Chapter VIII: Part 8

Like the Tamil Vannans, the Tsakalas prepare for various castes torches for processional or other ceremonial occasions, and the face cloth, and paddy piled up at the head of a corpse, are their perquisite. The Reddi Bhumi and other sub-divisions wash the clothes of all classes, except Malas and Madigas, while the Desa and Golkonda sub-divisions will wash for both Malas and Madigas, provided that the clothes are steeped in water, and not handed to them, but left therein, to be taken by the washerman. Every village has its families of washermen, who, in return for their services, receive an allowance of grain once a year, and may have land allotted to them. Whenever a goat or fowl has to be sacrificed to a deity, it is the privilege of the Tsakala to cut off the head, or wring the neck of the animal. When Kapu women go on a visit to a distant village, they are accompanied by a Tsakala. At a Kapu wedding, a small party of Kapus, taking with them some food and gingelly (Sesamum) oil, proceed in procession to the house of a Tsakala, in order to obtain from him a framework made of bamboo or sticks, over which cotton threads (dhornam) are wound, and the Ganga idol, which is kept in his custody. The food is presented to him, and some rice poured into his cloth. Receiving these things, he says that he cannot find the dhornam and idol without a torch-light, and demands gingelly oil. This is given to him, and the Kapus return with the Tsakala carrying the dhornam and idol to the marriage house. The Tsakala is asked to tie the dhornam to the pandal (marriage booth) or roof of the house, and he demands some paddy (unhusked rice) which is heaped up on the ground. Standing thereon, he ties the dhornam. At a Panta Kapu wedding, the Ganga idol, together with a goat and kavadi (bamboo pole), with baskets of rice, cakes, betel leaves and areca nuts, is carried in procession to a pond or temple. The washerman, dressed up as a woman, heads the procession, and keeps on dancing and singing till the destination is reached. At the conclusion of the ceremonial, he takes charge of the idol, and goes his way. Among the Panta Reddis of the Tamil country, the idol is taken in procession by the washerman, who goes to every Reddi house, and receives a present of money. At a wedding among the Idigas (Telugu toddy-drawers), the brother of the bride is fantastically dressed, with margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves in his turban, and carries a bow and arrow. This kodangi (buffoon) is conducted in procession to the temple by a few married women, and made to walk over cloths spread on the ground by the village washerman. The cloth worn by a Kapu girl at the time of her first menstrual ceremony is the perquisite of the washerwoman.

The tribal deity of the Tsakalas is Madivalayya, in whose honour a feast, called Mailar or Mailar Pandaga, is held in January immediately after the Pongal festival. Small models of pots, slabs of stone such as are used for beating the wet clothes on, and other articles used in their work, are made in rice and flour paste. After they have been worshipped, fruits, cooked vegetables, etc., are offered, and a sheep or goat is sacrificed. Some of its blood is mixed with the food, of which a little is sprinkled over the pots, stones, etc., used during washing operations. If this ceremonial was not observed, it is believed that the clothes, when boiling in the water pot, would catch fire, and be ruined. The festival, which is not observed by the Desa and Golkonda Tsakalas, lasts for five or seven days, and is a time of holiday.

At the first menstrual ceremony, the maternal uncle of the girl has to erect a hut made of seven different kinds of sticks, of which one must be from a Strychnos Nux-vomica tree. The details of the marriage ceremony are very similar to those of the Balijas and Kammas. The distribution of pan-supari, and the tying of the dhornam to the pandal must be carried out by an assistant headman called Gatamdar. On the last day, a goat or sheep is sacrificed to the marriage pots. Liberal potations of toddy are given to those who attend the wedding.

The Tsakalas have a caste beggar called Mailari, or Patam, because he carries a brass plate (patam) with the figure of a deity engraved on it. He is said to be a Lingayat.

Tsalla or Challa (butter-milk).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Tsanda or Chanda (tax or subscription).--An exogamous sept of Kamma and Medara.

Tulabharam.--In his description [66] of the Tulabharam or Tulapurushadanam ceremony performed by the Maharajas of Travancore, Mr. Shungoony Menon explains that the latter word is a compound of three Sanskrit words, tula (scales), purusha (man), and danam (gift, particularly of a religious character). And he gives the following description of the ceremonial, for the performance of which a Tulamandapam is erected, wherein the scales are set up, and the weighing and other rites performed. On the eighth day "after worshipping and making offerings, the Maharaja proceeds to the Tulamandapam, where, in the south-east corner, he is sprinkled with punyaham water. Then he goes to the side room, where the 'nine grains' are sown in silver flower pots, where the acharya anoints him with nine fresh-water kalasas. Thence the Maharaja retires to the palace, changes clothes, wears certain jewels specially made for the occasion, and, holding the State sword in his right hand and the State shield in his left, he proceeds to the pagoda; and, having presented a bull elephant at the foot of the great golden flagstaff, and silks, gold coins, jewels and other rich offerings in the interior, he walks round by the Sevaimandapam, and re-enters the Tulamandapam. He walks thrice round the scales, prostrates himself before it, bows before the priests and elderly relatives, and obtains their sanction to perform the Tulapurushadanam. He then mounts the western scale, holding Yama's and Surya's pratimas in his right and left hand respectively. He sits facing to the east on a circular heavy plank cut out of fresh jack-wood (Artocarpus integrifolia), and covered with silk. He repeats mantras (prayers) in this position. The opposite or eastern scale then receives the gold, both coined and in ingots, till it not only attains equality but touches the ground, and the scale occupied by the Maharaja rises high. The Maharaja then comes down, and, sitting facing to the east, places the gold, the Tulupurusha pratima and other pratimas, with flowers, sandal paste, etc., in a basin of water, and, meditating on Brahma or the Supreme Being, he offers the contents to Brahmans generically." Of the gold placed in the scale, one-fourth is divided among the priests who conduct the ceremony, and the remaining three-fourths are distributed among Brahmans. For use in connection with the ceremony, gold coins, called tulabhara kasu, are specially struck. They bear on one side the Malayalam legend Sri Padmanabha, and on the other a chank shell.

