Chapter II: Part 2

The following account of the Panans is given in the Gazetteer of Malabar. "The name is perhaps connected with pan, music. They follow the makkattayam family system (of inheritance from father to son), and practice fraternal polyandry. In South Malabar there are said to be four sub-divisions, called Tirurengan, Kodaketti (umbrella tying), Minpidi (fish catching), and Pulluvan, of which the last named is inferior in status to the other three. They are also divided into exogamous illams or kiriyams. They worship Kali, and inferior deities such as Parakutti, Karinkutti, Gulikan, and Kutti Chattan. Their methods of exorcism are various. If any one is considered to be possessed by demons, it is usual, after consulting the astrologer, to ascertain what Murti (lit. form) is causing the trouble, to call in Panans, who perform a ceremony called Teyattam, in which they wear masks, and, so attired, sing, dance, tom-tom, and play on rude and strident pipes. Other of their ceremonies for driving out devils called Ucchaveli seem to be survivals of imitations of human sacrifice, or instances of sympathetic magic. One of these consists of a mock living burial of the principal performer, who is placed in a pit which is covered with planks, on the top of which a sacrifice (homam) is performed with a fire kindled with jack (Artocarpus integrifolia) branches. In another variety, the Panan cuts his left forearm, and smears his face with the blood thus drawn. Panans also take part with Mannans in various ceremonies at Badrakali and other temples, in which the performers personate, in suitable costumes, some of the minor deities or demons, and fowls are sacrificed, while a Velicchapad dances himself into a frenzy, and pronounces oracles." It is further noted, in the Gazetteer of Malabar, that "to constitute a valid divorce, the husband pulls a thread from his cloth, and gives it to his wife's brother, saying 'Your parisha is over.' It is a traditional duty of the Panans to furnish a messenger to announce to an Izhuvan (or Tandan) girl's mother or husband (according to where she is staying) that she has attained puberty."

In the Census Report, 1901, Anjuttan (men of the five hundred) and Munnuttan (men of the three hundred) are returned as sub-castes of the Malayalan Panans.

For the following account of the Panans of Travancore, I am indebted to Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar. The word is of Tamil origin, and means a tailor. The title taken by them is Panikkan, the usual honorific appellation of most of the industrial castes of Malabar. They are supposed to be one with the Panans of the Tamil country, though much below them in the social scale. They observe a pollution distance of thirty-six feet, but keep Mannans and Vedans at a distance of eight, and Pulayas and Paraiyas at a distance of thirty-two feet from them. They are their own barbers and washermen. They will eat food prepared by Kammalans, of whom there is a tradition that they are a degraded branch. Tiruvarangan, one of the popular sages of Malabar, who are reputed to be the descendants of a Paraiya woman, is said to have been a Panan, and the Panans pay him due reverence. In the Keralolpatti, the traditional occupation of the Panans is said to be exorcism, and in British Malabar this occupation seems to be continued at the present day. Umbrella-making is a secondary occupation for the men. In Travancore, however, the only occupation pursued by the Panans is tailoring. The tali-kettu celebration takes place before the girl attains puberty. If this ceremony is intended to signify a real marriage, the girl is taken to her husband's house on the fourth day of the first menstrual period, and they remain thenceforth man and wife. Otherwise a sambandham ceremony has to be performed either by the tali-tier or some one else, to establish conjugal relations. Inheritance is mostly paternal. The dead are buried, and death pollution lasts for sixteen days. The spirits of deceased ancestors are appeased once a year by the offering of cooked food on the new-moon day in the month of Karkatakam (July-August). Ancestors who died from some untoward accident are propitiated in the month of Avani (August-September) by offerings of flesh and liquor. The latter ceremonial is termed vellamkuli or water drinking. Small earthen sheds, called gurusalas or kuriyalas and matams, are erected in memory of some ancestors.

The following account of the Panans of the Cochin State is extracted from a note by Mr. L. K. Ananta Krishna Aiyar. [29]

