Chapter I: Part 1

CASTES AND TRIBES
OF
SOUTHERN INDIA

By

EDGAR THURSTON, C.I.E.,

Superintendent, Madras Government Museum; Correspondant Étranger,
Société d'Anthropologie de Paris; Socio Corrispondante, Societa,
Romana di Anthropologia.

Assisted by

K. Rangachari, M.A.,
of the Madras Government Museum.

Volume VII--T to Z

Government Press, Madras

1909.

CASTES AND TRIBES OF SOUTHERN INDIA.

VOLUME VII.

T

Tabelu (tortoise).--A sept of Aiyarakulu, and section of Gazula Kapu and Koppala Velama.

Taccha Kurup.--Barbers who shave Malabar Kammalans.

Tacchan.--The name of the carpenter sub-division of Kammalans, and further returned, at the census, 1891, as an occupational sub-division by some Paraiyans. Taccha Karaiyan has been recorded as a name for some members of the Karaiyan fishing caste. The Tacchasastram, or science of carpentry, prescribes in minute details the rules of construction.

Tacchanadan Muppan.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a sub-division of Kuricchans, and of Kurumbas of the Nilgiris.

Tadan.--See Dasari.

Tagara.--A section of Poroja.

Takru.--A class of Muhammadan pilots and sailors in the Laccadive islands. (See Mappilla.)

Talaivan (a chief).--A title of the Maravans. Jadi or Jati Talaivan is the name of the hereditary chief of the Paravas of Tinnevelly, who, at times of pearl fisheries, receives a fixed share of the 'oysters.'

Talamala.--A sub-division of Kanikar.

Talayari.--The Talayari (talai, head) or chief watchman, or Uddari (saviour of the village), is a kind of undepartmental village policeman, who is generally known as the Talari. Among other duties, he has to follow on the track of stolen cattle, to act as a guard over persons confined in the village choultry (lock-up), to attend upon the head of the village during the trial of petty cases, to serve processes, and distrain goods. In big villages there are two or three Talayaris, in which case one is a Paraiyan, who officiates in the Paraiya quarter. In parts of the Telugu country, the Mutrachas, who are the village watchmen, are known as Talarivallu, or watchman people, and, in like manner, the Bedars are called Talarivandlu in the Kurnool and Bellary districts.

It is noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district (1906), that "from the earliest years of the British occupation of the country, fees were paid to the talaiyari or village watchman. He was probably survival of a state of society in which kavalgars did not exist, and his duties were, it seems, to look after the villagers' fields and threshing floors. At any rate, he continued in existence even after the abolition of the kaval system (see Maravan), and was declared by the early Police Regulation (XI of 1816) to be part of the regular police establishment. Practically he did little real police duty, and in 1860, when the mufassal police was reorganised, all claims to the services of the talaiyari as a servant of the State were formally abandoned, the Inspector-General of Police having reported that any attempt to utilise the talaiyari body would be fruitless and unpopular. Talaiyaris still continue to be employed and paid by the ryots (cultivators) as the private guardians of their crops and harvested grain. Recently, however, the district was brought into line with the rest of the Presidency by the creation of a new force of talaiyaris, who now perform the police duties assigned to such persons elsewhere. They are provided with lathis (sticks) and badges, and are a useful auxiliary to the police."

Tali.--"The tali," Bishop Caldwell writes, [1] "is the Hindu sign of marriage, answering to the ring of European christendom. I have known a clergyman refuse to perform a marriage with a tali, and insist upon a ring being used instead. A little consideration will show that the scrupulous conscience can find no rest for itself even in the ring; for, if the ring is more Christian than the tali, it is only because its use among Christians is more ancient. Every one knows that the ring has a Pagan origin, and that, for this reason, it is rejected by Quakers." "The custom," Wagner informs us, [2] "of wearing the wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand had unquestionably a Pagan origin. Both the Greeks and the Romans called the fourth left-hand finger the medicated finger, and used it to stir up mixtures and potions, out of the belief that it contained a vein, which communicated directly with the heart, and therefore nothing noxious could come in contact with it, without giving instant warning to that vital organ."

The marriage badge, as it occurs in Southern India, is, broadly speaking, of two types. The one in use among the Tamil castes is oblong in shape, with a single or double indentation at the base, and rounded at the top. The corresponding bottu or sathamanam of the Telugu and Canarese castes is a flat or cup-shaped disc. The tali in use among various Malayalam castes at the tali-kettu ceremony is a long cylinder.

Tali-kettu kalyanam (tali-tying marriage).--A ceremony gone through by Nayar girls, and girls of some other Malayalam castes, in childhood. Of those who gave evidence before the Malabar Marriage Commission, some thought the tali-kettu was a marriage, some not. Others called it a mock marriage, a formal marriage, a sham marriage, fictitious marriage, a marriage sacrament, the preliminary part of marriage, a meaningless ceremony, an empty form, a ridiculous farce, an incongruous custom, a waste of money, and a device for becoming involved in debt. "While," the Report states, "a small minority of strict conservatives still maintain that the tali-kettu is a real marriage intended to confer on the bridegroom a right to cohabit with the bride, an immense majority describe it as a fictitious marriage, the origin of which they are at a loss to explain. And another large section tender the explanation accepted by our President (Sir T. Muttusami Aiyar), that in some way or other it is an essential caste observance preliminary to the formation of sexual relations." In summing up the evidence collected by him, Mr. Lewis Moore states [3] that it seems to be proved beyond all reasonable doubt that "from the sixteenth century at all events, and up to the early portion of the nineteenth century, the relations between the sexes in families governed by marumakkathayam (inheritance in the female line) were of as loose a description as it is possible to imagine. The tali-kettu kalyanam, brought about by the Brahmans, brought about no improvement, and indeed, in all probability, made matters much worse by giving a quasi-religious sanction to a fictitious marriage, which bears an unpleasant resemblance to the sham marriage ceremonies performed among certain inferior castes elsewhere as a cloak for prostitution (see Deva-dasi). As years passed, some time about the opening of the nineteenth century, the Kerala mahatmyam and Keralolpathi were concocted, probably by Nambudris, and false and pernicious doctrines as to the obligations laid on the Nayars by divine law to administer to the lust of the Nambudris were disseminated abroad. The better classes among the Nayars revolted against the degrading system thus established, and a custom sprang up, especially in North Malabar, of making sambandham a more or less formal contract, approved and sanctioned by the Karnavan (senior male) of the tarwad [4] to which the lady belonged, and celebrated with elaborate ceremony under the pudamuri (female cloth cutting) form. That there was nothing analogous to the pudamuri prevalent in Malabar from A.D. 1500 to 1800 may, I think, be fairly presumed from the absence of all allusion to it in the works of the various European writers." According to Act IV, Madras, 1896, sambandham means an alliance between a man and woman, by reason of which they, in accordance with the custom of the community to which they belong, or either of them belongs, cohabit or intend to cohabit as husband and wife.