In connection with the tulabharam ceremony as performed at the temple of Kali, the goddess of cholera and small-pox at Cranganore in the Cochin State, Mr. T. K. Gopal Panikkar writes as follows. [67] "When a man is taken ill of any infectious disease, his relations generally pray to this goddess for his recovery, solemnly covenanting to perform what goes by the name of a thulabharam ceremony. The process consists in placing the patient in one of the scale-pans of a huge balance, and weighing him against gold or more generally pepper (and sometimes other substances as well) deposited in the other scale-pan. Then this weight of the substance is offered to the goddess. This is to be performed right in front of the goddess in the temple yard."

In connection with weighing ceremonies, it may be noted that, at Mulki in South Canara, there is a temple of Venkateswara, which is maintained by Konkani Brahmans. A Konkani Brahman, who is attached to the temple, becomes inspired almost daily between 10 and 11 A.M. immediately after puja (worship), and people consult him. Some time ago, a rich merchant (a Baniya from Gujarat) consulted the inspired man (Darsana) as to what steps should be taken to enable his wife to be safely delivered. The Darsana told him to take a vow that he would present to the god of the temple silver, sugar-candy, and date fruits, equal in weight to that of his wife. This he did, and his wife was delivered of a male child. The cost of the ceremonial is said to have been five thousand rupees.

Tulabina.--The Tulabinas are a class of cotton-cleaners, who are scattered over the Ganjam district, and said to be more numerous in Cuttack. It is suggested that the name is derived from tula, the beam of a balance, and bina (or vina) a stringed musical instrument. The apparatus used by them in cleaning cotton, which bears a fanciful resemblance to a vina, is suspended by a rope so that it is properly balanced, and the gut-string thereof struck with a dumb-bell shaped implement, to set it vibrating.

Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum, sacred basil).--A sub-division of Velama, and gotra of Komati. The tulsi plant is planted in Hindu houses and worshipped by women, and the wood is made into beads for rosaries.

Tulukkar (Turks).--A Tamil name sometimes applied to Muhammadans.

Tuluva.--Tulu, Tuluva, or Tuluvan occurs as the name of a sub-division of the Tamil Vellalas, and of the Agasas, Billavas, Gaudas, Kumbaras, and other classes in South Canara. The equivalent Tulumar is recorded as a sub-caste of Mavilan, which speaks Tulu.

Concerning the Tuluva Vellalas, Mr. H. A. Stuart writes [68] that these are immigrants from the Tulu country, a part of the modern district of South Canara. Mr. Nelson is of opinion that these are the original Vellalas, who were invited to Tondamandalam after its conquest by the Chola king Adondai Chakravarti. [69]

Tunnaran (tailor).--An occupational sub-division of Nayar.

Tupakala.--Tupakala or Tupaki (gun) has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Balija, Kavarai, and Yanadi.

Turaka.--Recorded as a sept of Kuruba. It is further a Telugu name sometimes applied to Muhammadans. There is also a thief class, known as Bhattu Turaka. (See Bhatrazu.)

Turuvalar.--Recorded in the Salem Manual as a caste name, by which some of the Vedans call themselves. "The Turuvalar are distinguished as the Kattukudugirajati, a name derived from a custom among them which authorizes informal temporary matrimonial arrangements."

U

Udasi.--A few members of this Central India sect of religious mendicants and devotees have been returned at times of census. It is said to have been founded three hundred years ago by one Gopaldas.

Udaiya.--Udaiya, meaning lord, is the title of many well-to-do Lingayats and of some Jains, and Udaiya or Wodeiyar occurs as the name of a Lingayat sub-division of the Badagas of the Niligiri hills. The Maharajas of Mysore belong to the Wodeiyar dynasty, which was restored after the Muhammadan usurpation of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan. The name of the present Maharaja is Sri Krishna Raja Wodeiyar Bahadur.

Udaiyan.--It is noted in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "the four Tamil castes Nattaman, Malaiman, Sudarman (or Suruthiman), and Udaiyan are closely connected. The last is probably a title rather than a caste, and is the usual agnomen of the Nattamans, Malaimans, and Sudarmans, as also of the potter caste (Kusavan). Nattaman means a man of the plains, Malaiman a man of the hills, and Sudarman one who does good, a hero. Nattampadi is another form of Nattaman. Tradition traces the descent of the three castes from a certain Deva Raja, a Chera king, who had three wives, by each of whom he had a son, and these were the ancestors of the three castes. There are other stories, but all agree in ascribing the origin of the castes to a single progenitor of the Chera dynasty. It seems probable that they are descendants of the Vedar soldiers of the Kongu country, who were induced to settle in the eastern districts of the Chera kingdom. Additional evidence of the important position they once held is afforded by the titles Pandariyar, Pandarattar (custodians of the treasury), which some of them still use. Some of them again are locally styled Poligars (Palayakkaran) by the ordinary ryots, and the title Kavalgar is not infrequent."

