Chapter VII: Part 7

Some Pattanavans give themselves high-sounding caste titles, e.g., Ariyar, Ayyayiraththalaivar (the five thousand chiefs), Ariya Nattu Chetti (Chettis of the Ariyar country), Acchu Vellala, Karaiturai (sea-coast) Vellala, Varunakula Vellala or Varunakula Mudali after Varuna, the god of the waters, or Kurukula vamsam after Kuru, the ancestor of the Kauravas. Some Pattanavans have adopted the title Pillai.

The Pattanavans are said to be inferior to the Sembadavans, who will not accept food at their hands, and discard even an earthen pot which has been touched by a Pattanavan.

Concerning the origin of the caste, there is a legend that the Pattanavans were giving silk thread to Siva, and were hence called Pattanavar, a corruption of Pattanaivor, meaning knitters of silk thread. They were at the time all bachelors, and Siva suggested the following method of securing wives for them. They were told to go out fishing in the sea, and make of their catch as many heaps as there were bachelors. Each of them then stood before a heap, and called for a wife, who was created therefrom. According to another story, some five thousand years ago, during the age of the lunar race, there was one Dasa Raja, who was ruling near Hastinapura, and was childless. To secure offspring, he prayed to god, and did severe penance. In answer to his prayer, God pointed out a tank full of lotus flowers, and told the king to go thither, and call for children. Thereon, five thousand children issued forth from the flowers, to the eldest of whom the king bequeathed his kingdom, and to the others money in abundance. Those who received the money travelled southward in ships, which were wrecked, and they were cast ashore. This compelled them to make friends of local sea fishermen, whose profession they adopted. At the present day, the majority of Pattanavans are sea-fishermen, and catch fish with nets from catamarans. "Fancy," it has been written, [90] "a raft of only three logs of wood, tied together at each end when they go out to sea, and untied and left to dry on the beach when they come in again. Each catamaran has one, two or three men to manage it; they sit crouched on it upon their heels, throwing their paddles about very dexterously, but remarkably unlike rowing. In one of the early Indian voyager's log-books there is an entry concerning a catamaran: 'This morning, 6 A.M., saw distinctly two black devils playing at single stick. We watched these infernal imps about an hour, when they were lost in the distance. Surely this doth portend some great tempest.' It is very curious to watch these catamarans putting out to sea. They get through the fiercest surf, sometimes dancing at their ease on the top of the waters, sometimes hidden under the waters; sometimes the man completely washed off his catamaran, and man floating one way and catamaran another, till they seem to catch each other again by magic." In 1906, a fisherman was going out in his catamaran to fish outside the Madras harbour, and was washed off his craft, and dashed violently against a rock. Death was instantaneous. Of the catamaran, the following account is given by Colonel W. Campbell. [91] "Of all the extraordinary craft which the ingenuity of man has ever invented, a Madras catamaran is the most extraordinary, the most simple, and yet, in proper hands, the most efficient. It is merely three rough logs of wood, firmly lashed together with ropes formed from the inner bark of the cocoanut tree. Upon this one, two, or three men, according to the size of the catamaran, sit on their heels in a kneeling posture, and, defying wind and weather, make their way through the raging surf which beats upon the coast, and paddle out to sea at times when no other craft can venture to face it. At a little distance, the slight fabric on which these adventurous mariners float becomes invisible, and a fleet of them approaching the land presents the absurd appearance of a host of savage-looking natives wading out towards the ship, up to their middle in water." "A catamaran," Lady Dufferin writes, [92] in an account of a state arrival at Madras, "is two logs of wood lashed together, forming a very small and narrow raft. The rower wears a 'fool's cap,' in which he carries letters (also betel and tobacco), and, when he encounters a big wave, he leaves his boat, slips through the wave himself, and picks up his catamaran on the other side of it. Some very large deep barges (masula boats), the planks of which are sewn together to give elasticity, and the interstices stuffed with straw, came out for us, with a guard of honour of the mosquito fleet, as the catamarans are called, on either side of them; two of the fool's cap men, and a flag as big as the boat itself, on each one." The present day masula or mussoola boat, or surf boat of the Coromandel Coast, is of the same build as several centuries ago. It is recorded, [93] in 1673, that "I went ashore in a Mussoola, a boat wherein ten men paddle, the two aftermost of whom are the Steers-men, using their Paddles instead of a Rudder: The Boat is not strengthened with knee-timber, as ours are; the bended Planks are sowed together with Rope-yarn of the Cocoe, and calked with Dammar so artificially that it yields to every ambitious surf. Otherwise we could not get ashore, the Bar knocking in pieces all that are inflexible." The old records of Madras contain repeated references to Europeans being drowned from overturning of masula boats in the surf, through which a landing had to be effected before the harbour was built.

In 1907, two Madras fishermen were invested with silver wrist bangles, bearing a suitable inscription, which were awarded by the Government in recognition of their bravery in saving the lives of a number of boatmen during a squall in the harbour.

The following are the fishes, which are caught by the fishermen off Madras and eaten by Europeans:--

Cybium guttatum, Bl. Schn. Seir.
Cybium Commersonii, Lacep. Seir.
Cybium lanceolatum, Cuv. & Val. Seir.
Sillago sihama, Forsk. Whiting.
Stromateus cinereus, Bloch.--
Immature, silver pomfret.
Adult, grey pomfret.
Stromateus niger, Bloch. Black pomfret.
Mugal subviridis, Cuv. & Val. Mullet.
Psettodes erumei, Bl. Schn. 'Sole.'
Lates calcarifer, Bloch. Cock-up; the begti of Calcutta.
Lutjanus roseus, Day.
Lutjanus marginatus, Cuv. & Val.
Polynemus tetradactylus, Shaw.
Chorinemus lysan, Forsk.
'Whitebait.'