Tambala.--The Tambalas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Telugu-speaking temple priests. Their social position differs in different localities. They are regarded as Brahmans in Godavari, Kistna and Nellore, and as Sudras in the other Telugu districts." It is noted, in the Census Report, that the Tambalas are described by C. P. Brown as a class of beggars, who worship Siva, and who beat drums; secular priests, etc. These men are generally Sudras, but wear the sacred thread. "It is said that, during his peregrinations in the north, Sankaracharya appointed Tamil Brahmans to perform temple services in all the Saiva shrines. Hence the Telugu people, in the midst of whom the Tamilians lived, called them the Tambalas (Tamils). They are not now, however, regarded as Brahmans, whatever their original position may have been. They will eat only with Brahmans. Most of them are Saivites, and a few are Lingayats. The Smarta Brahmans officiate as their priests at birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. They do not eat animal food, and all their religious rites are more or less like those of Brahmans. Their usual titles are Aiya and Appa."

Tamban.--One of the divisions of Kshatriyas in Travancore. (See Tirumalpad.)

Tambi (younger brother).--A term of affection in the Tamil country, used especially when a younger person is being addressed. It is also recorded as an honorific title of Nayars in Travancore, and a suffix to the names of Nayar sons of Travancore sovereigns.

Tambiran.--The name for Pandaram managers of temples, e.g., at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot.

Tamburan.--For the following note on the Rajahs or Tamburans, I am indebted to the Travancore Census Report, 1901. "They form an endogamous community of Kshatriyas, and live as seven families in Travancore. They are distinguished by the localities in which they reside, viz., Mavelikkara, Ennaikkat, Kartikapalli, Mariappalli, Tiruvalla, Praikkara, and Aranmula. They are all related by blood, the connection between some of them being very close. Like the Koiltampurans, all the members of their community observe birth and death pollution with reference to each other. Their original home is Kolattunat in North Malabar, and their immigration into Travancore, where the reigning family is of the Kolattunat stock, was contemporaneous, in the main, with the invasion of Malabar by Tippu Sultan. The first family that came into the country from Kolattunat was the Putuppalli Kovilakam in the 5th century M.E. (Malabar era). The Travancore royal family then stood in need of adoption. The then Rajah arranged through a Koiltampuran of Tattarikkovilakam to bring from Kolattunat two princesses for adoption, as his negotiations with the then Kolattiri were fruitless. The Puttuppali Kovilakam members thus settled themselves at Kartikapalli, the last of whom died in 1030 M.E. The next family that migrated was Cheriyakovilakam, between 920 and 930 M.E. They also came for adoption. But their right was disputed by another house, Pallikkovilakam. They then settled themselves at Aranmula. The third series of migrations were during the invasion of Malabar by Tippu in 964 M.E. All the Rajahs living there at the time came over to Travancore, of whom, however, many returned home after a time.

The Rajahs, like the Koiltampurans, belong to the Yajurveda section of Dvijas, but follow the sutra laid down by Baudhayana. Their gotra is that of Bhargava, i.e., Parasurama, indicating in a manner that these are Kshatriyas who were accepted by Parasurama, the uncompromising Brahmin of the Hindu Puranas. They have all the Brahminical Samskaras, only the Brahmin priest does most of them on their behalf. Chaulam, or tuft ceremony, is performed along with Upanayanam. The Samavartanam, or termination of the pupil stage, is celebrated on the fourth day of the thread investiture. Instruction in arms is then given to the Kshatriya boy, and is supposed to be kept up until the requisite skill has been obtained. The tali-tying (mangalya dharanam or pallikkettu of a Raja lady) is done by a Koiltampuran, who thereafter lives with her as her married husband. The Kanyakadanam, or giving away of the bride, is performed by the priest who attends also to the other Sastraic rites. The males take Sudra consorts. If the first husband leaves by death or otherwise, another Koiltampuran may be accepted. This is not called marriage, but kuttirikkuka (living together).

At Sradhas (memorial services), the Karta, or performer of the ceremony, throws a flower as a mark of spiritual homage at the feet of the Brahmins who are invited to represent the manes, and greets them in the conventional form (namaskara). The priest does the other ceremonies. After the invited Brahmins have been duly entertained, oblations of cooked rice are offered to the ancestors by the Karta himself.

They are to repeat the Gayatri ten times at each Sandhya prayer, together with the Panchakshara and the Ashtakshara mantras.

Their caste government is in the hands of the Nambutiri Vaidikas. Their family priests belong to the class of Malayala Pottis, known as Tiruveli Pottis.

