; the dogs go on, up to the end of the trail pocket, and try in vain to get the scent from that point. Sometimes he walks along the top rails of fences or takes the high and dry ridges where the scent will not remain; he often follows roads and beaten paths and also goes around and around in the midst of a herd of cattle, so that his scent is hidden; he crosses streams on logs and invents various other devices too numerous and intricate to describe. When chased by dogs, he naturally runs in a circle, probably so as not to be too far from home. If there are young ones in the den, the father fox leads the hounds far away, in the next county, if possible. Perhaps one of the most clever tricks of the fox, is to make friends with the dogs. I have known of two instances where a dog and fox were daily companions and playfellows.

The young foxes are born in the spring. They are black at first and are fascinating little creatures, being exceedingly playful and active. Their parents are very devoted to them, and during all their puppyhood, the mother fox is a menace to the poultry of the region, because the necessity is upon her of feeding her rapidly growing litter.

In my opinion, the best story of animal fiction is “Red Fox” by Roberts. Like all good fiction, it is based upon facts and it presents a wholesome picture of the life of the successful fox. “The Silver Fox” by Thompson Seton is another interesting and delightful story. Although the Nights with Uncle Remus could scarcely be called nature stories, yet they are interesting in showing how the fox has become a part of folk-lore.

LESSON LXII

THE FOX

_Leading thought_--The red fox is so clever that it has been able, in many parts of our country, to maintain itself despite dogs and men.

_Method_--This lesson is likely to be given largely from hearsay or reading. However, if the school is in a rural district, there will be plenty of hunters’ stories afloat, from which may be elicited facts concerning the cunning and cleverness of the red fox. In such places there is also the opportunity in winter to study fox tracks upon the snow. The lesson may well be given when there are fox tracks for observation. The close relationship between foxes and dogs should be emphasized.

_Observations and reading_--1. Describe the fox’s track. How does it differ from the track of a small dog?

2. Where does the fox make its home? Describe the den. Describe the den in which the young foxes live.

3. Describe the red fox, its color and form as completely as you can. What is the expression of its face? What is there peculiar about its tail? What is the use of this great bushy tail in the winter?

4. What is the food of the fox? How does it get its food? Is it a day or a night hunter? How does the fox benefit the farmer? How does it injure him? How does the fox carry home its heavy game, such as a goose or a hen?

5. Have you ever heard the fox bark? Did it sound like the bark of a dog? How does the fox express anger? Pleasure?

6. When chased by dogs, in what direction does the fox run? Describe all of the tricks which you know by which the fox throws the dog off the scent.

7. When are the young foxes born? How many in a litter? What color are they? How do they play with each other? How do they learn to hunt?

_Supplementary reading_--Red Fox by Roberts; Silver Fox by Thompson Seton; Little Beasts of Field and Wood, page 25; Squirrels and Other Fur Bearers, chapter 7; Fox Ways in Ways of Wood Folk; The Springfield Fox in Wild Animals I Have Known; Familiar Wild Animals; Familiar Life in Field and Forest, page 213; American Animals, page 264; Nights with Uncle Remus.

Photo by Fred S. Charles.]

DOGS

_Teacher’s Story_

Not only to-day but in ancient days, before the dawn of history, the dog was the companion of man. Whether the wild species from whence he sprang, was wolf or jackal or some other similar animal, we do not know, but we do know that many types of dogs have been tamed independently by savages, in the region where their untamed relatives run wild. As the whelps of wolves, jackals and foxes are all easily tamed, and are most interesting little creatures, we can understand how they became companions to the children of the savage and barbarous peoples who hunted them.

In the earliest records of cave dwellers, in the picture writing of the ancient Egyptians and of other ancient peoples, we find record of the presence and value of the dog. But man, in historical times, has been able to evolve breeds that vary more in form than do the wild species of the present. There are 200 distinct breeds of dogs known to-day, and many of these have been bred for special purposes. The paleontologists, moreover, assure us that there has been a decided advance in the size and quality of the dog’s brain since the days of his savagery; thus, he has been the companion of man’s civilization also. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at that the dog is now the most companionable, and has the most human qualities and intelligence of all our domesticated animals.