The Pattanavans are Saivites, but also worship various minor gods and Grama Devatas (village deities). In some places, they regard Kuttiyandavan as their special sea god. To him animal sacrifices are not made, but goats are sacrificed to Sembu Virappan or Minnodum Pillai, an attendant on Kuttiyandavan. In Tanjore, the names of the sea gods are Pavadairayan and Padaithalaidaivam. Before setting out on a fishing expedition, the Pattanavans salute the god, the sea, and the nets. In the Tanjore district, they repair their nets once in eight days, and, before they go out fishing, pray to their gods to favour them with a big catch. On a fixed day, they make offerings to the gods on their return from fishing. The gods Pavadairayan and Padaithalaidaivam are represented by large conical heaps of wet sand and mud, and Ayyanar, Ellamma, Kuttiyandavar, Muthyalrouthar and Kiliyendhi by smaller heaps. At the Masimakam festival, the Pattanavans worship their gods on the sea-shore. The names Jattan and Jatti are given to children during the Jatre or periodic festival of the village goddesses.

The Pattanavans afford a good example of a caste, in which the time-honoured village council (panchayat) is no empty, powerless body. For every settlement or village there are one or more headmen called Yejamanan, who are assisted by a Thandakaran and a Paraiyan Chalavathi. All these offices are hereditary. Questions connected with the community, such as disrespect to elders, breach of social etiquette, insult, abuse, assault, adultery, or drinking or eating with men of lower caste, are enquired into by the council. Even when disputes are settled in courts of law, they must come before the council. Within the community, the headman is all powerful, and his decision is, in most instances, considered final. If, however, his verdict is not regarded as equitable, the case is referred to a caste headman, who holds sway over a group of villages. No ceremony may be performed without the sanction of the local headman, and the details of ceremonies, except the feasting, are arranged by the headman and the Thandakaran. In the case of a proposed marriage, the match is broken off if the headman objects to it. He should be present at the funeral rites, and see that the details thereof are properly carried out. It is the duty of the Chalavathi to convey the news of a death to the relations. Should he come to the shore when the fishes are heaped up, he has the right to take a few thereof as his perquisite. The Thandakaran, among other duties, has to summon council meetings. When the members of council have assembled, he ushers in the parties who have to appear before it, and salutes the assembly by prostrating himself on the floor. The parties take a bit of straw, or other object, and place it before the headman in token that they are willing to abide by the decision of the council. This formality is called placing the agreement (muchchilika).

The consent of the maternal uncles is necessary before a pair can be united in matrimony. When the wedding day has been fixed, the bridegroom's party distribute grama thambulam (village pan-supari or betel) to the headman and villagers. The marriage milk-post is made of Mimusops hexandra, Erythrina indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, the green wood of some other tree, or even a pestle. In one form of the marriage ceremony, which varies in detail according to locality, the bridegroom, on the arrival of the bride at the pandal (booth), puts on the sacred thread, and the Brahman purohit makes the sacred fire, and pours ghi (clarified butter) into it. The bridegroom ties the tali round the bride's neck, and the maternal uncles tie flat silver or gold plates, called pattam, on the foreheads of the contracting couple. Rings are put on their second toes by the brother-in-law of the bridegroom and the maternal uncle of the bride. Towards evening, the sacred thread, the threads which have been tied to the marriage pots and the milk-post, and grain seedlings used at the ceremony, are thrown into the sea. Some Pattanavans allow a couple to live together as man and wife after the betrothal, but before the marriage ceremony. This is, however, on condition that the latter is performed as soon as it is convenient. The remarriage of widows is freely permitted. No marriage pandal is erected, and the bridegroom, or a female relation, ties the tali on the bride's neck within the house. Such marriage is, therefore, called naduvittu (interior of the house) tali. When a woman, who has been guilty of adultery, is remarried, a turmeric string is substituted for the golden tali, and is tied on the bride's neck by a woman.

Some Pattanavans have adopted the custom of burying their dead in a seated posture (samathi). If a corpse is cremated, fire is carried to the burning-ground by a barber. When the corpse has been laid on the pyre, rice is thrown over it. The son, accompanied by a barber and a Panisavan or washerman, and carrying a pot of water on his shoulder, goes thrice round the pyre. At the third round, the Panisavan or washerman makes holes in the pot, and it is thrown away. On the day of the funeral, all the agnates shave their heads. On the following day, they go to the burial or burning ground with tender cocoanuts, milk, cakes, etc., and Arichandra, who presides over the burial-ground, is worshipped. Milk is then poured over the grave, or the remains of the bones, which are thrown into the sea. On the night of the fifteenth day, Panisavans blow the conch and horn, and red cloths are presented to the widow of the deceased by her relations. At about 4 A.M., a white cloth is thrown on her neck, and the tali string is cut by an old woman. The tali is removed therefrom, and dropped into a new pot filled with water. Hence, a form of abuse among Pattanavan women is, May your tali be snapped, and thrown into water. The tali is removed from the pot, which is thrown into the sea. The tali is laid on a dish containing milk, and all those who visit the widow must set eyes on it before they see her.

In the city of Madras, the Pattanavans have the privilege of supplying bearers at temples, and the atmosphere surrounding them as they carry the idols on their sturdy shoulders through Triplicane is said to be "redolent of brine and the toddy shop."

In a judgment of the High Court of Judicature, Madras, it is recorded that, in the eighteenth century, some boat-owners and boatmen belonging to the Curukula Vamsha or Varunakula Mudali caste, who were residing at Chepauk in the city of Madras, had embraced Christianity, and worshipped in a chapel, which had been erected by voluntary contributions. In 1799 the site of their village was required for public purposes, and they obtained in lieu of it a grant of land at Royapuram, where a chapel was built. Partly by taxes levied on boatmen, and partly by tolls they were allowed to impose on persons for frequenting the Royapuram bazar, a fund was formed to provide for their spiritual wants, and this fund was administered by the Marine Board. In 1829, a portion of the fund was expended in the erection of the church of St. Peter, Royapuram, and the fund was transferred to Government. The administration of the fund has been the source of litigation in the High Court. [94]

It is noted by Mrs. F. E. Penny that some of the fisherfolk "adopted Xavier as their special patron saint, and, as time passed, almost deified him. In the present day, they appeal to him in times of danger, crying 'Xavier! Xavier! Xavier!' in storm and peril. Even if they are unfortunate in their catch when fishing, they turn to their saint for succour."