Besides the ordinary names prevalent among Koiltampurans, names such as Martanda Varma, Aditya Varma, and Udaya Varma are also met with. Pet names, such as Kungaru, Kungappan, Kungoman, Kungunni, Unni and Ampu are common. In the Travancore Royal House, the first female member always takes the name of Lakshmi and the second that of Parvati.

Tamoli.--A few members of this North India caste of betel-leaf sellers have been returned at times of census. I am unable to discover in what district they occur. Tambuli or Tamuli is recorded as a caste of betel-leaf sellers in Bengal, and Tamboli as a caste carrying on a similar occupation in the Bombay Presidency.

Tanamanadu.--A sub-division of Valaiyan.

Tanda.--The word literally refers to a settlement or encampment of the Lambadis, by some of whom it is, at times of census, returned as a tribal synonym.

Tandan.--It is recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1891, that "in Walluvanad and Palghat (in Malabar) Tandan is a distinct caste. The ceremonies observed by Tandans are, in general outline, the same as those of the southern Tiyyans, but the two do not intermarry, each claiming superiority over the other. There is a custom which prohibits the Tandan females of Walluvanad from crossing a channel which separates that taluk from Mankara on the Palghat side." The Tandans of Malabar are described by Mr. F. Fawcett as a people allied to the Izhuvans, who observe the custom of fraternal polyandry, which the Izhuvans abhor.

For the following note on the Tandans of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar.

The castemen are known as Uralis to the south of Varkallay, and Tandans to the north of it. In some places to the east of Kottarakaray, they were popularly termed Mutalpattukar, or those who receive the first perquisite for assistance rendered to carpenters. In the days when there were no saws, the rough instruments of the Tandan served their purpose. Hence some members of the caste were called Tacchan (carpenter). Tandan is derived from the Sanskrit dandanam or punishment, as, in ancient times, men of this caste were employed to carry out the punishments that were inflicted by the authorities upon offenders. For the execution of such punishments, the Tandans were provided with swords, choppers and knives. As they were also told off to guard the villages (ur) of which they happened to be inhabitants, they acquired the title of Urali. In some places, Tandans are also called Velans. Males and females have respectively the title Muppan and Muppatti, meaning an elder. In addressing members of higher castes, the Tandans call themselves Kuzhiyan, or dwellers in pits.

The Tandans are said to have once belonged to the same caste as the Izhuvans, but to have fallen away from that position. They must, in times gone by, have joined the military service of the various States in Malabar. They were, in some places, given rent-free lands, called Urali parambu, in return for the duties they were expected to perform. With the return of peaceful times, their occupation changed, and the climbing of palm trees, to extract the juice thereof, became their most important calling. They are also largely engaged in the manufacture of ropes. Many families still receive the mutalpattu, or allowance from the carpenters.

The Tandans are divided into four endogamous sections, called Ilanji, Puvar, Irunelli, and Pilakkuti.

The ornaments of the women are, besides the minnu, wreaths of red and red and black beads. Nowadays the gold gnattu of the Nayars is also worn. Tattooing is popular. Even males have a crescent and a dot tattooed on the forehead, the corresponding mark in females being a line from the nasal pit upwards. Among the devices tattooed on the arms are the conch shell, lotus, snake, discus, etc. In their food and drink the Tandans resemble the Iluvans.

The priests of the Tandans are called Tanda Kuruppus, and they are also the caste barbers. The chief deity of the Tandans is Bhadrakali, at whose shrines at Mandaikkad, Cranganore, and Sarkkaray, offerings are regularly made. At the last place, a Tandan is the priest. The chief days for the worship of this deity are Bharani asterism in March and Pattamudayam in April. November is a particularly religious month, and the day on which the Kartikay star falls is exclusively devoted to worship. The first Sunday in January is another religious occasion, and on that day cooked food is offered to the rising sun. This is called Pogala. Maruta, or the spirit of smallpox, receives special worship. If a member of the caste dies of this disease, a small shed is erected in his memory either at his home or near the local Bhadrakali shrine, and offerings of sweetmeats and toddy are made to him on the 28th of Makaram (January-February). Chitragupta, the accountant of Yama, the god of death, is worshipped on the full-moon day in April-May. Ancestor worship is performed on the new-moon day in July.

A girl's tali-tying ceremony, which is called kazhuttukettu, takes place when she is between seven and twelve years old. The bridegroom is a relative called Machchampi. The Kuruppu receives a money present of 2 1/2 fanams for every tali tied in his presence. Though more than one girl may go through the ceremony in the same pandal (booth), each should have a separate bridegroom. The relations between the bride and bridegroom are dissolved by the father of the former paying the latter sixteen rasi fanams. The daughter of a man's paternal aunt or maternal uncle may be claimed as murappen or lawful bride. The sambandham, or actual marriage, takes place after a girl has reached puberty. A family is regarded as out-caste, if she has not previously gone through the tali-tying ceremony.

Only the eldest member of a family is cremated, the rest being buried. Death pollution lasts for ten days. The anniversary of a death is celebrated at the sea-shore, where cooked food, mixed with gingelly (Sesamum) is offered to the departed, and thrown into the sea.

Tandan.--The Tandan is the hereditary headman of a Tiyan tara (village), and is a Tiyan by caste. He is appointed by the senior Rani of the Zamorin's family, or by some local Raja in territories outside the jurisdiction of the Zamorin. The Tandan is the principal person in the decision of caste disputes. He is expected to assist at the tali-tying, puberty, marriage and pregnancy ceremonies of members of the caste. His formal permission is required before the carpenter can cut down the areca palm, with which the shed in which the tali is tied is constructed. In cases of divorce, his functions are important. When a new house is built, a house-warming ceremony takes place, at which the Tandan officiates. Fowls are sacrificed, and the right leg is the Tandan's perquisite. He is a man of importance, not only in many affairs within his own caste, but also in those of other castes. Thus, when a Nayar dies, it is the Tandan's duty to get the body burnt. He controls the washerman and barber of the tara, and can withdraw their services when they are most needed. He officiates, moreover, at marriages of the artisan classes.

