Chapter XIV: Part 14

When a girl reaches puberty, she occupies a separate hut for five days, and then returns home after a bath. The maternal uncle should present her with a new cloth, betel leaves and areca nuts, and plantain fruits. In the formal marriage ceremony, the tali is tied by the bridegroom inside a booth; the maternal uncle, if he can afford it, presents a new cloth to the bride, and a feast is held. Sometimes even this simple rite is dispensed with, and the couple, without any formality, live together as man and wife, on the understanding that, at some time, a feast must be given to a few of the community. I am told that the Sholagas of the Burghur hills have a very extraordinary way of treating expectant mothers. A few days before the event is expected to take place, the husband takes his wife right away into the jungle, and leaves her there alone with three days' supply of food. There she has to stay, and do the best she can for herself. If she does not come back at the end of the three days, the husband goes out and takes her more food. But she may not return to her village till the baby is born. When one of these unfortunate creatures comes back safely, there is a great celebration in her honour, with beating of tom-tom, etc.

The dead are buried with the body lying on its left side, and the head to the south. On their return home from a funeral, those who have been present thereat salute a lighted lamp. On the spot where the dead person breathed his last, a little ragi (Eleusine Coracana) paste and water are placed, and here, on the fourth day, a goat is sacrificed, and offered up to the soul of the departed. After this the son proceeds to the burial ground, carrying a stone, and followed by men selected from each of the exogamous septs. Arrived near the grave, they sit down, while the son places the stone on the ground, and they then lift it in succession. The last man to do so is said to fall into a trance. On his recovery, leaves (plantain, teak, etc.) corresponding in number to the exogamous septs, are arranged round the stone, and, on each leaf, different kinds of food are placed. The men partake of the food, each from the leaf allotted to his sept. The meal concluded, the son holds the stone in his hands, while his companions pour ragi and water over it, and then carries it away to the gopamane (burial-ground) of his sept, and sets it up there.

On the occasion of a death in a Mala Vellala village, the Sholagas come in crowds, with clarionets and drums, and bells on their legs, and dance in front of the house. And the corpse is borne, in musical procession, to the burning-ground.

The staple food of the Sholagas is ragi paste and yams (Dioscorea), which, like the Uralis, they supplement by sundry jungle animals and birds. Paroquets they will not eat, as they regard them as their children.

Their main occupation is to collect minor forest produce, myrabolams, vembadam bark (Ventilago madraspatana), avaram bark (Cassia auriculata), deers' horns, tamarinds, gum, honey, soap-nuts, sheekoy (Acacia Concinna),etc. The forests have been divided into blocks, and a certain place within each block has been selected for the forest depôt. To this place the collecting agents, mostly Sholagas and Uralis, bring the produce, and there it is sorted and paid for by special supervisors appointed for the work.

In the Coimbatore district the Sholagas are said to collect honey from rocky crevices. The combs are much larger than those found on trees, and are supposed to contain twice as much wax in proportion to the honey. On the Nilgiri hills honey-combs are collected by Jen Kurumbas and Sholagas. The supply of honey varies according to the nature of the season, and is especially plentiful and of good quality when Strobilanthes Wightianus, S. Kunthiana, and other species are in flower.

It has been said that even wild beasts will scent a Sholaga, and flee before the aroma.

The Sholagas, who were examined by Dr. Rivers and myself, came to the conclusion that the object of our enquiry was to settle them in a certain place near London, and that the wools of different colours (used for testing colour vision) given to them for selection, were for tying them captive with. Others said that they could not understand why the different organs of their bodies were measured; perhaps to reduce or increase the size of their body to suit the different works, which they were expected to do near London. It has been pointed out to me, as an interesting fact, that a similarity of idea concerning the modification of different organs to suit men for the doing of special work has been arrived at by the jungle folk, and by Mr. Wells in his book, 'The first men in the moon,' where the lunar inhabitants are described as carrying on the practice.

Of the experiences of a Sholaga when out with a European on a shooting expedition, the following account has recently been given. [178] "My husband was after a bear, and tracked Bruin to his cave. He had torches made, and these he ordered to be thrust into the cave in the hope of smoking the bear out, but, as nothing happened, he went into the cave, accompanied by a Sholigar carrying a torch. As soon as they got used to the light, they saw a small aperture leading into an inner cave, and the Sholigar was told to put the torch in there. Hardly was this done, when out rushed a large bear, knocking over the Sholigar, and extinguishing the torch. My husband could not get his gun up in time to fire, as the bear rushed through the cave into the jungle. Just as the Sholigar was picking himself up, out rushed another bear. This time my husband was ready, and fired. To the Sholigar's horror, Bruin sank down wounded at the entrance to the outer cave, thus blocking the exit, and keeping both tracker and my husband prisoners. The Sholigar began whimpering, saying he was the father of a large family, and did not wish to leave the children fatherless. Soon the bear, though very badly wounded, managed to get to its feet, and crawl away into the jungle, so liberating the prisoners."

Concerning the Sholagas of the Mysore Province, [179] I gather that they "inhabit the depths of the forests clothing the foot and slopes of the Biligirirangam hills. They cultivate with the hoe small patches of jungle clearings. Their chief god is Biligiri Rangasvami, but they also worship Karaiyya, their tribal tutelary deity. Their principal food is the ragi, which they grow, supplemented by wild forest produce. They are partial to the flesh of deer, antelope, pigs, sheep and goats. A few of them have, in recent years, come to own lands. Like the Jenu Kurumbas, they are perfect trackers of wild animals. Three kinds of marriage prevail among them. The first is affected by the more well-to-do, who perform the ceremony with much éclat under a shed with twelve pillars (bamboo posts), accompanied by music and festivities, which continue for three days. The second is more common, and seems to be a modified form of concubinage. The poorer members resort to the third kind, which consists in the couple eloping to a distant jungle, and returning home only after the bride has become a mother. They speak a patois, allied to old Canarese or Hale Kannada." [180]

Shola Naiker.--A synonym of Jen Kurumbas in the Wynad.