As a numismatist, I resent the practice resorted to by some fishermen of melting old lead coins, and converting them into sinkers for their nets.

Pattapu.--Pattapu for Tulivandlu is a name for Tamil Pattanavans, who have migrated to the Telugu country. Pattapu also occurs as a sub-division of Yerukala.

Pattar.--The Pattars are Tamil Brahmans, who have settled in Malabar. The name is said to be derived from the Sanskrit bhatta. It is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, that Pattar (teacher) has been recently assumed as a title by some Nokkans in Tanjore. (See Brahman.)

Pattariar.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a Tamil corruption of Pattu Saliyan (silk-weaver). Pattariar or Pattalia is a synonym of Tamil-speaking Saliyans.

Pattegara (headman).--An exogamous sept of Okkiliyan.

Pattindla (silk house).--An exogamous sept of Tota Balija.

Pattola Menon.--Recorded, in the Cochin Census Report, 1901, as a sub-caste of Nayars, who are accountants in aristocratic families.

Pattukuruppu.--Recorded in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as synonymous with Vatti, a sub-division of Nayar.

Pattu Sale.--A sub-division of Sales, who weave silk (pattu) fabrics.

Pattuvitan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Patvegara.--The Patvegaras or Pattegaras (pattu, silk) of South Canara are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [95] as "a Canarese caste of silk weavers. They are Hindus, and worship both Siva and Vishnu, but their special deity is Durga Paramesvari at Barkur. They wear the sacred thread, and employ Brahmans for ceremonial purposes. They are governed by a body called the ten men, and pay allegiance to the guru of the Ramachandra math (religious institution). They are divided into balis (septs) and a man may not marry within his own bali. Polygamy is allowed only when a wife is barren, or suffers from some incurable disease, such as leprosy. The girls are married in infancy, and the binding portion of the ceremony is called dhare (see Bant). Widow marriage is not permitted, and divorce is only allowed in the case of an adulterous wife. They follow the ordinary Hindu law of inheritance. The dead are cremated. The sradha (memorial) ceremony is in use, and the Mahalaya ceremony for the propitiation of ancestors in general is performed annually. Female ancestors are also worshipped every year at a ceremony called vaddap, when meals are given to married women. They eat fish but not meat, and the use of alcohol is not permitted."

In the Mysore Census Report, 1891, the Patvegars are described as "silk weavers who speak a corrupt Marathi conglomerate of Guzarati and Hindi. They worship all the Hindu deities, especially the female energy under the name of Sakti, to which a goat is sacrificed on the night of the Dasara festival, a Musalman slaughtering the animal. After the sacrifice, the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh. Many of their females are naturally fair and handsome, but lose their beauty from early marriage and precocity." A few Pattegaras, who speak a corrupt form of Marathi, are to be found in the Anantapur district.

Pavalamkatti (wearers of corals).--A sub-division of Konga Vellala.

Pavini.--See Vayani.

Payyampati.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Pedakanti.--Pedakanti or Pedaganti is the name of a sub-division of Kapu. It is said by some to be derived from a place called Pedagallu. By others it is derived from peda, turned aside, and kamma, eye, indicating one who turns his eyes away from a person who speaks to him. Yet another suggestion is that it means stiff-necked.

Pedda (big).--A sub-division of Boya, Bagata, Konda Dora, Pattapu, and Velama.

Peddammavandlu.--A fancy name taken by some Telugu beggars.

Pedditi.--A sub-division of Golla, some members of which earn a livelihood by begging and flattery.

Pegula (intestines).--An exogamous sept of Boya.

Pekkan.--A division of Toda.

Pendukal (women).--A name applied to Deva-dasis in Travancore.

Pengu.--A sub-division of Poroja.

Pennegara.--Konkani-speaking rice-beaters in South Canara.

Pentiya.--The Pentiyas also call themselves Holuva and Halaba or Halba. In the Madras Census Report, 1901, they are called Pantia as well as Pentiya, and described as Oriya betel-leaf (panno) sellers. Their occupation, in the Jeypore Agency tracts, is that of cultivators. According to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted for the following note, numbers of them migrated thither from Bustar, and settled at Pentikonna, and are hence called Pentikonaya or Pentiya. Their language is Halba, which is easily understood by those who speak Oriya. They are divided into two endogamous sections, called Bodo (big or genuine), and Sanno (little), of whom the latter are said to be illegitimate descendants of the former. The Bodos are further sub-divided into a series of septs, e.g., Kurum (tortoise), Bhag (tiger), Nag (cobra), and Surya (sun). The caste is highly organized, and the head of a local centre is called Bhatha Nayako. He is assisted by a Pradhani, an Umriya Nayako, and Dolayi. The caste messenger is called Cholano, and he carries a silver baton when he summons the castemen to a meeting. An elaborate ceremony is performed when a person, who has been tried by the caste council, is to be received back into the caste. He is accompanied to the bank of a stream, where his tongue is burnt with a gold or silver wire or ornament by the Bhatha Nayako, and some offerings from the Jagannatha temple at Puri are given to him. He is then taken home, and provides a feast, at which the Nayako has the privilege of eating first. He has further to make a present of cloths to the assembled elders, and the four heads of the caste receive a larger quantity than the others. The feast over, he is again taken, carrying some cooked rice, to the stream, and with it pushed therein. This ceremonial bath frees him from pollution.