In a note on the Udaiyans, Malaiyamans, Nattamans, and Sudarmans of the Trichinopoly district, Mr. F. R. Hemingway writes as follows. "Though, in the Census Report, 1901, they are shown as separate castes, in this district they are endogamous sub-divisions of one and the same caste, namely the Udaiyans. The three sub-divisions are unanimous in saying that they are the descendants of the three Paraiyan foster-daughters of the poetess Auvaiyar, all of whom became the wives of the king of Tirukkoyilur in South Arcot, a certain Daivika, who was warned that only by marrying these women could he save his family from disaster. The Chola, Pandya, and Chera kings were present at the wedding, and, on their blessing the bridegroom and his brides, they were themselves blessed by the poetess, to whom the Chera kingdom owes its unfailing rain, the Chola country its rice fields, and the Pandyan realm its cotton. The poorness of the last blessing is due to the fact that the Pandya king was slow to offer his good wishes. The three sub-divisions eat together, and recognise the tie of a common descent, but do not intermarry. The section called Arisakkara Nattaman is looked down upon by the rest, and may not intermarry with any of them. All have well-defined exogamous sub-divisions, called kanis, derived from places where their different ancestors are supposed to have lived, e.g., Kolattur, Kannanur, Ariyalur. The Udaiyans put on sacred threads at marriages and funerals, and some of them have recently begun to wear them always. They are generally cultivators, and, with the exception of the Sudarmans, who are supposed to have a turn for crime, are law-abiding citizens. One section of the Sudarmans, the Muppans of Kapistalam in Tanjore, have a bad reputation for criminality. A curious practice is that, before arranging a marriage, it is customary for the bride's party to go to the bridegroom's house, to dine with him, and test his health by seeing how much he can eat. They allow a boy, whose suit for the hand of a girl within certain degrees of relationship is refused by her parents, to marry the girl, notwithstanding, by tying a tali (marriage emblem) round her neck. They also permit the betrothal of infants, the form observed being to present the child with a new cloth and a mat, and to apply sacred ashes to its forehead. At their funerals, the mourning party has to chew some rice and spit it out on the return from the burning-ground, and, on the sixteenth day, the widow is made to worship a light, and to touch a salt pot. The Nattaman women do not, as a rule, cover their breasts. The lobes of their ears are very distended, and they tattoo their chins and cheeks in the Paraiyan fashion. This is supposed to be in recollection of their origin. The Malaiyaman women wear their tali on a golden wire instead of on a thread."

"The Udaiyans," Mr. Francis writes, [70] are a caste, which is specially numerous in South Arcot. Most of them are cultivators, and in Kallakurchi many are also money-lenders on a large scale. They adopt numerous different titles in an indiscriminate way, and four brothers have been known to call themselves respectively Nayak, Pillai, Mudali, and Udaiyan. They have three sub-divisions--Malaiyaman, Nattaman, and Sudarman--which all admit that they are descended from one common stock, will usually dine together, but do not intermarry. Some of the caste, however, are now turning vegetarians, and these will not only not eat with the others, but will not let their girls marry them. They do not, nevertheless, object to their sons taking brides from the meat-eating classes, and thus provide an interesting, if small, instance of the (on this coast) uncommon practice of hypergamy. In all general matters the ways of the three sub-divisions are similar. Sudarmans are uncommon in this district, and are stated to be chiefly found in Trichinopoly and Tanjore. The Udaiyans say that the three groups are the descendants of a king who once ruled at Tirukkoyilur, the first of whom took the hilly part of his father's country, and so was called Malaiyaman; the second the level tracts, whence his name Nattaman, and the third was the scholar of the family, and learned in the holy books (srutas), and so was called Sudarman. These Udaiyans are the caste from which were drawn some of the kavalgars (watchmen) who, in pre-British days, were appointed to perform police duties, and keep the country clear of thieves; and some of the descendants of these men, who are known to their neighbours as poligars, and still have considerable local influence, are even now to be met with. The connection of the members of the caste with the Vepur (criminal) Paraiyans, which is of course confined to the less reputable sections among them, seems to have had its origin in the days when they were still head kavalgars, and these Paraiyans were their talaiyaris, entrusted, under their orders, with police duties in the different villages. It now consists in acting as receivers of the property these people steal, and in protecting them in diverse ways--finding and feeing a vakil (law pleader) for their defence, for instance--when they are in trouble with the police. It is commonly declared that their relations are sometimes of a closer nature, and that the wives of Veppur Paraiyans who are in enforced retirement are cared for by the Udaiyans. To this is popularly attributed the undoubted fact that these Paraiyans are often much fairer in complexion than other members of that caste."

The village of Mangalam in the South Arcot district is "chiefly interesting on account of its being the only village in the district where buffalo sacrifices on any scale are still regularly made. Buffaloes are dedicated to the Kali shrine in Mangalam even by persons in the Salem, Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts, and the village is commonly known as Maduvetti Mangalam, or buffalo-sacrificing Mangalam. When a man or any of his belongings gets seriously sick, he consecrates an animal to this shrine, and, if the illness ends favourably, it is sent to its fate at the temple on the date of the annual sacrifice (May-June). When the buffalo is dedicated, a piece of saffron-coloured cloth, in which is placed some small coin and a cadjan (palm) leaf containing an announcement of the dedication, is tied to its horns, and it is allowed to roam wherever it likes through the fields. On the day of the sacrifice, fourteen of the best of the animals which have been dedicated and brought to the temple are selected, and seven of them are tied to an equal number of stone posts in front of the goddess' shrine. The pujari (priest), who is an Udaiyan by caste, then walks down the line, and beheads them one after the other. The goddess is next taken round on a car, and, on her return to the temple, the other seven buffaloes are similarly killed. The animals which are not selected are sold, and the proceeds paid into the temple treasury. There are two images in the temple, one of Kali, and the other, which is placed at the back of the shrine, of Mangalayachi. The latter goddess does not approve of animal sacrifices, and, while the above ceremonies are proceeding, a blanket is hung in front of her so that she may not see them." [71]

It is noted by Bishop Whitehead that, a few years ago, an untoward event occurred in connection with a Pidari festival at a village in the Trichinopoly district. "The festival had commenced, and the pujari had tied the kapu (cord dyed with turmeric) on his wrist, when a dispute arose between the trustees of the shrine, which caused the festival to be stopped. The dispute could not be settled, and the festival was suspended for three years, and, during all that time, there could be no marriages among the Udaya caste, while the poor pujari, with the kapu on his wrist, had to remain the whole of the three years in the temple, not daring to go out lest Pidari in her wrath should slay him."