Sibbi Dhompti (brass vessel offering).--A subdivision of Madigas, who, at marriages, offer food to the god in brass vessels.

Siddaru.--A synonym of Jogi mendicants.

Sika (kudumi or hair-knot).--An exogamous sept of Devanga.

Sikili (broom).--An exogamous sept of Madiga.

Sikligar.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, eleven individuals are returned as belonging to an Upper India caste of knife-grinders (Sikligar). In the Madura Manual, Sikilkarars are described as knife-grinders, who wander about in quest of work from village to village.

Sila (stone).--An exogamous sept of Omanaito.

Silam (good conduct).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Silavant.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, Silavant is recorded as meaning the virtuous, and as being a sub-sect of Lingayats. In the Mysore Census Report, Silavanta is given as a name for Lingayat Nayindas. For the following note on the Silavantalu or Silevantalu of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao.

They are a sect of Lingayats, who, though they do not admit it, appear to be an offshoot of Pattu Sales, who became converts to the Lingayat religion. They are engaged in the manufacture of fine cloths for males and females. The religious observances which secured them their name, meaning those who practice or possess particular religious customs, have been thus described. In the seventh month of pregnancy, at the time of quickening, a small stone linga is enclosed in black lac, wrapped in a piece of silk cloth, and tied to the thread of the linga which is on the woman's neck. The child is thus invested with the linga while still in utero. When it is about a year old, and weaned, the linga is taken off the mother's neck, and replaced by a silver locket. The linga is tied on the neck of the child. At the beginning of the twelfth year in the case of boys, and just before the marriage of girls, this linga is taken off, and a fresh one suspended round the neck by a guru.

The Silavantalu are divided into exogamous septs, or intiperulu. The custom of menarikam, whereby a man marries his maternal uncle's daughter, is the rule. But, if the maternal uncle has no daughter, he must find a suitable bride for his nephew. Girls are married before puberty, and a Jangam, known as Mahesvara, officiates at weddings.

The dead are buried in a sitting posture, facing north. The linga is suspended round the neck of the corpse, and buried with it. Six small copper plates are made, each containing a syllable of the invocation Om na ma Si va ya. Two of these are placed on the thighs of the corpse, one on the head, one on the navel, and two on the shoulders, and stuck on with guggilam paste. The corpse is then tied up in a sack. The relatives offer flowers to it, and burn camphor before it. The grave is dug several feet deep, and a cavity or cell is made on the southern side of it, and lined with bamboo matting. The corpse is placed within the cell, and salt thrown into the grave before it is filled in. A Jangam officiates at the funeral. Monthly and annual death ceremonies are performed. A samathi or monument is erected over the grave. Such a monument may be either in the form of a square mound (brindavan) with niches for lights and a hole in the top, in which a tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) is planted, or in the form of a small chamber. Relations go occasionally to the grave, whereon they deposit flowers, and place lights in the niches or chamber.

The Silavantalu are strict vegetarians and total abstainers. Their titles are Ayya and Lingam.

Silpa (artisan).--A sub-division of the Kammalans, Panchalas or Kamsalas, whose hereditary occupation is that of stone-masons. In the Silpa Sastra, the measurements necessary in sculpture, the duties of a Silpi, etc., are laid down. I am informed that the carver of a stone idol has to select a male or female stone, according as the idol is to be a god or goddess, and that the sex of a stone can be determined by its ring when struck.

Sindhu.--The Sindhuvallu (drummers) are Madigas, who go about acting scenes from the Ramayana or Mahabharatha, and the story of Ankamma. Sindhu also occurs as a gotra of Kurni. The beating of the drum called sindhu is, I gather, sometimes a nuisance, for a missionary writes to the paper enquiring whether there is any order of Government against it, as the practice "causes much crime, and creates extra work for police and magistrates. Village officials believe they have no authority to suppress it, but there are some who assert that it is nominally forbidden."

Singamu-varu.--Singam is described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a class of beggars, who beg only from Sales. They are, however, described by Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao as a class of itinerant mendicants attached to the Devangas. "The name," he writes, "is a variant of Simhamu-varu, or lion-men, i.e., as valourous as a lion. They are paid a small sum annually by each Devanga village for various services which they render, such as carrying fire before a Devanga corpse to the burial-ground, acting as caste messengers, and cleaning the weaving instruments."

Sinnata (gold).--An exogamous sept of Kuruba.

Siolo.--A small class of Oriya toddy-drawers, whose touch conveys pollution. The Sondis, who are an Oriya caste of toddy-sellers, purchase their liquor from the Siolos.

Sipiti.--The Sipitis are described, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Oriya temple priests and drummers; a sub-caste of Ravulo." In an account of them as given to me, they are stated to be Smartas, and temple priests of village deities, who wear the sacred thread, but do not employ Brahmans as purohits, and are regarded as somewhat lower in the social scale than the Ravulos. Some of their females are said to have been unrecognised prostitutes, but the custom is dying out. The caste title is Muni. (See Ravulo.)

Sir.--A sub-division of Kanakkan.

Sirpadam.--A sub-division of Kaikolan.

Sirukudi.--A nadu or territorial division of Kallan.

Siru Tali.--The name, indicating those who wear a small tali (marriage badge), of a sub-division of Kaikolan and Maravan.

Sitikan.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as an occupational sub-division of Maran.

Sitra.--See Pano.

Siva Brahmana.--Recorded as a synonym of Stanika.