Girls are married either before or after puberty. A man can claim his paternal aunt's daughter in marriage. The bridegroom's party proceed, with the bridegroom, to the bride's village, and take up their abode in a separate house. They then take three cloths for the bride's mother, three rupees for her father, and a cloth and two annas for each of her brothers, and present them together with rice, liquor, and other articles. Pandals (booths) are erected in front of the quarters of the bridal couple, that of the bridegroom being made of nine, and that of the bride of five sal (Shorea robusta) poles, to which a pot containing myrabolams (Terminalia fruits) and rice is tied. The couple bathe, and the bridegroom proceeds to the house of the bride. The Desari, who officiates, dons the sacred thread, and divides the pandal into two by means of a screen or curtain. The couple go seven times round the pandal, and the screen is removed. They then enter the pandal, and the Desari links their little fingers together. The day's ceremony concludes with a feast. On the following day, the bride is conducted to the house of the bridegroom, and they sprinkle each other with turmeric water. They then bathe in a stream or river. Another feast is held, with much drinking, and is followed by a wild dance. The remarriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of his elder brother. The dead are burnt, and death pollution is observed for ten days, during which the relatives of the deceased are fed by members of another sept. On the tenth day a caste feast takes place.

The Pentiyas are said [96] to distribute rice, and other things, to Brahmans, once a year on the new-moon day in the month of Bhadrapadam (September-October), and to worship a female deity named Kamilli on Saturdays. No one, I am informed, other, I presume, than a Pentiya, would take anything from a house where she is worshipped, lest the goddess should accompany him, and require him to become her devotee.

The caste title is Nayako.

Peraka (tile).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Perike.--This word is defined, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as meaning literally a gunny bag, and the Perikes are summed up as being a Telugu caste of gunny bag (goni) weavers, corresponding to the Janappans of the Tamil districts. Gunny bag is the popular and trading name of the coarse sacking and sacks made from the fibre of jute, much used in Indian trade. It is noted, in the Census Report, 1891, that "the Perikes claim to be a separate caste, but they seem to be in reality a sub-division, and not a very exalted sub-division, of Balijas, being in fact identical with the Uppu (salt) Balijas. Their hereditary occupation is carrying salt, grain, etc., on bullocks and donkeys in perikes or packs. Perike is found among the sub-divisions of both Kavarai and Balija. Some of them, however, have attained considerable wealth, and now claim to be Kshatriyas, saying that they are the descendants of the Kshatriyas who ran away (piriki, a coward) from the persecution of Parasurama. Others again say they are Kshatriyas who went into retirement, and made hills (giri) their abode (puri)." These Perike 'Kshatriyas' are known as Puragiri Kshatriya and Giri Razu. The Periki Balijas are described, in the Vizagapatam Manual, as chiefly carrying on cultivation and trade, and some of them are said to hold a high position at 'the Presidency' (Madras) and in the Vizagapatam district.

Perike women appear to have frequently committed sati (or suttee) on the death of their husbands in former days, and the names of those who thus sacrificed their lives are still held in reverence. A peculiar custom among the Perikes is the erection of big square structures (brindavanam), in which a tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is planted, on the spot where the ashes of the dead are buried after cremation. I am informed that a fine series of these structures may be seen at Chipurapalli, close to Vizianagram. As a mark of respect to the dead, passers-by usually place a lac bangle or flowers thereon. The usual titles of the Perikes are Anna and Ayya, but some style themselves Rao (= Raya, king) or Rayadu, in reference to their alleged Kshatriya origin.

For the following note on the Perikes of the Godavari district, I am indebted to Mr. F. R. Hemingway. "Like some of the Kammas, they claim to be of Kshatriya stock, and say they are of the lineage of Parasu Rama, but were driven out by him for kidnapping his sister, while pretending to be gunny-bag weavers. They say that they were brought to this country by king Nala of the Mahabharata, in gratitude for their having taken care of his wife Damayanti when he quitted her during his misfortunes. They support the begging caste of Varugu Bhattas, who, they say, supported them during their exile, and to whom they gave a sanad (deed of grant) authorising them to demand alms. These people go round the Perike houses for their dues every year. The Pisu Perikes, who still weave gunny-bags, are said not to belong to the caste proper, members of which style themselves Racha Perikes.

"The Perikes say that, like the Komatis, they have 101 gotras. Their marriage ceremonies are peculiar. On the day of the wedding, the bride and bridegroom are made to fast, as also are three male relatives, whom they call suribhaktas. At the marriage, the couple sit on a gunny-bag, and another gunny, on which a representation of the god Mailar is drawn or painted, is spread between them. The same god is drawn on two pots, and these, and also a third pot, are filled with rice and dhal (Cajanus indicus), which are cooked by two married women. The food is then offered to Mailar. Next, the three suribhaktas take 101 cotton threads, fasten them together, and tie seven knots in them. The bride and bridegroom are given cloths which have been partly immersed in water coloured with turmeric and chunam (lime), and the suribhaktas are fed with the rice and dhal cooked in the pots. The couple are then taken round the village in procession, and, on their return, the knotted cotton threads are tied round the bride's neck instead of a tali.

Some Perikes style themselves Sathu vandlu, meaning a company of merchants or travellers.

Perike Muggula is the name of a class of Telugu mendicants and exorcists.

Periya (big).--Periya or Periyanan has been recorded as a sub-division of Karalan, Kunnuvan, Occhan, and Pattanavan. The equivalent Peru or Perum occurs as a sub-division of the Malayalam Kollans and Vannans and Perim of Kanikars. Periya illom is the name of an exogamous illom of Kanikars in Travancore.

Perugadannaya (bandicoot rat sept).--An exogamous sept of Bant.

Perum Tali (big tali).--A sub-division of Idaiyan, and of Kaikolans, whose women wear a big tali (marriage badge).