It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that "the Nattamans say they originally settled in South Arcot, and then spread to Tanjore and Trichinopoly, and finally to Madura, and this theory is supported by the fact that they have fifteen exogamous sub-divisions called kanis or fields, which are all named after villages (e.g., Ariyalur, Puththur) in the first three of these districts. A man has a right to marry the daughter of his father's sister, and, if she is given to another man, the father's sister has to return to her father or brother the dowry which she received at the time of her marriage, and this is given to the man who had the claim upon the girl. The same custom occurs among the Kuravans and the Kallans. The eldest son in each family has to be named after the god of the village which gives its name to the kani or sept to which the family belongs, and the child is usually taken to that village to be named. Marriage is infant or adult. Widow marriage is forbidden. Brahmans are employed for ceremonies, but these are not received on terms of equality by other Brahmans. Both cremation and burial are practised. Vellalas will eat with Nattamans. The caste title is Udaiyan." Another title is Nayinar, which is also used by Pallis and Jains. There is a proverb "Nattumuththinal Nayinar", i.e., when the Nattaman ripens, he is a Nayinar. At the census, 1901, some Nattamans returned themselves as Natramiludaiyan, meaning the repository of chaste Tamil; and Ur-Udaiyan (lord of a village) was given as their caste name. Nattaman also occurs as a sub-division of the Pallis.

Under the name Nattamadi, the Nattamans are described in the Tanjore Manual as "peasant population. Some are ryotwari land-holders in their own right and possess large estates. The word is derived from nattam, village, and is used in three forms, Nattamakkal, Nattamar, and Nattamadi. A considerable proportion are converts to the Roman Catholic religion, and, in the neighbourhood of Vallam, there are very few who profess any other faith." In the Madura Manual, the Nattambadiyans are further described as being "usually respectable cultivators. They are said to have emigrated into the Madura country not more than about eight years ago. They are an interesting class of Tamils, inasmuch as very many of them have adopted the Roman Catholic faith under the leadership of the Jesuit missionaries. They are said to be a fine race physically; finer even than the Vellalans. They are also called Udaiyans, and tradition says that they came from the Toreiyur nadu or district in Tanjore, from a village called Udeiyapaleiyam. They are chiefly resident in the great zamindaris, and contrast favourably with the Maravans, being very orderly, frugal, and industrious."

I am informed that Nattaman women will do cooly work and carry food for their husbands when at work in the fields, but that Malaiman women will not do so.

The Sudarmans are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "cultivators chiefly found in the districts of Tanjore and Trichinopoly. They are imitating the Brahmans and Vellalas in their social customs, and some of them have left off eating meat, with the idea of raising themselves in general estimation; but they nevertheless eat in the houses of Kallans and Idaiyans. Their title is Muppan." Some Sudarmans, I am told, have become Agamudaiyans.

Uddari.--A synonym for the village Taliyari.

Uddu (Phaseolus Mungo).--An exogamous sept of Kappiliyan.

Udhdhandra.--A title conferred by Zamindars on some Kurumos.

Uduma.--Uduma or Udumala, meaning the lizard Varanus, has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Boya, Kapu, Tottiyan, and Yanadi.

Ugrani.--A village servant in South Canara, appointed to watch the store-rooms (ugrana), e.g., the village granary, treasury, or bhuta-sthana. In 1907, the powers of village policeman were conferred on the Ugrani, who now wears a brass badge on his arm, with the words Village Police in the vernacular engraved on it. It is the duty of the Ugrani to report the following to the village magistrate:--

1. The commission of grave crimes, such as theft, house-breaking, robbery, dacoity, accidental deaths, suicides, etc.

2. The existence of disputes in connection with landed property, likely to give occasion to any fight or rioting.

3. The arrival of Fakirs, Bairagis, or other strangers in the village.

4. The arrival or residence in the village of any person whom the villagers suspect to be a bad character.

5. The commission of mischief in respect of any public property, such as roads, road avenues, bridges, cattle pounds, Government trees on unreserved lands, etc.

Uliyakaran.--A synonym, denoting menial servant, of Parivaram.