Sivachara.--It is noted, in the Mysore Census Report, 1901, that the Lingayats call themselves "Vira Saivas, Sivabhaktas, or Sivachars. The Virasaiva religion consists of numerous castes. It is a religion consisting of representatives from almost every caste in Hindu society. People of all castes, from the highest to the lowest, have embraced the religion. There are Sivachar Brahmins, Sivachar Kshatriyas, Sivachar Vaisyas, Sivachar carpenters, Sivachar weavers, Sivachar goldsmiths, Sivachar potters, Sivachar washermen, and Sivachar barbers, and other low castes who have all followed the popular religion in large numbers."

Sivadvija.--The name, denoting Saivite Brahman, by which Mussads like to be called. Also recorded as a synonym of Stanika.

Sivaratri.--An exogamous sept of Odde, named after the annual Mahasivaratri festival in honour of Siva. Holy ashes, sacred to Siva, prepared by Smartas on this day, are considered to be very pure.

Sivarchaka.--The word means those who do puja (worship) to Siva. Priests at the temple of village deities are ordinarily known as Pujari, Pusali, Occhan, etc., but nowadays prefer the title of Umarchaka or Sivarchaka. The name Sivala occurs in the Madras Census Report, 1901.

Siviyar.--Siviyar means literally a palanquin-bearer, and is an occupational name applied to those employed in that capacity. For this reason a sub-division of the Idaiyans is called Siviyar. The Siviyars of Coimbatore say that they have no connection with either Idaiyans or Toreyas, but are Besthas who emigrated from Mysore during the troublous times of the Muhammadan usurpation. The name Siviyar is stated to have been given to them by the Tamils, as they were palanquin-bearers to officers on circuit and others in the pre-railway days. They claim origin, on the authority of a book called Parvatharaja Charithum, from Parvatharaja. Their main occupations at the present day are tank and river fishing, but some are petty traders, physicians, peons, etc. Their language is Canarese, and their title Naickan. They have eighteen marriage divisions or gotras, named after persons from whom the various gotras are said to have been descended. On occasions of marriage, when betel leaf is distributed, it must be given to members of the different gotras in their order of precedence. In cases of adultery, the guilty parties are tied to a post, and beaten with tamarind switches. When a grown-up but unmarried person dies, the corpse is made to go through a mock marriage with a human figure cut out of a palm leaf.

Sodabisiya.--A sub-division of Domb.

Soi.--A title of Doluva. It is a form of Sui or Swayi.

Solaga.--See Sholaga.

Soliyan.--Soliyan or Soliya is a territorial name, meaning an inhabitant of the Chola country, recorded as a sub-division of Karnam, Idaiyan, Pallan, and Vellala. The equivalent Solangal occurs as an exogamous sept of Vallamban, and Soliya illam (Malayalam, house) as an exogamous sept of Panikkans in the Tamil country. Some Pallis style themselves Solakanar (descendants of Chola kings), or Solakula Kshatriya. (See Sozhia.)

Somakshatri.--A name sometimes adopted by Canarese Ganigas in South Canara.

Somara.--Recorded, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as a small class of potters in the Vizagapatam hills.

Somari (idler).--A division of Yanadis, who do scavenging work, and eat the refuse food thrown away by people from the leaf plate after a meal.

Soma Varada (Sunday).--The name of Kurubas who worship their god on Sundays.

Sonagan.--See Jonagan.

Sonar.--The Sonars or Sonagaras of South Canara are described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [181] as a goldsmith caste, who "speak Konkani, which is a dialect of Marathi, and are believed to have come from Goa. The community at each station has one or two Mukhtesars or headmen, who enquire into, and settle the caste affairs. Serious offences are reported to the swamy of Sode, who has authority to excommunicate, or to inflict heavy fines. They wear the sacred thread. Marriages within the same gotra are strictly prohibited. Most of them are Vaishnavites, but a few follow Siva. The dead are burned, and the ashes are thrown into a river. They eat fish, but not flesh. Their title is Setti." They consider it derogatory to work in metals other than gold and silver.

In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Sunnari (or Sonnari) are described as Oriya goldsmiths (see Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Sonar). These goldsmiths, in the Oriya portion of the Madras Presidency, are, I am informed, Kamsalas from the Telugu country. Unlike the Oriyas, and like other Telugu classes, they invariably have a house-name, and their mother tongue is Telugu. They are Saivites, bury their dead, claim to be descendants of Viswakarma, and call themselves Viswa Brahmans. They do not eat meals prepared by Brahmans, or drink water at the hands of Brahmans.

In former times, goldsmiths held the post of Nottakaran (tester) or village shroff (money-changer). His function was to test the rupees tendered when the land revenue was being gathered in, and see that they were not counterfeit. There is a proverb, uncomplimentary to the goldsmiths, to the effect that a goldsmith cannot make an ornament even for his wife, without first secreting some of the gold or silver given him for working upon.

It has been noted [182] that "in Madras, an exceedingly poor country, there is one male goldsmith to every 408 of the total population; in England, a very rich country, there is only one goldsmith to every 1,200 inhabitants. In Europe, jewellery is primarily for ornament, and is a luxury. In India it is primarily an investment, its ornamental purpose being an incident."

The South Indian goldsmith at work has been well described as follows. [183] "A hollow, scooped out in the middle of the mud floor (of a room or verandah), does duty for the fireplace, while, close by, there is raised a miniature embankment, semi-circular in shape, with a hole in the middle of the base for the insertion of the bellows. Crucibles of clay or cow-dung, baked hard in the sun, tongs and hammers, potsherds of charcoal, dirty tins of water, and little packets of sal-ammoniac, resin, or other similar substances, all lie scattered about the floor in picturesque confusion. Sitting, or rather crouching on their haunches, are a couple of the Panchala workmen. One of them is blowing a pan of charcoal into flame through an iron tube some eighteen inches long by one in diameter, and stirring up the loose charcoal. Another is hammering at a piece of silver wire on a little anvil before him. With his miserable tools the Hindu goldsmith turns out work that well might, and often deservedly does, rank with the greatest triumphs of the jeweller's art."