Perumal.--Perumal is a synonym of Vishnu, and the name is taken by some Pallis who are staunch Vaishnavites. A class of mendicants, who travel about exhibiting performing bulls in the southern part of the Madras Presidency, is known as Perumal Madukkaran or Perumal Erudukkaran. Perumalathillom, meaning apparently big mountain house, is an exogamous sept or illom of the Kanikars of Travancore.

Pesala (seeds of Phaseolus Mungo: green gram).--An exogamous sept of Jogi.

Peta (street).--A sub-division of Balija.

Pettigeyavaru (box).--A sub-division of Gangadikara Vakkaliga.

Pichiga (sparrow).--An exogamous sept of Boya and Devanga. The equivalent Pital occurs as a sept of Mala.

Pichigunta.--The name Pichigunta means literally an assembly of beggars, who are described [97] as being, in the Telugu country, a class of mendicants, who are herbalists, and physic people for fever, stomach-ache, and other ailments. They beat the village drums, relate stories and legends, and supply the place of a Herald's Office, as they have a reputation for being learned in family histories, and manufacture pedigrees and gotras (house names) for Kapus, Kammas, Gollas, and others.

The Picchai or Pinchikuntar are described in the Salem Manual as "servants to the Kudianavars or cultivators--a name commonly assumed by Vellalas and Pallis. The story goes that a certain Vellala had a hundred and two children, of whom only one was a female. Of the males, one was lame, and his hundred brothers made a rule that one would provide him with one kolagam of grain and one fanam (a coin) each year. They got him married to a Telugu woman of a different caste, and the musicians who attended the ceremony were paid nothing, the brothers alleging that, as the bridegroom was a cripple, the musicians should officiate from charitable motives. The descendants of this married pair, having no caste of their own, became known as Picchi or Pinchikuntars (beggars, or lame). They are treated as kudipinnai (inferior) by Vellalas, and to the present day receive their prescribed miras (fee) from the Vellala descendants of the hundred brothers, to whom, on marriage and other festivals, they do service by relating the genealogies of such Vellalas as they are acquainted with. Some serve the Vellalas in the fields, and others live by begging." [97]

The caste beggars of the Tottiyans are known as Pichiga-vadu.

Pidakala (cow-dung cakes or bratties).--An exogamous sept of Devanga. Dried cow-dung cakes are largely used by natives as fuel, and may be seen stuck on to the walls of houses.

Pidaran.--A section of Ambalavasis, who, according to Mr. Logan [98] "drink liquor, exorcise devils, and are worshippers of Bhadrakali or of Sakti. The name is also applied to snake-catchers, and it was probably conferred on the caste owing to the snake being an emblem of the human passion embodied in the deities they worship."

Pilapalli.--The Pilapallis are a small caste or community in Travancore, concerning which Mr. S. Subramanya Aiyar writes as follows. [99] "The following sketch will show what trifling circumstances are sufficient in this land of Parasurama to call a new caste into existence. The word Pilapally is supposed to be a corruption of Belal Thalli, meaning forcibly ejected. It therefore contains, as though in a nutshell, the history of the origin of this little community, which it is used to designate. In the palmy days of the Chempakasseri Rajas, about the year 858 M.E., there lived at the court of the then ruling Prince at Ambalappuzha a Namburi Brahman who stood high in the Prince's favour, and who therefore became an eye-sore to all his fellow courtiers. The envy and hatred of the latter grew to such a degree that one day they put their heads together to devise a plan which should at once strip him of all influence at court, and humble him in the eyes of the public. The device hit upon was a strange one, and characteristic of that dim and distant past. The Namburi was the custodian of all presents made to the Prince, and as such it was a part of his daily work to arrange the articles presented in their proper places. It was arranged that one day a dead fish, beautifully tied up and covered, should be placed among the presents laid before the Prince. The victim of the plot, little suspecting there was treachery in the air, removed all the presents as usual with his own hand. His enemies at court, who were but waiting for an opportunity of humbling him to the dust, thereupon caused the bundle to be examined before the Prince, when it became evident that it contained a dead fish. Now, for a Namburi to handle a dead fish was, according to custom, sufficient to make him lose caste. On the strength of this argument, the Prince, who was himself a Brahmin, was easily prevailed upon to put the Namburi out of the pale of caste, and the court favourite was immediately excommunicated. There is another and a slightly different version of the story, according to which the Namburi in question was the hereditary priest of the royal house, to whom fell the duty of removing and preserving the gifts. In course of time he grew so arrogant that the Prince himself wanted to get rid of him, but, the office of the priest being hereditary, he did not find an easy way of accomplishing his cherished object, and, after long deliberation with those at court in whom he could confide, came at last to the solution narrated above. It is this forcible ejection that the expression Belal Thalli (afterwards changed into Pilapally) is said to import.... It appears that the unfortunate Namburi had two wives, both of whom elected to share his fate. Accordingly, the family repaired to Paravur, a village near Kallarkode, where their royal patron made them a gift of land. Although they quitted Ambalapuzha for good, they seem to have long owned there a madathummuri (a room in a series, in which Brahmins from abroad once lived and traded), and are said to be still entitled daily to a measure of palpayasom from the temple, a sweet pudding of milk, rice and sugar, celebrated all over Malabar for its excellence. The progeny of the family now count in all about ninety members, who live in eight or nine different houses."

Pillai.--Pillai, meaning child, is in the Tamil country primarily the title of Vellalas, but has, at recent times of census, been returned as the title of a number of classes, which include Agamudaiyan, Ambalakaran, Golla, Idaiyan, Nayar, Nokkan, Panisavan, Panikkan, Paraiyan, Saiyakkaran, Sembadavan and Senaikkudaiyans. Pilla is further used as the title of the male offspring of Deva-dasis. Many Paraiyan butlers of Europeans have assumed the title Pillai as an honorific suffix to their name. So, too, have some criminal Koravas, who pose as Vellalas.

Pillaikuttam.--Recorded, in the Manual of the North Arcot district, as a bastard branch of Vaniyan.

Pillaiyarpatti (Ganesa village).--An exogamous section or kovil of Nattukottai Chetti.