Ulladan.--It is recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, that "the Ullatans and Nayatis are found in the low country, as well as on the hills. At a remote period, certain Ullata families from the plains settled themselves at Talpurakkotta near Sabarimala, and even to-day pilgrims to Sabarimala consider this place as sacred. In the low country, the offerings to the same deities as the Ullatans worship are offered by the Valans. Hence the Ullatans were called by them Kochchuvalans. The place near Sabarimala where they once dwelt is known as Kochuvalakkuti, or the cottage of the Kochchuvalan. Most of these Ullatans have left this place for fear of wild beasts, and are now straying in the woods with no fixed abode. It is said that they are the descendants from a Nambutiri woman, who, on being proclaimed an outcast, said Ullatana, meaning that (the offence for which she was ostracised) is true. [According to another derivation, the name is derived from ull, within, and otunnu, runs, and means one who runs away into the forest at the sight of a member of any of the higher castes.] They are good hunters, and experts in the collection of wax and other forest produce. A curious marriage custom, prevalent among them, is thus related by Dr. Day. 'A large round building is made of leaves, and inside this the bride is ensconced. All the eligible young men of the village then assemble, and form a ring round this hut. At a short distance sits the girl's father or the nearest male relative with tom-tom in his hands, and a few more musical instruments complete the scene. Presently the music begins. The young men, each armed with a bamboo, commence dancing round the hut, into which each of them thrusts his stick. This continues about an hour, when the owner of whichever bamboo she seizes becomes the fortunate husband of the concealed bride. A feast then follows.' [72] They subsist chiefly on fruits, wild yams, and other forest products, and eke out a wretched existence. When armed with guns, they make excellent sportsmen."

It is noted by the Rev. S. Mateer [73] that the Ulladans "subsist chiefly on wild yams, arrowroot, and other esculents, which they find in the jungle, and for the grubbing up of which they are generally armed with a long pointed staff. They also further enjoy the fruits of the chase, and are adepts in the use of the bow and arrow. The arrow they use has an iron spear-head, and an Ulladan has been known to cut a wriggling cobra in half at the first shot. They were claimed as the property of celebrated hill temples, or great proprietors, who exacted service of them, and sometimes sold their services to Nairs, Syrians, and others. A few Ulladans in the low country say they or their fathers were stolen in childhood, and brought down as slaves."

At Kottayam in Travancore, I came across a party of Ulladans carrying cross-bows. These were said to be used for catching fish in rivers, lagoons, and tanks. The arrow is between two and three feet in length, and has an iron hook at one end. Attached to it is a thin but strong string, one end of which is tied to the hook, while the other end passes through a small hole in the wooden part of the arrow, and is fastened to the cross-bar of the bow. This string is about thirty feet in length, and serves not only to drag the captured fish out of the water, and land it, but also to prevent the arrow from being lost. The origin of the cross-bow, which I have not found in the possession of any other tribe, puzzled me until the word Firingi was mentioned in connection with it. The use of this word would seem to indicate that the cross-bow is a survival from the days of the Portuguese on the west coast, Firingi (a Frank) or Parangi being used by Natives for European or Portuguese.

For the following note on the Ulladans of the Cochin State, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Anantha Krishna Iyer. [74] "Their huts are situated in the forest of the plains, by the side of paddy (rice) flats, or in cocoanut gardens remote from those of the members of the higher castes. Only Christian Moplahs are found in the neighbourhood. Their huts are erected on short bamboo posts, the roof and four sides of which are covered with plaited cocoanut leaves. A bamboo framework, of the same leaves, serves the purpose of a door. A few plaited cocoanut leaves, and a mat of their own weaving, form the only furniture, and serve as beds for them at night. Their vessels in domestic use consist of a few earthen pots for cooking and keeping water in, and a few shallow earthen dishes, from which they drink water, and take their food. Some large pieces of the bark of the areca palm, containing salt, chillies, etc., were also seen by me. What little they possess as food and clothing is placed in small baskets suspended from the framework of the roof by means of wooden hooks.

"The caste assembly consists of the elderly members of the caste. There is a headman, who is called Muppan, and he has an assistant who is known as Ponamban. The headman has to preside at all marriage and funeral ceremonies, and to decide all disputes connected with the caste. The caste assembly meets chiefly to deal with cases of immorality. The guilty parties are summoned before the assembly. The headman, who presides, inquires into the matter, and, in the event of the accused parties confessing their guilt, they are taken before His Highness the Raja, who is informed of the circumstances. The male culprit is sometimes beaten or fined. The woman is given some water or the milk of a green cocoanut, and this is supposed to set her free from all sin. When a fine is imposed, it is sometimes spent on the purchase of toddy, which is shared among the castemen present. The headman gets a few puthans (Cochin coins) for his trouble.

"In religion, the Ulladans are pure animists or demon worshippers. All cases of sickness, and other calamities, are attributed to the malignant influence of demons, whom it is necessary to propitiate. They worship Kappiri, Thikutti, and Chathan, all of whom are represented by a few stones placed under a thatched roof called kottil. Offerings of rice flour, sheep, fowls, toddy, rice, cocoanuts and plantains, are given on Fridays in the month of Kanni (September-October). One of the castemen acts as Velichapad (oracle), and speaks as if by inspiration. He also casts out demons from the bodies of women who are believed to be influenced by them. When he resumes his former self, he takes half the offerings to himself, allowing the other half for distribution among the bystanders. They also worship the spirits of the departed members of their families, who, they think, sometimes appear to them in dreams, and ask them for whatever they want. They believe that, in the event of their neglecting to give what is asked, these spirits will cause serious calamity to their family.

"The Ulladans generally bury their dead in special places called chotala, but some of them bury the corpse a few yards away from their huts. The young are buried deep in the ground, while the old ones are buried not so deep. The dead body is placed on a new piece of cloth spread on a bamboo bier, which is carried by the relatives to the grave-yard. The castemen of the neighbourhood, including the relations and friends of the deceased, accompany the bier to the burial-ground, and return home after bathing. The members of the family fast for the night. They observe pollution for fifteen days, and, on the morning of the sixteenth day, the Thalippan (barber priest) comes and cleans the huts and its surrounding, and sprinkles cow-dung mixed with water on the members of the family as they return from bathing, in order that they may be freed from pollution. They entertain their castemen on that day. It is a custom among the Ulladans, Pulayas, and other low classes, that, when they are invited to a feast, they bring with them some rice, curry stuffs, toddy, or a few annas to meet the expenses of the feast. Very often the above articles are obtained as a gift from the charitably disposed members of the higher castes. At the end of the year, a similar feast is given to the castemen. Among the Ulladans, the nephew is the chief mourner, for he usually succeeds to the property of the dead, and proves his right of ownership by acting as the chief mourner.