Sondi.--The Sondis or Sundis are summed up in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as "Oriya toddy-selling caste. They do not draw toddy themselves, but buy it from Siolos, and sell it. They also distill arrack." The word arrack or arak, it may be noted en passant, means properly "perspiration, and then, first the exudation of sap drawn from the date-palm; secondly, any strong drink, distilled spirit, etc." [184] A corruption of the word is rack, which occurs, e.g., in rack punch.

According to a Sanskrit work, entitled Parasarapaddati, Soundikas (toddy-drawers and distillers of arrack) are the offspring of a Kaivarata male and a Gaudike female. Both these castes are pratiloma (mixed) castes. In the Matsya Purana, the Soundikas are said to have been born to Siva of seven Apsara women on the bank of the river Son. Manu refers to the Soundikas, and says that a Snataka [185] may not accept food from trainers of hunting dogs, Soundikas, a washerman, a dyer, pitiless man, and a man in whose house lives a paramour of his wife.

In a note on the allied Sunris or Sundis of Bengal, Mr. Risley writes [186] that "according to Hindu ideas, distillers and sellers of strong drink rank among the most degraded castes, and a curious story in the Vaivarta Purana keeps alive the memory of their degradation. It is said that when Sani, the Hindu Saturn, failed to adapt an elephant's head to the mutilated trunk of Ganesa, who had been accidentally beheaded by Siva, Viswakarma, the celestial artificer, was sent for, and by careful dissection and manipulation he fitted the incongruous parts together, and made a man called Kedara Sena from the slices cut off in fashioning his work. This Kedara Sena was ordered to fetch a drink of water for Bhagavati, weary and athirst. Finding on the river's bank a shell full of water, he presented it to her, without noticing that a few grains of rice left in it by a parrot had fermented and formed an intoxicating liquid. Bhagavati, as soon as she had drunk, became aware of the fact, and in her anger condemned the offender to the vile and servile occupation of making spirituous liquor for mankind. Another story traces their origin to a certain Bhaskar or Bhaskar Muni, who was created by Krishna's brother, Balaram, to minister to his desire for strong drink. A different version of the same legend gives them for ancestor Niranjan, a boy found by Bhaskar floating down a river in a pot full of country liquor, and brought up by him as a distiller."

For the following note on the Sondis of Vizagapatam, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. According to a current tradition, there was, in days of old, a Brahman, who was celebrated for his magical powers. The king, his patron, asked him if he could make the water in a tank (pond) burn, and he replied in the affirmative. He was, however, in reality disconsolate, because he did not know how to do it. By chance he met a distiller, who asked him why he looked so troubled, and, on learning his difficulty, promised to help him on condition that he gave him his daughter in marriage. To this the Brahman consented. The distiller gave him a quantity of liquor to pour into the tank, and told him to set it alight in the presence of the king. The Brahman kept his word, and the Sondis are the descendants of the offspring of his daughter and the distiller. The caste is divided into several endogamous divisions, viz., Bodo Odiya, Madhya kula, and Sanno kula. The last is said to be made up of illegitimate descendants of the two first divisions.

The Sondis distil liquor from the ippa (Bassia) flower, rice, and jaggery (crude sugar). There is a tradition that Brahma created the world, and pinched up from a point between his eyebrows a little mud, from which he made a figure, and endowed it with life. Thus Suka Muni was created, and authorised to distil spirit from the ippa flowers, which had hitherto been eaten by birds.

When a girl reaches puberty, she is set apart in a room within a square enclosure made with four arrows connected together by a thread. Turmeric and oil are rubbed over her daily, and, on the seventh day, she visits the local shrine.

Girls are married before puberty. Some days before a wedding, a sal (Shorea robusta) or neredu (Eugenia Jambolana) post is set up in front of the bridegroom's house, and a pandal (booth) erected round it. On the appointed day, a caste feast is held, and a procession of males proceeds to the bride's house, carrying with them finger rings, silver and glass bangles, and fifty rupees as the jholla tonka (bride price). On the following day, the bride goes to the house of the bridegroom. On the marriage day, the contracting couple go seven times round the central post of the pandal, and their hands are joined by the presiding Oriya Brahman. They then sit down, and the sacred fire is raised. The females belonging to the bridegroom's party sprinkle them with turmeric and rice. On the following day, a Bhondari (barber) cleans the pandal, and draws patterns in it with rice flour. A mat is spread, and the couple play with cowry shells. These are five in number, and the bridegroom holds them tightly in his right hand, while the bride tries to wrest them from him. If she succeeds in so doing, her brothers beat the bridegroom, and make fun of him; if she fails, the bridegroom's sisters beat and make fun of her. The bride then takes hold of the cowries, and the same performance is gone through. A basket of rice is brought, and some of it poured into a vessel. The bridegroom holds a portion of it in his hand, and the bride asks him to put it back. This, after a little coaxing, he consents to do. These ceremonies are repeated during the next five days. On the seventh day, small quantities of food are placed on twelve leaves, and twelve Brahmans, who receive a present of money, sit down, and partake thereof. The marriage of widows is permitted, and a younger brother may marry the widow of an elder brother.

The dead are burned, and death pollution lasts for ten days. Daily, during this period, cooked food is strewed on the way leading to the burning-ground. On the eleventh day, those under pollution bathe, and the sacred fire (homam) is raised by a Brahman. As at a wedding, twelve Brahmans receive food and money. Towards midnight, a new pot is brought, and holes are bored in it. A lighted lamp and food are placed in it, and it is taken towards the burning-ground and set down on the ground. The dead man's name is then called out three times. He is informed that food is ready, and asked to come.