Dogs run down their prey; it is a necessity, therefore, that they be equipped with legs that are long, strong and muscular. The cat, which jumps for her prey, has much more delicate legs but has powerful hips to enable her to leap. The dog’s feet are much more heavily padded than those of the cat, because in running, he must not stop to save his feet. Hounds often return from a chase with bleeding feet, despite the heavy pads, but the wounds are usually cuts between the toes. The claws are heavy and are not retractile; thus, they afford a protection to the feet when running, and they are also used for digging out game which burrows into the ground. They are not used for grasping prey like those of the cat and are used only incidentally in fighting, while the cat’s claws are the most important weapons in her armory. It is an interesting fact that Newfoundland dogs, which are such famous swimmers, have their toes somewhat webbed.

The dog’s body is long, lean, and very muscular, a fat dog being usually pampered and old. The coat is of hair and is not of fine fur like that of the cat. It is of interest to note that the Newfoundland dog has an inner coat of fine hair comparable to that of the mink or muskrat. When a dog is running, his body is extended to its fullest length; in fact, it seems to “lie flat,” the outstretched legs heightening the effect of extreme muscular effort of forward movement. A dog is master of several gaits; he can run, walk, trot, bound and crawl.

The iris of the dog’s eye is usually of a beautiful brown, although this varies with breeds; in puppies, the iris is usually blue. The pupil is round like our own; and dogs cannot see well in the dark like the cat, but in daylight they have keen sight. The nose is so much more efficient than the eyes, that it is on the sense of smell the dog depends for following his prey and for recognizing friend and foe. The damp, soft skin that covers the nose, has in its dampness the conditions for carrying the scent to the wide nostrils; these are situated at the most forward part of the face, and thus may be lifted in any direction to receive the marvelous impressions, so completely beyond our comprehension. Think of being able to scent the track of a fox made several hours previously. Not only to scent it, but to follow by scent for many miles without ever having a glimpse of the fleeing foe! In fact, while running, the dog’s attention seems to be focused entirely upon the sense of smell, for I have seen hounds pass within a few rods to the windward of the fox they were chasing, without observing him at all. When the nose of any of the moist-nosed beasts, such as cattle and dogs, becomes dry it is a sign of illness.

A light fall of damp snow gives the dog the best conditions for following a track by scent and a hound, when on the trail, will run until exhausted. There are many authentic observations which show that hounds have followed a fox for twenty-four hours without food, and probably with little rest.

The dog’s weapons for battle, like those of the wolf, are his tushes: with these, he holds and tears his prey; with them, he seizes the woodchuck or other small animal through the back and shakes its life out. In fighting a larger animal, the dog leaps against it and often incidentally tears its flesh with his strong claws; but he does not strike a blow with his foot like the cat, nor can he hold his quarry with it.

Dog’s teeth are especially fitted for their work. The incisors are small and sharp; the canine teeth or tushes are very long, but there are bare spaces on the jaws so that they are able to cross past each other; the molar teeth are not fitted for grinding, like the teeth of a cow, but are especially fitted for cutting, as may be noted if we watch the way a dog gnaws bones, first gnawing with the back teeth on one side and then on the other. In fact, a dog does not seem to need to chew anything, but simply needs to cut his meat in small enough pieces so that he can gulp them down without chewing. His powers of digesting unchewed food are something that the hustling American may well envy.

Of all domestic animals, the dog is most humanly understandable in expressing emotions. If delighted, he leaps about giving ecstatic little barks and squeals, his tail in the air and his eyes full of happy anticipation. If he wishes to be friendly, he looks at us interestedly, comes over to smell of us in order to assure himself whether he has ever met us before, and then wags his tail as a sign of good faith. If he wishes to show affection, he leaps upon us and licks our face or hands with his soft, deft tongue and follows us jealously. When he stands at attention, he holds his tail stiff in the air, and looks up with one ear lifted as if to say, “Well, what’s doing?” When angry, he growls and shows his teeth and the tail is held rigidly out behind, as if to convince us that it is really a continuation of his backbone. When afraid, he whines and lies flat upon his belly, often looking beseechingly up toward his master as if begging not to be punished; or he crawls away out of sight. When ashamed, he drops his tail between his legs and with drooping head and sidewise glance slinks away. When excited, he barks and every bark expresses high nervous tension.