"The Ulladans on the sea-coast make boats, and cut timber. Their brethren in the interior gather honey, and collect minor forest produce, and sell it to contractors. During the agricultural season, they engage in every kind of agricultural work, such as ploughing, sowing, transplanting, reaping, etc. They also graze the cattle of the farmers. They get a few annas worth of paddy (unhusked rice) for their labour. For most of the months in the year they are in a half-starving condition, and resort to eating wild roots, and animals, which they can get hold of (e.g., rats, tortoises, fish, or crocodiles). They know where rats are to be found. They thrust a long stick into their holes, moving it so violently as to kill them there, or forcing them to come out, when they catch and kill them. Very often in the rural parts, both men and women are found with long poles ready to be thrust into any holes there may be by the side of a fence, or where bamboos are growing luxuriantly. They also catch crocodiles. They place the carcase of a fowl, sheep, or other animal, on the bank of a canal, or by the side of a tank where crocodiles are to be found. Into it is thrust a pointed piece of iron, fastened to a long cord. When a crocodile comes out of the water to eat it, or tries to get away with it, the piece of iron is fixed firmly into its mouth, upon which the Ulladans, who are watching, approach and kill it with their clubs and knives. They catch fish by means of bait, and by poisoning the water. They are also very skilful in spearing fish swimming near the surface. They are more trackers of game than hunters, and very often accompany Moplahs, who go out hunting to provide themselves with meat of all kinds for feasts during their weddings. The Ulladans are engaged only as beaters. For this service, they are given meals during the wedding, in addition to three annas worth of paddy for each beater. They are armed with clubs, and seldom go with dogs, fearing that they may drive away the game. When any animal is killed in hunting, the right side of the back of the animal goes to the Government. It is given to the Forest Officer, who auctions it, and the money obtained is sent to the taluk treasury. The left side of the back goes to the member of the party who shoots the animal. He also gets the face with the tongue. The headman among the Ulladans also gets a share. The remainder of the carcase is equally divided among the members who have formed the party. Should any dispute arise regarding the division of the game, the man who shoots the animal is entrusted with the settlement of the dispute, and his decision is final. In cases where the hunting party is organised by the Moplahs, the Ulladans get wages and meals for their trouble. In places where elephant pits are dug, hunting is forbidden.

"As regards their social status, the Ulladans, like the Nayadis, form the Chandalas of the plains. Their approach to within a radius of sixty-four feet pollutes Brahmans, and all higher castes, including the Sudras (Nayars). The Ulladans cannot walk along the public roads, or come to the bazaars. Nor can they approach the precincts of any town or locality where the members of higher castes reside. The Pulayas and Parayas profess to be polluted by them. It is curious to note that the Ullada women consider it degrading to go to work like the Pulaya woman. They say that their husbands have to provide for them."

Ulli (onions or garlic).--A sub-division of the Tigala market-gardeners. The equivalent Ullipoyala occurs as an exogamous sept of Golla, and Ulligadda as a sept of Boya and Korava.

Ulumban.--It is recorded in the Gazetteer of Malabar that "an endogamous sub-caste (of Nayars) of foreign origin are the Ulumbans or cowherds. According to one tradition, they were originally immigrants from Dvaraka (Guzerat). Their original occupation still survives in the privileges of supplying ghee (clarified butter) for the abhishegam or libation at the great annual festival at the jungle shrine of Kottiyur, and of supplying butter-milk to the Tiruvangad temple at Tellicherry, which are exercised by families of this caste; and in the general privilege of offering milk in any temple without previous ablution."

Uluvala (seeds of horse-gram: Dolichos biflorus).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Jogi.

Ungara.--Ungara and Ungarala, meaning rings, have been recorded as exogamous septs of Balija and Kuruba.

Unittiri.--Unittiri, or Unyatiri, meaning, it is said, venerable boy, has been recorded as a sub-division of Samantam. Unnittan appears, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a title of Nayars, and is said to be derived from unni, small, tan, a title of dignity.

Unnekankana.--A sub-division of Kurubas, who tie a woollen thread (unne kankana) round the wrist at times of marriage.

Unni.--For the following note on the Unnis of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The word Unni, whatever its significance may have been of old, at present forms the common title of four castes of the Ambalavasi group, whose manners and custom differ considerably in their details. They are known, respectively, as Pushpakans, Brahmanis, Tiyattunnis, and Nattu Pattars, their social precedence being in this order. Pushpakan comes from pushpa, which in Sanskrit means either a flower or menses. Brahmanis, more vulgarly known as Pappinis, are so named because they perform some of the priestly functions of the Brahmans for the Sudra population of Travancore. Tiyattunnis, also known as Taiyampatis in British Malabar, are so called from the peculiar religious service they perform in some Hindu temples. Nattu Pattars are also known as Pattar Unnis and Karappuram Unnis. Unni means a child, and is used as an honorific term to denote the male children of a Nambutiri's household. The reason why these Ambalavasi castes came to be so called was that they were looked upon as more respectable than the Nayars, by whom the term must doubtless have been made use of at first. The Pushpakans are said to be divided into three classes, namely Pushpakans, Nambiassans, and Puppallis. The first section live only as far south as Evur in Central Travancore, and are called Nambiyars in the north. The Nambiyassans live in Cochin and North Travancore, while the Puppallis are found only towards the south. There are no sub-divisions among the Brahmanis and Karappuramunnis. But the Tiyattunnis are divided into two classes, namely the Tiyatinambiyans of the north, who are generally employed in the temples of Sastha, and Tiyattunnis proper, who perform a similar function in the shrines of Bhadrakali. Women are also known as Atovarammamar and Kovillammamar.