Men, but not women, eat animal food. The women will not partake of the remnants of their husbands' meal on days on which they eat meat, because, according to the legend, their female ancestor was a Brahman woman.

Among the Sondis of Ganjam, if a girl does not secure a husband before she reaches maturity, she goes through a form of marriage with an old man of the caste, or with her elder sister's husband, and may not marry until the man with whom she has performed this ceremony dies. On the wedding day, the bridegroom is shaved, and his old waist-thread is replaced by a new one. The ceremonies commence with the worship of Ganesa, and agree in the main with those of many other Oriya castes. The remarriage of widows is permitted. If a widow was the wife of the first-born or eldest son in a family, she may not, after his death, marry one of his younger brothers. She may, however, do so if she was married in the first instance to a second son.

It is noted by Mr. C. F. MacCartie, in the Madras Census Report, 1881, that "a good deal of land has been sold by Khond proprietors to other castes. It was in this way that much territory was found some years ago to be passing into the hands of the Sundis or professional liquor distillers. As soon as these facts were brought to the notice of Government, no time was lost in the adoption of repressive measures, which have been completely successful, as the recent census shows a great reduction in the numbers of these Sundis, who, now that their unscrupulous trade is abolished, have emigrated largely to Boad and other tracts. This is the only case to my knowledge in which a special trade has decayed, and with the best results, as, had it not been so, there is no doubt that the Khond population would very soon have degenerated into pure adscripti glebæ, and the Sundis become the landlords."

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that "besides ippa (liquor distilled from the blossom of Bassia latifolia), the hill people brew beer from rice, samai (the millet Panicum miliare), and ragi (Eleusine Coracana). They mash the grain in the ordinary manner, add some more water to it, mix a small quantity of ferment with it, leave it to ferment three or four days, and then strain off the grain. The beer so obtained is often highly intoxicating, and different kinds of it go by different names, such as londa, pandiyam, and maddikallu. The ferment which is used is called the saraiya-mandu (spirit drug) or Sondi-mandu (Sondi's drug), and can be bought in the weekly market. There are numerous recipes for making it, but the ingredients are always jungle roots and barks. [187] It is sold made up into small balls with rice. The actual shop-keepers and still-owners in the hills, especially in the Parvatipur and Palkonda agencies, are usually immigrants of the Sondi caste, a wily class who know exactly how to take advantage of the sin which doth so easily beset the hill man, and to wheedle from him, in exchange for the strong drink which he cannot do without, his ready money, his little possessions, his crops, and finally his land itself.

"The Sondis are gradually getting much of the best land into their hands, and many of the guileless hill ryots into their power. Mr. Taylor stated in 1892 that 'the rate of interest on loans extorted by these Sondis is 100 per cent. and, if this is not cleared off in the first year, compound interest at 100 per cent. is charged on the balance. The result is that, in many instances, the cultivators are unable to pay in cash or kind, and become the gotis or serfs of the sowcars, for whom they have to work in return for mere batta (subsistence allowance), whilst the latter take care to manipulate their accounts in such a manner that the debt is never paid off. A remarkable instance of this tyranny was brought to my notice a few days since. A ryot some fifty years ago borrowed Rs. 20; he paid back Rs. 50 at intervals, and worked for the whole of his life, and died in harness. For the same debt the sowcar (money-lender) claimed the services of his son, and he too died in bondage, leaving two small sons aged 13 and 9, whose services were also claimed for an alleged arrear of Rs. 30 on a debt of Rs. 20 borrowed 50 years back, for which Rs. 50 in cash had been repaid in addition to the perpetual labour of a man for a similar period.' This custom of goti is firmly established, and, in a recent case, an elder brother claimed to be able to pledge for his own debts the services of his younger brother, and even those of the latter's wife. Debts due by persons of respectability are often collected by the Sondis by an exasperating method, which has led to at least one case of homicide. They send Ghasis, who are one of the lowest of all castes, and contact with whom is utter defilement entailing severe caste penalties, to haunt the house of the debtor who will not pay, insult and annoy him and his family, and threaten to drag him forcibly before the Sondi." A friend was, on one occasion, out after big game in the Jeypore hills, and shot a tiger. He asked his shikari (tracker) what reward he should give him for putting him on to the beast. The shikari replied that he would be quite satisfied with twenty-five rupees, as he wanted to get his younger brother out of pledge. Asked what he meant, he replied that, two years previously, he had purchased as his wife a woman who belonged to a caste higher than his own for a hundred rupees. He obtained the money by pledging his younger brother to a sowcar, and had paid it all back except twenty-five rupees. Meanwhile his brother was the bondsman of the sowcar, and cultivating his land in return for simple food.

It is further recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Vizagapatam district, that Dombu (or Domb) dacoits "force their way into the house of some wealthy person (for choice the local Sondi liquor-seller and sowcar--usually the only man worth looting in an Agency village, and a shark who gets little pity from his neighbours when forced to disgorge), tie up the men, rape the women, and go off with everything of value."

The titles of the Ganjam Sondis are Behara, Chowdri, Podhano, and Sahu. In the Vizagapatam agency tracts, their title is said to be Bissoyi.

Sonkari.--The Sonkaris are a small class of Oriya lac bangle (sonka) makers in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, who should not be confused with the Telugu Sunkaris. The men are engaged in agriculture, and the women manufacture the bangles, chains, chamaras (fly-flappers), kolatam sticks (for stick play), and fans ornamented with devices in paddy (unhusked rice) grains, which are mainly sold to Europeans as curios.

Sonkari girls are married before puberty. A man should marry his paternal aunt's daughter, but at the present day this custom is frequently disregarded. Brahmans officiate at their marriages. The dead are cremated. The caste title is Patro.