Tangalan.--A sub-division of Paraiyan. The word indicates one who may not stand near, in reference to their belonging to the polluting classes.

Tangedu.--Tangedu or Tangedla (Cassia auriculata) has been recorded as an exogamous sept of Kapu and Padma Sale. The bark of this shrub is one of the most valuable Indian tanning agents, and is, like myrabolams (Terminalia fruits), used in the manufacture of indigenous dyes.

Tantuvayan (thread-wearer).--An occupational name used by various weaving castes.

Tapodhanlu.--The name, meaning those who believe in self-mortification as wealth, adopted by some Telugu mendicants.

Tarakan.--See Muttan.

Tartharol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a division of the Todas. Tartal is also given by various writers as a division of this tribe.

Tarwad.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [6] as a marumakkathayam family, consisting of all the descendants in the female line of one common female ancestor.

Tassan.--A Malayalam synonym for the Telugu Dasari.

Tattan.--The goldsmith section of the Tamil and Malayalam Kammalans.

Teivaliol.--The name, recorded by Dr. W. H. R. Rivers, [5] of a division of the Todas.

Telaga.--"The Telagas," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [7] "are a Telugu caste of cultivators, who were formerly soldiers in the armies of the Hindu sovereigns of Telingana. This may perhaps account for the name, for it is easy to see that the Telugu soldiers might come to be regarded as the Telugus or Telagas par excellence. The sub-divisions returned under this name show that there has been some confusion between the Telagas proper, and persons who are members of other Telugu castes. The Telagas are Vaishnavites, and have Brahmans for their priests. Their customs closely resemble those of the Kapus. They eat flesh, but are not allowed to drink liquor. They are usually farmers now, but many still serve as soldiers, though their further recruitment has recently been stopped. Their common titles are Naidu and Dora."

In a note on the Telagas and Vantaris (strong men), it is suggested that they should be classed with the Kapus, of which caste they are an offshoot for the following reasons:--"(1) Members of the three classes admit that this is so; (2) a collation of the intiperulu or septs shows that the same names recur among the three classes; (3) all three interdine, and intermarriage between them is not rare. A poor Telaga or Vantari often gives his daughter in marriage to a rich Kapu. The Telagas and Vantaris are highly Brahmanised, and will have a Brahman for their guru, and get themselves branded at his hands. A Kapu is generally content with a Satani or Jangam. Though they do not differ in their marriage and funeral rites from the Kapus, they usually marry their girls before puberty, and widow remarriage and divorce are disallowed. A Kapu is invariably a cultivator; a Vantari was in olden days a sepoy, and, as such, owned inam (rent-free) lands. Even now he has a prejudice against ploughing jirayati (ordinarily assessed) lands, which a Kapu has no objection to do. Similarly, a Telaga takes pride in taking service under a Zamindar, but, unlike the Vantari, he will plough any land. Kapu women will fetch their own water, and carry meals to the fields for their fathers and husbands. The women of the other classes affect the gosha system, and the men carry their own food, and fetch water for domestic purposes, or, if well-to-do, employ Kapus for these services. It may be added that rich Kapus often exhibit a tendency to pass as Telagas."

Telikula.--The Telikulas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Telugu oil-presser caste, which should not be confused with Tellakula, a synonym for Tsakala, or with Telli, a caste of Oriya oil-pressers." Telikula is a synonym for the Ganiga or Gandla caste of oil-pressers, derived from the oil (gingelly: Sesamum indicum), whereas the names Ganiga and Gandla refer to the oil-mill. In the Northern Circars, the name Telikula is used in preference to Ganiga or Gandla, and the oil-pressers in that part of the country are known as Telikula-vandlu. The Telikulas are Onteddu, i.e., use a single bullock for working the oil-mill, whereas, among the Ganigas, there are both Onteddu and Rendeddu sections, which employ one and two bullocks respectively.

Tellakula (white clan).--Recorded, in the Census Report, 1901, as a synonym for Tsakala. According to the Rev. J. Cain, [8] the Tellakulas are Telugu washermen (Tsakalas), who, in consequence of having obtained employment as peons in Government offices, feel themselves to be superior to other members of their caste.

Telli.--The Tellis are the oil-pressers of the Oriya country, whose caste name is derived from telo, oil. They are apparently divided into three endogamous sections, named Holodia, Bolodia, and Khadi. The original occupation of the Holodias is said to have been the cultivation and sale of turmeric. They may not carry turmeric and other articles for sale on the back of bullocks, and consequently use carts as a medium of transport thereof. And it is further contrary to their caste rules even to assist in loading or unloading packs carried by bullocks. The Bolodias receive their name from the fact that they carry produce in the form of oil-seeds, etc., on pack bullocks, bolodo being Oriya for bullock. The Khadis are mainly engaged in expressing various oils in oil-mills, and this occupation is also carried on by some members of the other sections. All Tellis seem to belong to one gotra, called Karthikeswara. The caste title is Sahu. In social position the Tellis, unlike the Tamil Vaniyans (oil-pressers), are on a par with the agricultural castes, and are one of the panchapatako, or five castes from which individuals are selected to decide serious issues which arise among the Badhoyis. The headman of the Tellis is called Behara, and he is assisted by a Bhollobaya, and in some places apparently by another officer called Pento.