Pushpakans are said to have arisen out of the union of a Brahman woman in her menses with her husband. Parasurama set them apart, and gave them the occupation of making garlands in the temples of Malabar. Though this derivation is given in the Keralamahatmya, it may be more easily believed that Pushpakan is derived from the occupation of working in flowers. Puppalli, at any rate, is thus derived, and, as Palli signifies anything sacred, the caste name arose from the occupation of preparing garlands for deities. Nambiyassans, called also Nambiyars and Nambis, must have been, as also the Puppallis and Brahmanis, one with the Pushpakans. In some places, Nambiyassans are known to have kept gymnasia and military training schools. The Brahmanis must have undergone some degree of degradation because of the religious songs which they sang during the marriages of the Nayars, while those who did not take part therein became, as it were, a separate sept. Another tradition, accounting for the origin of the caste, is that, as in primitive ages early marriages prevailed among the Malayala Brahmans, the family of the Nambutiri who first married his daughter after puberty was excommunicated, and gave origin to the Pushpakas. This is untrue, as, in Vedic times, adult marriage was the rule, and the Nambutiris in this respect have been known to follow a more primitive custom than the Brahmans of the east coast. The Tiyattunnis are said to be the descendants of a Bhuta or demon directed by Siva to sing songs in praise of Bhadrakali, and appease her anger after the murder of Darika. They must from the first have formed a distinct section of the Ambalavasis. The Karappuram Unnis are supposed to have been elevated to their present status by Cheraman Perumal, one of the rulers of ancient Kerala, as, though belonging to the Sudra caste, they were obliged on one occasion to perform Brahmanical service for him. Perumal is believed to have permitted them to take the title of Unni, and call themselves Pattar, by which name East Coast Brahmans are known in Malabar. Thus they came to own the three names Nattu Pattar, Pattar Unni, and Karappuram Unni, Karappuram or Shertallay being the territory where the sept received the above-mentioned social elevation from their sovereign. Even now, many of them reside in the taluks of Ambalapuzha and Shertallay.

The house of a Pushpaka is variously known as pushpakam, pumatum, or padodakam, the last signifying a place where the water falls from the feet of the deity, on account of its close proximity to the temple, where the daily avocation of the Pushpaka lies. The houses of the Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars are only known by the name of bhavanam. As in the case of the Brahmans, the Pushpanis and Brahmanis cover their bodies with a piece of cloth, carry an umbrella, and are accompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out in public. The women have one more fold in their dress than the Nambutiris. The neck ornament of women is the cherutali-kuttam, and the ear ornament the katila. Bell-metal bangles are worn round the wrists. Female Tiyattunnis and Nattu Pattars do not wear the last, and are generally unaccompanied by Nayar servant-maids when they go out.

Pushpakans are believed to be the most fitting caste for the preparation of flower garlands to be used in temples. They also assist in the preparation of the materials for the daily offering. Nambiyassans were instructors in arms in days of old, and kalari or gymnasia are owned by them even at the present day. Their punyaha, or purificatory ceremony after pollution, is performed by Pushpakans. Brahmani women sing religious songs on the occasion of marriage among all castes from Kshatriyas to Nayars. In Kumaranallur and other Bhagavati shrines, women are employed to sing propitiatory songs, while the men make garlands, sweep the floor of the inner court-yard and plinth, clean the temple vessels, and carry the lamp when images are taken round in procession. It is only the first of these temple services that the Pushpakas do, and their women never go out to sing on marriage occasions. The word Tiyattu or Teyyatu is said to be a corruption of Daivamattu, or dancing to please the deity. According to one tradition, they were degraded from Pushpakas for undertaking service in the temples. In more orthodox times, tiyattu could be performed only in temples and Brahman houses, but now Sudras also share the privilege of inviting the Tiyattunnis to their homes for this purpose, though the ceremony cannot be performed in their houses without a previous punyaha. The rite is extremely popular when epidemic disease prevails. Ganapati and Bhadrakali are, as a preliminary measure, worshipped, to the accompaniment of musical instruments. As this has to be done in the noon, it is called uchchappattu, or noon-day song. In the evening, an image of Bhadrakali is drawn on the ground with powders of five colours, white, yellow, black, green and red. At night, songs are sung in praise of that deity by the Tiyattunni and his followers. A member of the troupe then plays the part of Bhadrakali in the act of murdering the demon Darika, and, in conclusion, waves a torch before the inmates of the house, to ward off the evil eye, which is the most important item in the whole ceremony. The torch is believed to be given by Siva, who is worshipped before the light is waved.

The Karappuram Unnis, unlike the other septs of their class, are mostly agriculturists. The Unnis are all Smartas, but a partiality for Bhadrakali is manifested by the Tiyattunnis and Brahmanis. All social matters among the Unnis are superintended by Nambutiri Brahmans, but, in all that directly touches the social well-being, their own headmen are the judges. Before entering a Pushpaka's house for the observation of any ceremony, the Nambutiris insist upon the performance of punyaha. Though the superiority of Ilayatus is acknowledged, they are never employed by the Pushpakas for priestly functions. The Ilayatus are believed to have once been the priests of the Nattu Pattars, though at the present time learned men from their own sept are employed for this purpose. The punyaha is, however, performed through the agency of Nambutiris. The priests of the Nambiyassans, Tiyattunnis, and Brahmanis are Ilayatus.