Sonkuva.--A sub-division of Mali.

Sonti (dried ginger).--An exogamous sept of Asili.

Soppu (leaf).--The name for Koragas, who wear leafy garments.

Sozhia.--A territorial name of sub-divisions of various Tamil classes who are settled in what was formerly the Chola country, e.g., Brahman, Chetti, Kaikolan, Kammalan, Pallan, and Vellala.

Srishti Karnam.--A sub-division of Karnam. The name is variously spelt, e.g., Sristi, Sishta, Sishti. The name Sishti Karanamalu is said to have been assumed by Oddilu, who have raised themselves in life. [188]

Stala (a place).--Lingayats sometimes use the word Staladavaru, or natives of a place, to distinguish them from recent settlers.

Stanika.--The Stanikas are summed up, in the Madras Census Report, 1901, as being "Canarese temple servants. They claim to be Brahmans, though other Brahmans do not admit the claim; and, as the total of the caste has declined from 4,650 in 1891 to 1,469, they have apparently returned themselves as Brahmans in considerable numbers." The Stanikas are, in the South Canara Manual, said to be "the descendants of Brahmins by Brahmin widows and outcast Brahmin women, corresponding with Manu's Golaka. They however now claim to be Siva Brahmins, forcibly dispossessed of authority by the Madhvas, and state that the name Stanika is not that of a separate caste, but indicates their profession as managers of temples, with the title of Deva Stanika. This claim is not generally conceded, and as a matter of fact the duties in which Stanikas are employed are clearly those of temple servants, namely, collecting flowers, sweeping the interiors of temples, looking after the lamps, cleaning the temple vessels, ringing bells, and the like. Many of them, however, are landowners and farmers. They are generally Sivites, and wear the sacred thread. Their special deities are Venkatramana and Ganapati. Dravida Brahmins officiate as their priests, but of late some educated men of the caste have assumed the priestly office. The caste has two sub-divisions, viz., Subramania and Kumbla. Girls must be married in infancy, i.e., before they attain puberty. Widow remarriage is neither permitted nor practiced. Their other customs are almost the same as those of the Kota Brahmans. They neither eat flesh nor drink liquor." It is stated in the Manual that the Stanikas are called Shanbogs and Mukhtesars. But I am informed that at an inquest or a search the Moktessors or Mukhtesars (chief men) of a village are assembled, and sign the inquest report or search list. The Moktessors of any caste can be summoned together. Some of the Moktessors of a temple may be Stanikas. In the case of social disputes decided at caste meetings, the Shanbog (writer or accountant) appointed by the caste would record the evidence, and the Moktessor would decide upon the facts.

Of the two sections Subramanya and Kumbla, the former claim superiority, and there is no intermarriage between them. The members of the Subramanya section state that they belong to Rig Saka (Rig Veda) and have gotras, such as Viswamitra, Angirasa, and Baradwaja, and twelve exogamous septs. Of these septs, the following are examples:--

Arli (Ficus religiosa). Konde, tassel or hair-knot.
Aththi (Ficus glomerata). Adhikari.
Bandi, cart. Pandita.
Kethaki (Pandanus fascicularis). Heggade.

The famous temple of Subramanya is said to have been in charge of the Subramanya Stanikas, till it was wrested from them by the Shivalli Brahmans. In former times, the privilege of sticking a golden ladle into a heap of food piled up in the temple, on the Shasti day or sixth day after the new moon in December, is said to have belonged to the Stanikas. They also brought earth from an ant-hill on the previous day. Food from the heap and earth are received as sacred articles by devotees who visit the sacred shrine. A large number of Stanikas are still attached to temples, where they perform the duties of cleaning the vessels, washing rice, placing cooked food on the bali pitam (altar stone), etc. The food placed on the stone is eaten by Stanikas, but not by Brahmans. In the Mysore province, a Brahman woman who partakes of this food loses her caste, and becomes a prostitute.

At times of census, Sivadvija and Siva Brahman have been given as synonyms of Stanika.

Sthavara.--Recorded, at times of census, as a sub-division of Jangam. The lingam, which Lingayats carry on some part of the body, is called the jangama lingam or moveable lingam, to distinguish it from the sthavara or fixed lingam of temples.

Subuddhi.--A title, meaning one having good sense, among several Oriya castes.

Sudarman.--See Udaiyan.

Suddho.--Two distinct castes go by this name, viz., the Savaras who have settled in the plains, and a small class of agriculturists and paiks (servants) in the low country of Ganjam. The Suddhos who live in the hills eat fowls and drink liquor, which those in the plains abstain from. The caste name Suddho means pure, and is said to have its origin in the fact that Suddho paiks used to tie the turbans of the kings of Gumsur. Like other Oriya castes, the Suddhos have Podhano, Bissoyi, Behara, etc., as titles. The caste has apparently come into existence in recent times.

Sudra.--The fourth of the traditional castes of Manu. The Sudra Nayars supply the female servants in the houses of Nambutiris.

Sudra Kavutiyan.--A name adopted by barbers who shave Nayars, to distinguish them from other barbers.

Sudugadusiddha.--The name is derived from sudugadu, a burning-ground. In the Mysore Census Report, 1901, they are described as being "mendicants like the Jogis, like whom they itinerate. They were once lords of burning-grounds, to whom the Kulavadi (see Holeya), who takes the cloth of the deceased and a fee for every dead body burned, paid something as acknowledging their overlordship." These people are described by Mr. J. S. F. Mackenzie, [189] under the name Sudgudu Siddha, or lords of the burning-ground, as agents who originally belonged to the Gangadikara Vakkaliga caste, and have become a separate caste, called after their head Sudgudu Siddharu. They intermarry among themselves, and the office of agent is hereditary. They have particular tracts of country assigned to them, when on tour collecting burial fees. They can be recognised by the wooden bell in addition to the usual metal one, which they always carry about. Without this no one would acknowledge the agent's right to collect the fees.