It is considered by the Tellis as a breach of caste rules to sail in a boat or ship. If a cow dies with a rope round its neck, or on the spot where it is tethered, the family which owned it is under pollution until purification has been effected by means of a pilgrimage, or by bathing in a sacred river. The Holodias will not rear male calves at their houses, and do not castrate their bulls. Male calves are disposed of by sale as speedily as possible. Those Holodias who are illiterate make the mark (nisani) of a ball of turmeric paste as a substitute for their autograph on documents. In like manner, the nisanis of the Bolodias and Khadis respectively are the leather belt of a bullock and curved pole of the oil-mill. Among nisanis used by other Oriya castes, the following may be noted:--

Korono (writer caste), style.
Ravulo (temple servants), trident.
Bavuri (basket-makers and earth-diggers), sickle.
Dhoba (washermen) fork used for collecting firewood.
Brahman, ring of dharba grass, such as is worn on ceremonial
occasions.

In their marriage ceremonies, the Tellis observe the standard Oriya type, with a few variations. On the day before the wedding, two young married women carry two new pots painted white on their heads. To support the pots thereon, a single cloth, with the two ends rolled up to form a head-pad, must be used. The two women, accompanied by another married woman carrying a new winnowing basket, and mokkuto (forehead chaplet), proceed, to the accompaniment of the music of a chank shell and pipes, to a temple, whereat they worship. On their way home, the two girls, according to the custom of other Oriyas castes, go to seven houses, at each of which water is poured into their pots. During the marriage ceremony, after the ends of the cloths of the bride and bridegroom have been tied together, they exchange myrabolams (Terminalia fruits) and areca nuts. Until the close of the ceremonies, they may not plunge into a tank (pond) or river, and, in bathing, may not wet the head.

Most of the Tellis are Paramarthos, and follow the Chaitanya form of Vaishnavism, but some are Smartas, and all worship Takuranis (village deities).

Telugu.--Telugu or Telaga is used as a linguistic term indicating a person who speaks that language. It has, at recent times of census, been returned as a sub-division of various classes, e.g., Agasa, Balija, Banajiga, Bedar, Bestha, Devanga, Holeya, Kumbara, Rachewar, Tsakala, and Uppara. Further, Telugu Vellala appears as a synonym of Velama, and Telugu Chetti as a synonym of Saluppan.

Ten (honey).--Ten or Jen has been recorded as a sub-division or exogamous sept of jungle Kurumbas and Holeyas. Some Irulas style themselves Ten Padaiyachi or Ten Vanniyan, Padaiyachi and Vanniyan being a title and synonym of the Pallis.

Tendisai (southern country).--Recorded as a division of Vellalas in the Madura and Coimbatore districts.

Tene (millet: Setaria italica).--An exogamous sept of Holeya.

Tengina (cocoanut palm).--The name of a section of Halepaiks, who tap the cocoanut for extracting toddy.

Tennam.--Tennam (cocoanut) or Tennanjanar (cocoanut tappers) is recorded as the occupational name of Shanan. Tenkayala (cocoanut) occurs as an exogamous sept of Yanadi, and the equivalent Tennang as a tree or kothu of Kondaiyamkotti Maravans.

Tennilainadu.--A territorial sub-division of Kallan.

Terkattiyar (southerner).--A term applied to Kallan, Maravan, Agamudaiyan, and other immigrants into the Tanjore district. At Mayavaram, for example, it is applied to Kallans, Agamudaiyans, and Valaiyans.

Tertal.--A division of Toda.

Teruvan.--A synonym of the Malabar Chaliyans, who are so called because, unlike most of the west coast castes, they live in streets (teru).

Tevadiyal (servant of god).--The Tamil name for Deva-dasis. Tevan (god) occurs as a title of Maravans.

Teyyambadi.--A section of Ambalavasis or temple servants in Malabar, the members of which dance and sing in Bhagavati temples, and perform a song called nagapattu (song in honour of serpents) in private houses, which is supposed to be effective in procuring offspring. [9]

Thadla.--Thadla or Thalla, meaning rope, is an exogamous sept of Devanga and Karna Sale.

Thakur.--About a hundred members of this caste are returned, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as belonging to a Bombay caste of genealogists and cultivators. It is recorded, in the Bombay Gazetteer, that "inferior in rank to Marathas, the Thakurs are idle and of unclean habits. Though some of them till and twist woollen threads for blankets, they live chiefly by begging and ballad singing. At times they perform plays representing events mentioned in the Purans and Ramayan, and showing wooden puppets moved by strings."

Thalakokala (female cloths).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Thalam (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept or illam of Kanikar.

Thamballa (sword bean: Canavalia ensiformis).--An exogamous sept of Tsakalas, members of which will not eat the bean.

Thamburi.--A class of people in Mysore, who are Muhammadans, dress like Lambadis, but do not intermarry with them. (See Lambadi.)

Thanda Pulayan.--For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Aiyar. [10] The Thanda Pulayans constitute a small division of the Pulayans, who dwell in South Malabar and Cochin. The name is given to them because of the garment worn by the females, made of the leaves of a sedge, called thanda (apparently Scirpus articulatus), which are cut into lengths, woven at one end, and tied round the waist so that they hang down below the knees. The following story is told with regard to the origin of this costume. A certain high-caste man, who owned lands in those parts, chanced to sow seeds, and plant vegetables. He was surprised to find that not a trace of what he sowed or planted was to be seen on the following day. With a view to clearing up the mystery, he kept a close watch during the night, and saw certain human beings, stark naked, come out of a hole. They were pursued, and a man and a woman were caught. Impressed with a sense of shame at their wretched condition, the high-caste man threw his upper garment to the male, but, having nothing to give as a covering for the woman, threw some thanda leaves over her. The Thanda Pulayans are also called Kuzhi Pulayans, as they were found emerging from a pit (kuzhi). The leafy garment is said to be fast going out of fashion, as Mappillas, and others who own the Pulayans, compel them to wear cotton cloths. According to the Rev. W. J. Richards, a division of the Pulayans, who are called Kanna Pulayans, and found near Alleppey, wear rather better, and more artistically made aprons. [11]

The following legend is current regarding the origin of the Thanda Pulayans. In the south, the Pulayans are divided into the eastern and western sections. The former were the slaves of Duryodhana, and the latter were attached to the Pandus. These formed the two rival parties in the war of the Mahabaratha, and the defeat of Duryodhana was the cause of their degradation.