Pilli (cat).--An exogamous sept of Chembadi, Mala, and Medara.

Pindari.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, fifty-nine Pindaris are returned as a Bombay caste of personal servants. They are more numerous in the Mysore province, where more than two thousand were returned in the same year as being engaged in agriculture and Government service. The Pindaris were formerly celebrated as a notorious class of freebooters, who, in the seventeenth century, attached themselves to the Marathas in their revolt against Aurangzib, and for a long time afterwards, committed raids in all directions, extending their operations to Southern India. It is on record that "in a raid made upon the coast extending from Masulipatam northward, the Pindaris in ten days plundered 339 villages, burning many, killing and wounding 682 persons, torturing 3,600, and carrying off or destroying property to the amount of £250,000." [100] They were finally suppressed, in Central India, during the Viceroyalty of the Marquis of Hastings, in 1817.

Pindi (flour).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Pinjari (cotton-cleaner).--A synonym for Dudekula. Pinjala (cotton) occurs as an exogamous sept of Devanga.

Pippala (pepper: Piper longum).--An exogamous sept or gotra of Gamalla and Komati.

Pisharati.--The Pisharatis or Pisharodis are summed up in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being a sub-caste of Ambalavasis, which makes flower garlands, and does menial service in the temples. As regards their origin, the legend runs to the effect that a Swamiyar, or Brahman ascetic, once had a disciple of the same caste, who wished to become a Sanyasi or anchorite. All the ceremonies prior to shaving the head of the novice were completed, when, alarmed at the prospect of a cheerless life and the severe austerities incidental thereto, he made himself scarce. Pishara denotes a Sanyasi's pupil, and as he, after running away, was called Pisharodi, the children born to him of a Parasava woman by a subsequent marriage were called Pisharatis. In his 'Early Sovereigns of Travancore,' Mr. Sundaram Pillay says that the Pisharati's "puzzling position among the Malabar castes, half monk and half layman, is far from being accounted for by the silly and fanciful modern derivation of Pisharakal plus Odi, Pisharakal being more mysterious than Pisharati itself." It is suggested by him that Pisharati is a corruption of Bhattaraka-tiruvadi. According to the Jati-nirnaya, the Bhattarakas are a community degraded from the Brahmans during the Treta Yuga. As far as we are able to gather from mediæval Travancore inscriptions, an officer known as Pidara-tiruvadi was attached to every temple. It is known that he used to receive large perquisites for temple service, and that extensive rice-lands were given to the Bhattakara of Nelliyur. It is noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "the traditional etymology of the name Pisharodi refers it to a Sanyasi novice, who, deterred by the prospects of the hardship of life on which he was about to enter, ran away (odi) at the last moment, after he had been divested of the punul (thread), but before he had performed the final ceremony of plunging thrice in a tank (pond), and of plucking out, one at each plunge, the last three hairs of his kudumi (the rest of which had been shaved off). But the termination 'Odi' is found in other caste titles such as Adiyodi and Vallodi, and the definition is obviously fanciful, while it does not explain the meaning of Pishar."

The houses of Pisharatis are called pisharam. Their primary occupation is to prepare garlands of flowers for Vaishnava temples, but they frequently undertake the talikazhakam or sweeping service in temples. Being learned men, and good Sanskrit scholars, they are employed as Sanskrit and Malayalam tutors in the families of those of high rank, and, in consequence, make free use of the title Asan. They are strict Vaishnavites, and the ashtakshara, or eight letters relating to Vishnu, as opposed to the panchakshara or five letters relating to Siva, forms their daily hymn of prayer. They act as their own caste priests, but for the punyaha or purificatory ceremony and the initiation into the ashtakshara, which are necessary on special occasions, the services of Brahmans are engaged.

The Pisharatis celebrate the tali-kettu ceremony before the girl reaches puberty. The most important item therein is the joining of the hands of the bride and bridegroom. The planting of a jasmine shoot is observed as an indispensable preliminary rite. The events between this and the joining of hands are the same as with other Ambalavasis. The bride and bridegroom bathe, and wear clothes touched by each other. The girl's mother then gives her a wedding garland and a mirror, with which she sits, her face covered with a cloth. The cherutali, or marriage ornament, is tied by the bridegroom round the girl's neck. If this husband dies, the tali has to be removed, and the widow observes pollution. Her sons have to make oblations of cooked rice, and, for all social and religious purposes, the woman is regarded as a widow, though she is not debarred from contracting a sambandham (alliance) with a man of her own caste, or a Brahman. If the wife dies, the husband has, in like manner, to observe pollution, and make oblations of cooked rice. There are cases in which the tali-kettu is performed by a Pisharati, and sambandham contracted with a Brahman. If the tali-tier becomes the husband, no separate cloth-giving ceremony need be gone through by him after the girl has reached puberty.

Inheritance is in the female line, so much so that a wife and children are not entitled to compensation for the performance of a man's funeral rites.

No particular month is fixed for the name-giving rite, as it suffices if this is performed before the annaprasana ceremony. The maternal uncle first names the child. When it is four or six months old, it is taken out to see the sun. On the occasion of the annaprasana, which usually takes place in the sixth month, the maternal uncle gives the first mouthful of cooked rice to the child by means of a golden ring. The Yatrakali serves as the night's entertainment for the assembled guests. Nambutiris are invited to perform the purificatory ceremony known as punyaha, but the consecrated water is only sprinkled over the roof of the house. The inmates thereof protrude their heads beneath the eaves so as to get purified, as the Brahmans do not pour the water over them. The chaula or tonsure takes place at the third year of a child's life. The maternal uncle first touches the boy's head with a razor, and afterwards the Maran and barber do the same. The initiation into the ashtakshara takes place at the age of sixteen. On an auspicious day, a Brahman brings a pot of water, consecrated in a temple, to the pisharam, and pours its contents on the head of the lad who is to be initiated. The ceremony is called kalasam-ozhuk-kua, or letting a pot of water flow. After the teaching of the ashtakshara, the youth, dressed in religious garb, makes a ceremonial pretence of proceeding on a pilgrimage to Benares, as a Brahman does at the termination of the Brahmacharya stage of life. It is only after this that a Pisharati is allowed to chew betel leaf, and perform other acts, which constitute the privileges of a Grihastha.