Sugali.--Sugali and Sukali are synonyms of Lambadi.

Sugamanchi Balija.--A name said to mean the best of Balijas, and used as a synonym for Gazula Balija.

Sukka (star).--An exogamous sept of Yerukala. The equivalent Sukra occurs as a gotra of Oriya Kalinjis.

Sule.--A Canarese name for professional prostitutes. Temple dancing-girls object to the name, as being low. They call themselves Vesyas or Besyas, Naiksani, or Naikini (Naik females).

Sullokondia.--The highest sub-division of the Gaudos, from whose hands Oriya Brahmans will accept water.

Sunar.--See Sonar.

Sundarattan.--A sub-division of Nattukottai Chetti.

Sundi.--See Sondi.

Sunkari.--The Sunkari or Sunkara-vandlu are cultivators, fishermen, and raftsmen in the Godavari district. According to the Rev. J. Cain [190] they come from some part of the Central Provinces, and are not regarded as outcasts, as stated in the Central Provinces Gazetteer.

Sunna Akki (thin rice).--A family name or bedagu of Donga Dasari.

Sunnambukkaran (lime man).--An occupational name for Paravas, Paraiyans, and other classes, who are employed as lime (chunam) burners. Sunnapu, meaning shell or quick-lime, occurs as an exogamous sept of Balija.

Sunnata.--A sub-division of Kurumbas, who are said to make only white blankets.

Surakkudi.--A section or kovil (temple) of Nattukottai Chetti.

Surti.--The name for domestic servants of Europeans in Bombay, who come from Surat.

Surya (the sun).--Recorded as a sept of Domb, Kuruba, and Pentiya, and a sub-division of Ambalakkaran. The equivalent Suryavamsam (people of the solar race) occurs as a sub-division of Razu, and as a synonym of the Konda Doras or Konda Kapus, some of whom style themselves Raja (= Razu) Kapus or Reddis.

Sutakulam.--A name by which the Besthas call themselves. They claim descent from the Rishi Suta Mahamuni. It has been suggested [191] as probable that the Besthas gained the name from their superiority in the culinary art, suta meaning cook.

Sutarlu.--Recorded by the Rev. J. Cain [192] as bricklayers and masons in the Godavari district.

Suthala (needle).--An exogamous sept of Kamma.

Svarupam.--Svarupam has been defined [193] as "a dynasty, usually confined to the four principal dynasties, termed the Kola, Nayaririppu, Perimbadappu, and Trippa Svarupam, represented by the Kolatiri or Chirakal Rajah, the Zamorin, and the Cochin and Travancore Rajahs." Svarupakkar or Svarupathil, meaning servants of Svarupams or kingly houses, is an occupational sub-division of Nayar.

Swayi.--A title of Alia, Aruva, Kalinji, and other Oriya classes.

Swetambara (clad in white).--One of the two main divisions of the Jains.

Syrian Christian.--The following note, containing a summary of the history of a community in connection with which the literature is considerable, is mainly abstracted from the Cochin Census Report, 1901, with additions.

The Syrian Christians have "sometimes been called the Christians of the Serra (a Portuguese word, meaning mountains). This arose from the fact of their living at the foot of the ghauts." [194] The glory of the introduction of the teachings of Christ to India is, by time-honoured tradition, ascribed to the apostle Saint Thomas. According to this tradition so dearly cherished by the Christians of this coast, about 52 A.D. the apostle landed at Malankara, or, more correctly, at Maliankara near Cranganur (Kodungallur), the Mouziris of the Greeks, or Muyirikode of the Jewish copper plates. Mouziris was a port near the mouth of a branch of the Alwaye river, much frequented in their early voyages by the Phoenician and European traders for the pepper and spices of this coast, and for the purpose of taking in fresh water and provisions. The story goes that Saint Thomas founded seven churches in different stations in Cochin and Travancore, and converted, among others, many Brahmans, notably the Cally, Calliankara, Sankarapuri, and Pakalomattam Nambudri families, the members of the last claiming the rare distinction of having been ordained as priests by the apostle himself. He then extended his labours to the Coromandel coast, where, after making many converts, he is said to have been pierced with a lance by some Brahmans, and to have been buried in the church of St. Thomé, in Mylapore, a suburb of the town of Madras. Writing concerning the prevalence of elephantiasis in Malabar, Captain Hamilton records [195] that "the old Romish Legendaries impute the cause of those great swell'd legs to a curse Saint Thomas laid upon his murderers and their posterity, and that was the odious mark they should be distinguished by." "Pretty early tradition associates Thomas with Parthia, [196] Philip with Phrygia, Andrew with Syria, and Bartholomew with India, but later traditions make the apostles divide the various countries between them by lot." [197] Even if the former supposition be accepted, there is nothing very improbable in Saint Thomas having extended his work from Parthia to India. Others argue that, even if there be any truth in the tradition of the arrival of Saint Thomas in India, this comprised the countries in the north-west of India, or at most the India of Alexander the Great, and not the southern portion of the peninsula, where the seeds of Christianity are said to have been first sown, because the voyage to this part of India, then hardly known, was fraught with the greatest difficulties and dangers, not to speak of its tediousness. It may, however, be observed that the close proximity of Alexandria to Palestine, and its importance at the time as the emporium of the trade between the East and West, afforded sufficient facilities for a passage to India. If the Roman line of traffic viâ Alexandria and the Red Sea was long and tedious, the route viâ the Persian Gulf was comparatively easy.