The Thanda Pulayans appear to have been the slaves of the soil till 1854, when they were emancipated. Even now, their condition has not undergone much material improvement. Though they are left more to themselves, they still work for farmers or landlords for a daily wage of paddy (unhusked rice). If they run away, they are brought back, and punished. There is a custom that, when a farmer or landlord wants a few Pulayans to work in the fields, he obtains their services on payment of fifteen to twenty rupees to them, or to their master. When a Pulayan's services are thus obtained, he works for his new master for two edangalis of paddy a day. They can obtain their liberation on the return of the purchase-money, which they can never hope to earn. Having no property which they can claim as their own, and conscious perhaps that their lot will be the same wherever they go, they remain cheerful and contented, drudging on from day to day, and have no inclination to emigrate to places where they can get higher wages. The Cherumars of Palghat, on the contrary, enjoy more freedom. Many go to the Wynad, and some to the Kolar gold-fields, where they receive a good money-wage. The Thanda Pulayans work, as has been said, for some landlord, who allows them small bits of land. The trees thereon belong to the master, but they are allowed to enjoy their produce during their residence there. When not required by the master, they can work where they like. They have to work for him for six months, and sometimes throughout the year. They have little to do after the crop has been garnered. They work in the rice-fields, pumping water, erecting bunds (mud embankments), weeding, transplanting, and reaping. Men, women, and children may be seen working together. After a day's hard work, in the sun or rain, they receive their wages, which they take to the nearest shop, called mattupitica (exchange shop), where they receive salt, chillies, etc., in exchange for a portion of the paddy, of which the remainder is cooked. The master's field must be guarded at night against the encroachment of cattle, and the depredations of thieves and wild beasts. They keep awake by shouting aloud, singing in a dull monotone, or beating a drum. Given a drink of toddy, the Pulayans will work for any length of time. It is not uncommon to see them thrashed for slight offences. If a man is thrashed with a thanda garment, he is so much disgraced in the eyes of his fellow men, that he is not admitted into their society. Some improve their condition by becoming converts to Christianity. Others believe that the spirits of the departed would be displeased, if they became Christians.

The Thanda Pulayan community is divided into exogamous illams, and marriage between members of the same illam is forbidden. Their habitations are called matams, which are miserable huts, supported on wooden posts, sometimes in the middle of a paddy field, with walls of reeds, bamboo mats or mud, and thatched with grass or cocoanut leaves. A few earthen pots, bamboo vessels, and cocoanut shells constitute their property. They are denied admission to the markets, and must stand at a distance to make their purchases or sales.

Pulayan girls are married either before or after attaining puberty, but there is special ceremony, which is performed for every girl during her seventh or eighth year. This is called thanda kalyanam, or thanda marriage. It consists in having the girl dressed at an auspicious hour in the leafy garment by a woman, generally a relative, or, in her absence, by one selected for the purpose. The relations and friends are entertained at a feast of curry and rice, fish from the backwater, and toddy. Prior to this ceremony, the girl is destitute of clothing, except for a strip of areca bark.

At the marriage ceremony, the tali (marriage badge) is made of a piece of a conch shell (Turbinella rapa), which is tied on the bride's neck at an auspicious hour. She is taken before her landlord, who gives her some paddy, and all the cocoanuts on the tree, beneath which she happens to kneel. When the time has come for her to be taken to the hut of the bridegroom, one of her uncles, taking her by the hand, gives her into the charge of one of her husband's uncles. On the third morning, her paternal and maternal uncles visit her at the hut of the bridegroom, by whom they are entertained. They then return, with the bride and bridegroom, to the home of the former, where the newly-married couple stay for three days. To ascertain whether a marriage will be a happy one, a conch shell is spun round. If it falls to the north, it predicts good fortune; if to the east or west, the omens are favourable; if to the south, very unfavourable.

The Thanda Pulayans follow the makkathayam law of inheritance (from father to son). They have their tribal assemblies, the members of which meet together on important occasions, as when a woman is charged with adultery, or when there is a theft case among them. All the members are more or less of equal status, and no superior is recognised. They swear by the sun, raising their hands, and saying "By the sun I did not." Other oaths are "May my eyes perish" or "May my head be cut off by lightning."

Every kind of sickness is attributed to the influence of some demon, with whom a magician can communicate, and discover a means of liberation. The magician, when called in professionally, lights a fire, and seats himself beside it. He then sings, mutters some mantrams (prayers), and makes a discordant noise on his iron plate (kokkara). The man or woman, who is possessed by the demon, begins to make unconscious movements, and is made to speak the truth. The demon, receiving offerings of fowls, sheep, etc., sets him or her free. A form of ceremonial, called urasikotukkuka, is sometimes performed. At a place far distant from the hut, a leaf, on which the blood of a fowl has been made to fall, is spread on the ground. On a smaller leaf, chunam (lime) and turmeric are placed. The person who first sets eyes on these becomes possessed by the demon, and sets free the individual who was previously under its influence. In the event of sickness, the sorcerer is invited to the hut. He arrives in the evening, and is entertained with food, toddy, and betel. He then takes a tender cocoanut, flower of the areca palm, and some powdered rice, which he covers over with a palm leaf. The sick person is placed in front thereof, and a circle is drawn round him. Outside the circle, an iron stylus is stuck in the ground. The demon is supposed to be confined within the circle, and makes the patient cry out "I am in pai (influence of the ghost) and he is beating me," etc. With the promise of a fowl or sheep, or offerings thereof on the spot, the demon is persuaded to take its departure. Sometimes, when the sorcerer visits a house of sickness, a rice-pan containing three betel leaves, areca nuts, paddy, tulsi (Ocimum sanctum), sacred ashes, conch and cowry (Cypræa moneta) shells, is placed in the yard. The sorcerer sits in front of the pan, and begins to worship the demon, holding the shells in his hands, and turning to the four points of the compass. He then observes the omens, and, taking his iron plate, strikes it, while he chants the names of terrible demons, Mullva, Karinkali, Aiyinar, and Villi, and utters incantations. This is varied by dancing, to the music of the iron plate, sometimes from evening till noon on the following day. The sick person works himself up into the belief that he has committed some great sin, and proceeds to make confession, when a small money fine is inflicted, which is spent on toddy for those who are assembled. The Thanda Pulayans practice maranakriyas, or sacrifices to certain demons, to help them in bringing about the death of an enemy or other person. Sometimes affliction is supposed to be brought about by the enmity of those who have got incantations written on a palm leaf, and buried in the ground near a house by the side of a well. A sorcerer is called in to counteract the evil charm, which he digs up, and destroys.