The funeral rites of the Pisharatis are very peculiar. The corpse is seated on the ground, and a nephew recites the ashtakshara, and prostrates himself before it. The body is bathed, and dressed. A grave, nine feet deep and three feet square, is dug in a corner of the grounds, and salt and ashes, representing all the Panchabhutas, are spread. The corpse is placed in the grave in a sitting posture. As in the case of a Sanyasi, who is a Jivanmukta, or one liberated from the bondage of the flesh though alive in body, so a dead Pisharati is believed to have no suitable body requiring to be entertained with any post-mortem offerings. A few memorial rites are, however, performed. On the eleventh day, a ceremony corresponding to the ekoddishta sradh of the Brahman is carried out. A knotted piece of kusa grass, representing the soul of the deceased, is taken to a neighbouring temple, where a lighted lamp, symbolical of Maha Vishnu is worshipped, and prayers are offered. This ceremony is repeated at the end of the first year. [101]

Some Pisharatis are large land-owners of considerable wealth and influence. [102]

Pisu Perike.--Perikes who weave gunny-bags.

Pitakalu (dais, on which a priest sits).--An exogamous sept of Odde.

Pittalavadu.--A Telugu name for Kuruvikkarans.

Podapotula.--A class of mendicants, who beg from Gollas.

Podara Vannan.--The Podara, Podarayan or Pothora Vannans are washermen of inferior social status, who wash clothes for Pallans, Paraiyans, and other low classes.

Podhano.--Recorded, at times of census, as a title of Bolasi, Gaudo, Kalingi, Kudumo, and Samantiya. The Samantiyas also frequently give it as the name of their caste.

Poduval.--Defined by Mr. Wigram [103] as one of the Ambalavasi castes, the members of which are as a rule employed as temple watchmen. Writing concerning the Mussads or Muttatus, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar states that they are known as Muttatus or Mussatus in Travancore and Cochin, and Potuvals (or Poduvals) or Akapotuvals in North Malabar. Potuval means a common person, i.e., the representative of a committee, and a Muttatu's right to this name accrues from the fact that, in the absence of the Nambutiri managers of a temple, he becomes their agent, and is invested with authority to exercise all their functions. The work of an Akapotuval always lies within the inner wall of the shrine, while that of the Purappotuval, or Potuval proper, lies outside. From Travancore, Poduvan or Potuvan is recorded as a synonym or sub-division of Marans, who are employed at funerals by various castes.

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "Pura Pothuvals are of two classes, Chenda Pothuvals or drum Pothuvals, and Mala Pothuvals or garland Pothuvals, the names of course referring to the nature of the service which they have to render in the temple. The Chenda Pothuvals would appear to be closely connected with the Marars or Marayars, who are also drummers. Mala Pothuvals follow marumakkattayam (inheritance in the female line), their women having sambandham (alliance) with men of their own caste or with Brahmans, while the men can have sambandham in their own caste, or with Nayar women of any of the sub-divisions below Kiriyattil. Their women are called Pothuvarassiar or Pothuvattimar." It is further recorded [104] that, in some cases, for instance among Mala Pothuvals and Marars in South Malabar, a fictitious consummation is an incident of the tali-kettu ; the girl and manavalan (bridegroom) being made to lie on a bed together, and left there alone for a few moments. Amongst the Mala Pothuvals this is done twice, once on the first and once on the last day, and they apparently also spend the three nights of the ceremony in the same bed-chamber, but not alone, an Enangatti sleeping there as chaperone. In these two castes, as in most if not all others, the ceremony also entails the pollution of the girl and her bridegroom. Amongst the Marars, they are purified by a Nambudiri after they leave their quasi-nuptial couch. Amongst the Mala Pothuvals, they are not allowed to bathe or to touch others during the wedding till the fourth day, when they are given mattu (change of cloths) by the Veluttedan."

Podala occurs as a Canarese form of Poduval.

Pogandan.--A synonym of Pondan.

Pokanati.--Pokanati or Pakanati is a sub-division of Kapu.

Poladava.--A synonym of Gatti.

Poligar (feudal chief).--A synonym of Palayakkaran. According to Yule and Burnell, [105] the Poligars "were properly subordinate feudal chiefs, occupying tracts more or less wild, and generally of predatory habits in former days. They are now much the same as Zemindars (land-owners) in the highest use of that term. The Southern Poligars gave much trouble about a hundred years ago, and the 'Poligar wars' were somewhat serious affairs. In various assaults on Panjalamkurichi, one of their forts in Tinnevelly, between 1799 and 1801, there fell fifteen British officers." The name Poligar was further used for the predatory classes, which served under the chiefs. Thus, in Munro's 'Narrative of Military Operations' (1780-84), it is stated that "the matchlock men are generally accompanied by Poligars, a set of fellows that are almost savages, and make use of no other weapon than a pointed bamboo spear, 18 or 20 feet long."

The name Poligar is given to a South Indian breed of greyhound-like dogs in the Tinnevelly district.