When we come to the second century, we read of Demetrius of Alexandria receiving a message from some natives of India, earnestly begging for a teacher to instruct them in the doctrines of Christianity. Hearing this, Pantænus, Principal of the Christian College of Alexandria, an Athenian stoic, an eminent preacher and "a very great gnosticus, who had penetrated most profoundly into the spirit of scripture," sailed from Berenice for Malabar between 180 and 190 A.D. He found his arrival "anticipated by some who were acquainted with the Gospel of Mathew, to whom Bartholomew, one of the apostles, had preached, and had left them the same Gospel in Hebrew, which also was preserved until this time. Returning to Alexandria, he presided over the College of Catechumens." Early in the third century, St. Hippolytus, Bishop of Portus, also assigns the conversion of India to the apostle Bartholomew. To Thomas he ascribes Persia and the countries of Central Asia, although he mentions Calamina, "a city of India," as the place where Thomas suffered death. The Rev. J. Hough [198] observes that "it is indeed highly problematical that Saint Bartholomew was ever in India." It may be remarked that there are no local traditions associating the event with his name, and, if Saint Bartholomew laboured at all on this coast, there is no reason why the earliest converts of Malabar should have preferred the name of Thomas to that of Bartholomew. Though Mr. Hough and Sir W. W. Hunter, [199] among others, discredit the mission of St. Thomas in the first century, they both accept the story of the mission of Pantænus. Mr. Hough says that "it is probable that these Indians (who appealed to Demetrius) were converts or children of former converts to Christianity." If, in the second century, there could be children of former converts in India, it is not clear why the introduction of Christianity to India in the first century, and that by St. Thomas, should be so seriously questioned and set aside as being a myth, especially in view of the weight of the subjoined testimony, associating the work with the name of the apostle.

In the Asiatic Journal (Vol. VI), Mr. Whish refutes the assertions made by Mr. Wrede in the Asiatic Researches (Vol. VII) that the Christians of Malabar settled in that country "during the violent persecution of the sect of Nestorius under Theodosius II, or some time after," and says, with reference to the date of the Jewish colonies in India, that the Christians of the country were settled long anterior to the period mentioned by Mr. Wrede. Referring to the acts and journeyings of the apostles, Dorotheus, Bishop of Tyre (254-313 A.D.), says "the Apostle Thomas, after having preached the Gospel to the Parthians, Medes, Persians, Germanians, Bactrians, and Magi, suffered martyrdom at Calamina, a town of India." It is said that, at the Council of Nice held in 325 A.D., India was represented by Johannes, Bishop of India Maxima and Persia. St. Gregory of Nazianzen (370-392 A.D.), in answering the reproach of his being a stranger, asks "Were not the apostles strangers? Granting that Judæa was the country of Peter, what had Paul in common with the Gentiles, Luke with Achaia, Andrew with Epirus, John with Ephesus, Thomas with India, Mark with Italy"? St. Jerome (390 A.D.) testifies to the general belief in the mission of St. Thomas to India. He too mentions Calamina as the town where the apostle met with his death. Baronius thinks that, when Theodoret, the Church historian (430-458 A.D.), speaks of the apostles, he evidently associates the work in India with the name of St. Thomas. St. Gregory of Torus relates that "in that place in India, where the body of Thomas lay before it was transferred to Edessa, there is a monastery and temple of great size." Florentius asserts that "nothing with more certainty I find in the works of the Holy Fathers than that St. Thomas preached the Gospel in India." Rufinus, who stayed twenty-five years in Syria, says that the remains of St. Thomas were brought from India to Edessa. Two Arabian travellers of the ninth century, referred to by Renaudot, assert that St. Thomas died at Mailapur.

Coming to modern times, we have several authorities, who testify to the apostolic origin of the Indian Church, regarded as apocryphal by Mr. Milne Rae, Sir W. W. Hunter, and others. The historian of the 'Indian Empire,' while rejecting some of the strongest arguments advanced by Mr. Milne Rae, accepts his conclusions in regard to the apostolic origin. The Romanist Portuguese in their enthusiasm coloured the legends to such an extent as to make them appear incredible, and the Protestant writers of modern times, while distrusting the Portuguese version, are not agreed as to the rare personage that introduced Christianity to India. Mr. Wrede asserts that the Christians of Malabar settled in that country during the violent persecution of the sect of Nestorius under Theodosius II, or some time after. Dr. Burnell traces the origin to the Manichæan Thomas, who flourished towards the end of the third century. Mr. Milne Rae brings the occurrence of the event down to the sixth century of the Christian era. Sir William Hunter, without associating the foundation of the Malabar Church with the name of any particular person, states the event to have taken place some time in the second century, long before the advent of Thomas the Manichæan, but considers that the name St. Thomas Christians was adopted by the Christians in the eighth century. He observes that "the early legend of the Manichæan Thomas in the third century and the later labours of the Armenian Thomas, the rebuilder of the Malabar Church in the eighth century, endeared that name to the Christians of Southern India." [It has recently been stated, with reference to the tradition that it was St. Thomas the apostle who first evangelised Southern India, that, "though this tradition is no more capable of disproof than of proof, those authorities seem to be on safer ground, who are content to hold that Christianity was first imported into India by Nestorian or Chaldæan missionaries from Persia and Mesopotamia, whose apostolic zeal between the sixth and twelfth centuries ranged all over Asia, even into Tibet and Tartary. The seat of the Nestorian Patriarchate of Babylon was at Bagdad, and, as it claimed to be par excellence the Church of St. Thomas, this might well account for the fact that the proselytes it won over in India were in the habit of calling themselves Christians of St. Thomas. It is, to say the least, a remarkable coincidence that one of the three ancient stone crosses preserved in India bears an inscription and devices, which are stated to resemble those on the cross discovered near Singanfu in China, recording the appearance of Nestorian missionaries in Shenshi in the early part of the seventh century."]