When a member of the tribe has died an unnatural death, a man, with a fowl and sword in his hands, places another man in a pit which has been dug, and walks thrice round it with a torch. After an hour or two, the man is taken out of the pit, and goes to a distance, where certain ceremonies are performed.

The Thanda Pulayans worship the gods of Brahmanical temples at a distance of nearly a quarter of a mile. A stone is set up in the ground, on which they place tender cocoanuts and a few puttans (Cochin coins). A temple servant takes these to the priest, who sends in return some sandal paste, holy water, and flowers. They worship, as has been already hinted, demons, and also the spirits of their ancestors, by which small brass figures of males and females representing the pretas (ghosts) are supposed to be possessed. They worship, among others, Kandakarnan, Kodunkali, Bhairavan, and Arukola pretas, who are lodged in small huts, and represented by stones. In the month of May, they celebrate a festival, which lasts for several days. Chrysanthemum and thumba (apparently Leucas aspera) flowers are used in the performance of worship, and paddy, beaten rice, tender cocoanuts, toddy, etc., are offered up. There is a good deal of singing, drum-beating and devil-dancing by men and women, who on this occasion indulge liberally in toddy. The Pandavas, whom they call Anju Thamburakkal, are favourite deities. They devise various plans for warding off the evil influence of demons. Some, for example, wear rolls of palm leaf, with incantations written on them, round their necks. Others hang baskets in the rice fields, containing peace offerings to the gods, and pray for the protection of the crop. Wherever there is a dense forest, Matan and Kali are supposed to dwell, and are worshipped. From the end of November to April, which is the slack season, the Thanda Pulayans go about dancing from hut to hut, and collecting money to purchase fowls, etc., for offerings. Club-dancing is their favourite amusement, and is often indulged in at night by the light of a blazing fire. The dancers, club in hand, go round in concentric circles, keeping time to the songs which they sing, striking each other's clubs, now bending to ward off a blow on the legs, or rising to protect the head.

The dead are buried, and lighted torches are set up all round the grave, on to which the relations of the dead person throw three handfuls of rice. Near it, squares are made in rice flour, in each of which a leaf with rice flour and paddy, and a lighted torch or wick is placed. The chief mourner, who should be the son or nephew, carrying a pot of water, goes several times round the grave, and breaks the pot over the spot where the head rests. A few grains of rice are placed at the four corners of the grave, and a pebble is laid on it, with mantrams to keep off jackals, and to prevent the spirit from molesting people. Every morning the chief mourner goes to the grave, and makes offerings of boiled rice, gingelly (Sesamum indicum) seeds, and karuka grass. On the fourteenth day, he has an oil-bath, and, on the following day, the Pulayans of the village (kara) have a feast, with singing and beating of drums. On the sixteenth day, which is pulakuli or day of purification, the chief mourner makes offerings of rice balls, the guests are fed, and make a present of small coin to the songster who has entertained them. Similar offerings of rice balls are made to the spirit of the deceased person on the new-moon day in the month of Kartigam. During the period of pollution, the chief mourner has to cook his own food. The spirits of deceased ancestors are called Chavar (the dead), and are said to manifest themselves in dreams, especially to near relations, who speak in the morning of what they have seen during the night. They even say that they have held conversation with the deceased. The Rev. W. J. Richards informs us that he once saw "a little temple, about the size of a large rabbit-hutch, in which was a plank for the spirits of the deceased ancestors to come and rest upon. The spirits are supposed to fish in the backwaters, and the phosphorescence, sometimes seen on the surface of the water, is taken as an indication of their presence." [12]

The Thanda Pulayans will not eat with the Ulladans or Parayans, but stand at a distance of ninety feet from Brahmans and other high-caste people. They are short of stature and dark-skinned. Like the Cherumans, the women adorn their ears, necks, arms and fingers with masses of cheap jewellery.

Thappata (drum).--An exogamous sept of Odde.

Thathan (a Vaishnavite mendicant).--The equivalent of the Telugu Dasari.

Thatichettu (palmyra palm).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale and Odde.

Thavadadari.--The name of a section of the Valluvans (priests of the Paraiyans), who wear a necklace of tulsi beads (thavadam, necklace, dhari, wearer). The tulsi or basil (Ocimum sanctum) is a very sacred plant with Hindus, and bead necklaces or rosaries are made from its woody stem.

Thelu (scorpion).--Thelu and Thela are recorded as exogamous septs of Padma Sale and Madiga. The Canarese equivalent Chelu occurs as a sept of Kuruba.

Thenige Buvva.--A sub-division of Madigas, who offer food (buvva) to the god in a dish or tray (thenige) at marriages.

Thikka (simpleton).--A sub-division of Kuruba.

Thippa (rubbish heap).--An exogamous sept of Karna Sale.