Almost all dogs that chase their prey, bark when so doing, which would seem at first sight to be a foolish thing to do, in that it reveals their whereabouts to their victims and also adds an incentive to flight. But it must be borne in mind that dogs are descended from wolves, which naturally hunt in packs and do not stalk their prey. The baying of the hound is a most common example of the habit, and as we listen we can understand how, by following this sound, the pack is kept together. Almost all breeds of dogs have an acute sense of hearing. When a dog bays at the moon or howls when he hears music, it is simply a reversion to the wild habit of howling to call together the pack or in answer “to the music of the pack.” It is interesting that our music, which is the flower of our civilization, should awaken the sleeping ancestral traits in the canine breast. But perhaps that, too, is why we respond to music, because it awakens in us the strong, primitive emotions, and for the time, enables us to free ourselves from all conventional shackles and trammels.

LESSON LXIII

DOGS

_Leading thought_--The dog is a domesticated descendant of wolf-like animals and has retained certain of the habits and characteristics of his ancestors.

_Method_--For the observation lesson it would be well to have at hand, a well-disposed dog which would not object to being handled; a collie or a hound would be preferable. Many of the questions should be given to the pupils to answer from observations at home, and the lesson should be built upon the experience of the pupils with dogs.

_Observations_--1. Why are the legs of the dog long and strong in proportion to the body compared with those of the cat?

2. Compare the feet of the cat with those of the dog and note which has the heavier pads. Why is this of use to each?

3. Which has the stronger and heavier claws, the dog or the cat? Can the dog retract his claws so that they are not visible, as does the cat? Of what use is this arrangement to the dog? Are the front feet just like the hind feet? How many toe impressions show in the track of the dog?

4. What is the general characteristic of the body of the dog? Is it soft like that of the cat, or lean and muscular? What is the difference between the hair covering of the dog and cat? What is the attitude of the dog when running fast? How many kinds of gaits has he?

5. In general, how do the eyes of the dog differ from those of the cat? Does he rely as much upon his eyes for finding his prey as does the cat? Can a dog see in the dark? What is the color of the dog’s eyes?

6. Study the ear of the dog; is it covered? Is this outer ear movable, is it a flap, or is it cornucopia shaped? How is this flap used when the dog is listening? Roll a sheet of paper into a flaring tube and place the small end upon your own ear, and note if it helps you to hear better the sounds in the direction toward which the tube opens? Note how the hound lifts his long earlaps, so as to make a tube for conveying sounds to his inner ear. Do you think that dogs can hear well?

The dog that pulled four hundred fifty pounds five hundred miles through the White Horse Pass in the winter of the first gold excitement.]

7. What is the position of the nose in the dog’s face? Of what use is this? Describe the nostrils; are they placed on the foremost point of the face? What is the condition of the skin that surrounds them? How does this condition of the nose aid the dog? What other animals have it? Does the dog recognize his friends or become acquainted with strangers by means of his sight or of his powers of smelling?

8. How long after a fox or rabbit has passed can a hound follow the track? Does he follow it by sight or by smell? What are the conditions most favorable for retaining the scent? The most unfavorable? How long will a hound follow a fox trail without stopping for rest or food? Do you think the dog is your superior in ability to smell?

9. How does a dog seize and kill his prey? How does he use his feet and claws when fighting? What are his especially strong weapons? Describe a dog’s teeth and explain the reason for the bare spaces on the jaw next to the tushes. Does the dog use his tushes when chewing? What teeth does he use when gnawing a bone? Make a diagram of the arrangement of the dog’s teeth.

10. How by action, voice, and especially by the movement of the tail does the dog express the following emotions: Delight, friendliness, affection, attention, anger, fear, shame, excitement? How does he act when chasing his prey? Why do wolves and dogs bark when following the trail? Do you think of a reason why dogs often howl at night or when listening to music? What should we feed to our pet dogs? What should we do to make them comfortable in other ways?

A collie.]