Adult marriage prevails, twelve being the earliest age of a girl when she ceases to be single. On the evening of the day before the wedding, the bride has a ceremonial bath, and performs the ceremony of growing a jasmine shoot, the flowers of which she should cull and present as an offering to the deity. On the marriage day, the bridegroom's party arrives in procession at the house of the bride, who awaits them with her face covered, and holding a brass mirror and garland of flowers in her hands. Her veil is removed, and the contracting couple gaze at each other. At the auspicious hour their hands are joined, and other items of the marriage rites carried out. In connection with a Pushpaka marriage, ammana attam or tossing of metal balls, kaikottikali or the circular dance, and yatrakali are among the amusements indulged in. Divorce was common among the Pushpakas in bygone days, but, at the present time, the marriage tie is usually permanent, and it is only after the first husband's death that cloths may be received from a Malayala Brahman in token of sambandham (alliance). The Brahmanis, however, have not given up the practice of divorce. Nambiyassans, Puppallis, Pattar Unnis, and Brahmanis follow the marumakkattayam system of inheritance (through the female line), while the Pushpakas and Tiyattunnis are makkattayis, and follow the law of inheritance from father to son. The offspring of a Brahmani by a Pushpaka woman are regarded as issue in a makkattayam family. As is the custom among the Nambutiris, only the eldest son marries, the other sons remaining as snatakas, and contracting alliances with Nayar women. The Illam Nayars, however, do not give their daughters to the Unnis.

The jatakarma, though not strictly proper, is observed in modern days. The namakarana takes place, along with the annaprasana, in the sixth month after birth. The chaula is performed in the third year, though, among the Nattu Pattars, it is a preliminary ceremony before upanayana. The proper time for the performance of the upanayana is between the eighth and sixteenth year. Samavartana takes place on the fourteenth day after upanayana. Pollution lasts for only ten days among the Tiyattunnis, whereas the Brahmanis observe twelve, and the Nattu Pattars thirteen days' pollution. Ten gayatris (hymns) are allowed to be recited thrice daily.

The Pushpakas are the highest of the thread-wearing sections of the Ambalavasis, according to their traditional origin as well as their religious and social practices. The Pattar Unnis are the lowest, and are only a step higher than the Kurukkals. Consecrated water and flowers are not given to them directly by the temple priest, but they may stand on the right side of the stone steps leading to the inner shrine. This is the rule with all Ambalavasi divisions. Other Ambalavasis do not receive food from the Unnis. These sections of the Unnis which have Ilayatus for their priests accept food from them. As the Pushpakas proper employ only Nambutiris for purificatory purposes, the latter freely cook food in their houses, as in those of the Muttatus.

It is recorded by Mr. Logan [75] that the Tiyattunnis or Tiyadis (ti, fire; attam, play) are "a class of pseudo-Brahmans in Malabar, who derive their name from the ceremony of jumping through fire before temples." Mr. Subramani Aiyar writes, in this connection, that "I do not think Mr. Logan is quite right when he describes the service of the Tiyattunnis as jumping through fire. It is dancing with lighted wicks in the hands, to exorcise the genius representing the evil eye, or as a propitiatory service in temples. It answers to the pallippanna and kolantullal of the Kaniyans. A figure of Bhadrakali is drawn on the ground with powders of different colours, and the chief incidents in the incarnate life of the deity are recited by the Tiyattunnis. After this, some cocoanuts are broken in two, and lighted wicks are then placed before the presiding deity if done in a temple as a propitiatory service, or before any particular individual or individuals, if the object is to free him or them from the effect of the evil eye."

Uppalavar (salt workers).--A synonym of Alavan.

Uppara.--For the following note, I am mainly indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. Uppiliyan, Uppara, Uppara or Uppaliga, are different names for a class of people, who followed the same professional occupation, the manufacture of salt (uppu), in various parts of Southern India. The Uppiliyans live in the Tamil country, and speak Tamil; the Upparas in the Telugu country, and speak Telugu; while the Upparas inhabit the Mysore province and the districts bordering thereon, and speak Canarese. The Upparas are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [76] as "a caste of tank-diggers and earth-workers, corresponding to the Uppiliyans of the Tamil districts. They resemble greatly the Oddes (Voddas or Wudders) in appearance, customs, and manner of earning a living. Their traditional occupation is, as the name implies, manufacturing earth-salt. They profess to be Saivites and Vaishnavites, but practically worship village deities, e.g., Sunkalamma, Timmappa, and Jambulamma." It is possible that the Uppiliyans, Upparas, and Upparas were originally a homogeneous caste, the members of which, in course of time, migrated to different parts of the country, and adopted the language of the locality in which they settled. The causes, which may have led to the breaking up of the caste, are not far to seek. The original occupation thereof, according to the legendary story of its origin, was tank, channel, and well digging. Southern India depended in days gone by, as at the present time, mainly on its agricultural produce, and people were required, then as now, to secure, conserve, and distribute the water, which was essential for agricultural prosperity. Inscriptions, such as those quoted by Mr. V. Venkayya, [77] bear testimony to the energy displayed by former rulers in Southern India in having tanks, wells, and irrigation channels constructed. Uppiliyans, Upparas or Upparas, are, at the present day, found all over the Madras Presidency, from Ganjam in the north to Tinnevelley in the south. From early times they seem to have, in addition to the work already indicated, been engaged in bricklaying, house-building, the construction of forts, and every kind of earth-work.