Thogamalai Korava.--Recorded [13] as a synonym of a thief class in the southern districts of the Madras Presidency. In a recent note on the Koravas, Mr. F. Fawcett writes that "a fact to be noted is that people such as the members of the well-known Thogamalai gang, who are always called Koravas by the police, are not Koravas at all. They are simply a criminal community, into which outsiders are admitted, who give their women in marriage outside the caste, and who adopt children of other castes."

Thogaru (bitter).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma.

Thoka (tail).--An exogamous sept of Yerukala.

Thonda (Cephalendra indica).--An exogamous sept of Musu Kamma, and gotra of Janappans, members of which abstain from using the fruit or leaves of the thonda plant.

Thumma (babul: Acacia arabica).--An exogamous sept of Mala and Padma Sale. The bark, pods, and leaves of the babul tree are used by tanners in the preparation of hides and skins, or as a dye.

Thumu (iron measure for measuring grain).--An exogamous sept of Mutracha.

Thupa (ghi, clarified butter).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Thurpu (eastern).--A sub-division of Yerukala and Yanadi.

Thuta (hole).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Tigala.--Tigala is summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "a Canarese synonym for the Tamil Palli; applied also by the Canarese people to any Tamil Sudras of the lower castes." In parts of the Mysore country, the Tamil language is called Tigalu, and the Canarese Madhva Brahmans speak of Tamil Smarta Brahmans as Tigalaru.

Some of the Tigalas, who have settled in Mysore, have forgotten their mother-tongue, and speak only Canarese, while others, e.g., those who live round about Bangalore, still speak Tamil. In their type of cranium they occupy a position intermediate between the dolichocephalic Pallis and the sub-brachy cephalic Canarese classes.

The difference in the type of cranium of the Tigalas and Tamil Pallis is clearly brought by the following tabular statements of their cephalic indices:--

a. Tigala--

68 *
69
70
71 *
72 *****
73 ****
74 *
75 *
76 *****
77 ****
78 *****
79 ***
80 ***
81 ****
82 *
83
84 **

b. Palli--

64 *
65
66
67 **
68 *
69 *
70 *
71 ****
72 *****
73 *******
74 ****
75 ********
76 *
77 *
78 *
79 **
80 *

The Tigalas are kitchen and market gardeners, and cultivate the betel vine. They apparently have three divisions, called Ulli (garlic or onions), Ele (leaf), and Arava (Tamil). Among the Ulli Tigalas, several sub-divisions, and septs or budas named after deities or prominent members of the caste, exist, e.g.:--

I. Lakkamma--
Tota devaru (garden god).
Dodda devaru (big or chief god).
Dodda Narasayya.
Dodda Nanjappa.
II. Ellamma--
Narasayya.
Muddanna.
III. Sidde devaru.

The Tigalas have a headman, whose office is hereditary, and who is assisted by a caste servant called Mudre. Council meetings are usually held at a fixed spot, called goni mara katte or mudre goni mara katte, because those summoned by the Mudre assemble beneath a goni (Ficus mysorensis) tree, round which a stone platform is erected. The tree and platform being sacred, no one may go there on wearing shoes or sandals. The members of council sit on a woollen blanket spread before the tree.

Like the Pallis or Vanniyans, the Tigalas call themselves Agni Vanni, and claim to be descended from the fire-born hero Agni Banniraya. In connection with the Tigalas who have settled in the Bombay Presidency, it is noted [14] that "they are a branch of the Mysore Tigalas, who are Tamil Palli emigrants from the Madras Presidency, and, like the Palli, claim a Kshatriya origin." The Tigalas possess a manuscript, said to be a copy of a sasana at Conjeeveram (Kanchi), from which the following extracts are taken. "This is a Kanchi sasana published by Aswaththa Narayanswami, who was induced to do so by the god Varadaraja of Conjeeveram. This sasana is written to acquaint the descendants of the Mahapurusha Agni Banniraya with the origin, doings, and gotra of their ancestor Banniraya. This Banniraya sprang from fire, and so is much beloved by Vishnu the many-armed, the many-eyed, and the bearer of the chank and chakram, and who is no other than Narayana, the lord of all the worlds great and small, and the originator of the Vedas and Vedanta.... All those who see or worship this sasana relating to Agni Banniraya, who obtained boons from the Trimurthis, Devatas, and Rishis, and who is the ancestor of the Tigalas, will be prosperous, and have plenty of grain and children. Those who speak lightly of this caste will become subject to the curses of Banniraya, Trimurthis, Rishis, and Devas. The glory of this sasana is great, and is as follows:--The keeping and worshipping of this purana will enable the Tigalas of the Karnataka country to obtain the merit of surapadavi (the state of Devas), merit of doing puja to a thousand lingams, a lakh of cow gifts, and a hundred kannikadanams (gifts of virgins for marriage)." The sasana is said to have been brought to the Canarese country because of a quarrel between the Pallis and the Tigalas at the time of a Tigala marriage. The Tigalas were prevented from bringing the various biruthus (insignia), and displaying them. The sasana was brought by the Tigalas, at an expenditure of Rs. 215, which sum was subsequently recovered from the Pallis.

Tigala occurs further as the name of a sub-division of Holeya.

Tikke (gem).--A gotra of Kurni.

Ti (fire) Kollan.--A sub-division of Kollan.

Tinda (polluting).--A sub-division of Kanisan. Tinda Kuruppu, meaning a teacher who cannot approach, is a synonym of the Kavutiyan barber caste.

Tiperum (ti, fire).--A sub-division of Kollan blacksmiths.

Tiragati Gantlavallu (wandering bell hunters).--Stated, in the Manual of the Vizagapatam district, to repair hand-mills, catch antelopes, and sell the skins thereof. In hunting, they use lights and bells.

Tirlasetti (the name of a Balija Chetti).--An exogamous sept of Yanadi.