Pombada.--A small class of Canarese devil-dancers, who are said, [106] in South Canara, to resemble the Nalkes, but hold a somewhat higher position, and in devil-dances to represent a better class of demons. Unlike the Nalkes and Paravas, they follow the aliya santana system of inheritance. They speak Tulu, and, in their customs, follow those of the Billavas. There are two sections among the Pombadas, viz., Bailu, who are mainly cultivators, and Padarti, who are chiefly engaged in devil-dancing. The Pombadas are not, like the Nalkes and Paravas, a polluting class, and are socially a little inferior to the Billavas. They do not wear the disguises of the bhuthas (devils) Nicha, Varte, and Kamberlu, who are considered low, but wear those of Jumadi, Panjurli, Jarandaya, Mahisandeya, and Kodamanithaya. Ullaya or Dharmadevata is regarded as a superior bhutha, and the special bhutha of the Pombadas, who do not allow Nalkes or Paravas to assume his disguise. During the Jumadi Kola (festival), the Pombada who represents the bhutha Jumadi is seated on a cart, and dragged in procession through the streets. (See Nalke.)

Pon Chetti (gold merchant).--A synonym of Malayalam Kammalan goldsmiths.

Pon (gold) Illam.--A section of Mukkuvans.

Pondan.--"There are," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [107] "only twenty-eight persons of this caste in Malabar, and they are all in Calicut. These are the palanquin-bearers of the Zamorin. They are in dress, manners, customs, and language entirely Tamilians, and, while the Zamorin is polluted by the touch of any ordinary Tamilian, these Pondans enjoy the privilege of bearing him in a palanquin to and from the temple every day. Now there is a sub-division of the Tamil Idaiyans by name Pogondan, and I understand that these Pogondans are the palanquin-bearers of the Idaiyan caste. It seems probable that the founder, or some early member of the Zamorin, obtained palanquin-bearers of his own (cowherd) caste and granted them privileges which no other Tamilians now enjoy."

Pondra.--Pondra, or Ponara, is a sub-division of Mali.

Ponganadu.--Ponganadu and Ponguvan have been recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Kapu. A corrupt form of Pakanati.

Ponnambalaththar.--A class of mendicants, who have attached themselves to the Kaikolans.

Ponnara.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Poruvannurkaran.--A class of carpenters in Malabar.

Poroja.--The Porojas or Parjas are hill cultivators found in the Agency tracts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. Concerning them, it is noted, in the Madras Census Report, 1871, that "there are held to be seven classes of these Parjas, which differ from each other in points of language, customs, and traditions. The term Parja is, as Mr. Carmichael has pointed out, merely a corruption of a Sanskrit term signifying a subject, and it is understood as such by the people themselves, who use it in contradistinction to a free hill-man. 'Formerly,' says a tradition that runs through the whole tribe, 'Rajas and Parjas were brothers, but the Rajas took to riding horses (or, as the Barenja Parjas put it, sitting still) and we became carriers of burdens and Parjas.' It is quite certain, in fact, that the term Parja is not a tribal denomination, but a class denomination, and it may be fitly rendered by the familiar epithet of ryot (cultivator). I have laid stress on this, because all native officials, and every one that has written about the country (with the above exception), always talk of the term Parja as if it signified a caste. There is no doubt, however, that by far the greater number of these Parjas are akin to the Khonds of the Ganjam Maliahs. They are thrifty, hard-working cultivators, undisturbed by the intestine broils which their cousins in the north engage in, and they bear in their breasts an inalienable reverence for their soil, the value of which they are rapidly becoming acquainted with. The Parja bhumi (land) is contained almost entirely in the upper level. Parts to the south held under Pachipenta and Madugulu (Madgole) are not Parja bhumi, nor, indeed, are some villages to the north in the possession of the Khonds. Their ancient rights to these lands are acknowledged by colonists from among the Aryans, and, when a dispute arises concerning the boundaries of a field possessed by recent arrivals, a Parja is usually called in to point out the ancient land-marks."

The name Poroja seems to be derived from the Oriya, Po, son, and Raja, i.e., sons of Rajas. There is a tradition that, at the time when the Rajas of Jeypore rose into prominence at Nandapur, the country was occupied by a number of tribes, who, in return for the protection promised to them, surrendered their rights to the soil, which they had hitherto occupied absolutely. I am informed that the Porojas, when asked what their caste is, use ryot and Poroja as synonymous, saying we are Porojas; we are ryot people.

The Parji language is stated by Mr. G. A. Grierson [108] to have "hitherto been considered as identical with Bhatri. Bhatri has now become a form of Oriya. Parji, on the other hand, is still a dialect of Gondi." The Bhatras are a tribe inhabiting the state of Bastar in the Central Provinces.

The Porojas are not a compact caste, but rather a conglomerate, made up of several endogamous sections, and speaking a language, which varies according to locality. These sections, according to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao, to whom I am indebted for much of the present note, are--

(1) Barang Jhodia, who eat beef and speak Oriya.

(2) Pengu Poroja, subdivided into those who eat the flesh of the buffalo, and those who do not. They speak a language, which is said to bear a close resemblance to Kondhs.

(3) Khondi or Kondi Poroja, who are a section of the Kondhs, eat beef and the flesh of buffaloes, and speak Kodu or Kondh.

(4) Parengi Poroja, who are a section of the Gadabas. They are subdivided into those who eat and do not eat the flesh of buffaloes, and speak a Gadaba dialect.

(5) Bonda, Bunda, or Nanga Poroja, who are likewise a section of the Gadabas, call themselves Bonda Gadaba, and speak a dialect of Gadaba.

(6) Tagara Poroja, who are a section of the Koyas or Koyis, and speak Koya, or, in some places, Telugu.

(7) Dur Poroja, also, it is said, known as Didayi Poroja, who speak Oriya.

Among the Barang Jhodias, the gidda (vulture), bagh (tiger), and nag (cobra) are regarded as totems. Among the Pengu, Kondhi and Dur divisions, the two last are apparently regarded as such, and, in addition to them, the Bonda Porojas have mandi (cow).

In the Barang Jhodia, Pengu, and Kondhi divisions, it is customary for a man to marry his paternal aunt's daughter, but he cannot claim her as a matter of right, for the principle of free love is recognised among them. The dhangada and dhangadi basa system, according to which bachelors and unmarried girls sleep in separate quarters in a village, is in force among the Porojas.