"The Panans give, as the traditional account of their origin, a distorted version of the tradition as to the origin of the Izhuvans, which is found in the Mackenzie Manuscripts. The Panan version of the story is as follows. One day a washerman of Cheraman Perumal chanced to wash his dress very clean. On being asked by the Perumal as to the cause of it, the washerman said that it was due to the suggestion of a handsome carpenter girl, who saw him while washing. The Perumal, pleased with the girl, desired her to be married to his washerman. The parents of the girl were duly consulted, and they could not refuse the offer, as it came from their sovereign. But his fellow carpenters resented it, for, if the proposal was accepted, and the marriage celebrated, it might not only place the members of her family under a ban, but would also bring dishonour to the castemen. To avert the contemplated union, they resorted to the following device. A pandal (marriage booth) was erected and tastefully decorated. Just at the auspicious hour, when the bridegroom and his party were properly seated on mats in the pandal, the carpenters brought a puppet exactly resembling the bride, and placed it by his side, when suddenly, by a clever artifice, the carpenters caused the building to tumble down, and thereby killed all those who were in it. They immediately left the Perumal's country, and took refuge in the island of Ceylon. The ruler was much embarrassed by the disaster to the washerman, and by the flight of the carpenters, for he had none in his country to build houses. A few Panans were sent for, and they brought the carpenters back. On their return, they were given some fruit of the palmyra palm, which they ate. They sowed the seeds in their own places, and these grew into large fruit-bearing palms. The Panans possessed the privilege of keeping these trees as their own, but subsequently made them over to the Izhuvans, who, in memory of this, give even to-day two dishes of food to the Panans on all ceremonial occasions in their houses. They have been, on that account, called by the Izhuvans nettaries, for their having originally planted these trees.

"There are no titles among the Panans, but one, who was brought for examination at Trichur, told me that one of his ancestors got the title of Panikkan, and that he had the privilege of wearing a gold ear-ring, carrying a walking-stick lined with silver, and using a knife provided with a style. Kapradan is a title given to the headman in the Palghat taluk. In Palghat, when the Kapradan dies, the Raja is informed, and he sends to the chief mourner (the son) a sword, a shield, a spear, a few small guns with some gunpowder, a silver bangle, and a few necklaces. As the dead body is taken to the burial ground, the chief mourner, wearing the ornaments above mentioned, goes behind it. In front go a few persons armed with the weapons referred to. Three discharges are made (1) when the dead body is removed from the house, (2) when it is placed on the ground, (3) when it is burnt. The next day, the chief mourner pays his respects to the Raja, with an umbrella of his own making, when the Raja bestows upon him the title of Kapradan.

"There are magicians and sorcerers among the Panans, who sometimes, at the request even of the high-caste men, practice the black art. Some of the Panans, like the Parayans, engage in magical rites of a repulsive nature, in order to become possessors of a powerful medicine, the possession of which is believed to confer the power of obtaining anything he wishes. They also believe in the existence of a demoniacal hierarchy. Changili Karuppan, Pechi, Oodara Karuppan, Kali, Chotala Karuppan, Chotala Bhadrakali, Yakshi, Gandharvan, and Hanuman are the names of the chief demons whom they profess to control with the aid of mantrams (consecrated formulæ) and offerings. They also profess that they can send one or more of these demons into the bodies of men, and cast them out when persons are possessed of them. They profess to cure all kinds of diseases in children with the aid of magic and medicines, and all the castemen believe that harm or even death may be caused to men with the aid of sorcerers. In such cases, an astrologer is consulted, and, according to his calculations, the aid of a magician is sought for. When a person is suffering from what are believed to be demoniacal attacks, he is relieved by the performance of the following ceremony, called pathalahomam. A pit about six feet in length, three feet in depth, and a foot or two in breadth, is dug. A Panan, covered with a new piece of cloth, is made to lie in the pit, which is filled in with earth, leaving a small hole for him to breathe. Over the middle of his body, the earth is raised and made level. A sacred fire (homam) is made over this with the branches of a jack tree. Near it a large square is drawn with sixty-four small divisions, in each of which a small leaf, with some paddy (unhusked rice), rice, flour, and lighted torches, is placed. Gingelly (Sesamum) seeds, mustard seeds, grains of chama (Panicum miliaceum), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), eight fragrant things, the skin of snakes, dung of the elephant, milk of the pala tree, twigs of the banyan tree, dharba grass, nila narakam (Naregamia alata) oil, and ghee (clarified butter) are put into it until it burns bright. The sick man is brought in front of it, and the sorcerer authoritatively asks him--or rather the demon residing in his body--to take these things. The sorcerer puts the above mentioned substances into the fire, muttering all the while his mantrams invoking the favour of Vira Bhadra or Kandakaruna. The significance of these is 'Oh! Kandakaruna, the King of the Devas, I have no body, that is, my body is getting weaker and weaker, and am possessed of some demon, which is killing me, kindly help me, and give me strength.' This done, another operation is begun. A fowl is buried, and a small portion of the earth above it is raised and made level. The figure of a man is drawn by the side of it. Three homams (sacred fires) are raised, one at the head, one in the middle, and one at the feet. The above mentioned grains, and other substances, are put into the fire. A large square with sixty-four smaller squares in it is drawn, in each of which a leaf, with grains of paddy, rice, and flowers, is placed. Another mantram in praise of the demons already mentioned is uttered, and a song is sung. After finishing this, a small structure in the form of a temple is made. A small plantain tree is placed by the side of it. A padmam is drawn, and a puja (worship) is performed for the Paradevatha, the queen of demons. The sorcerer makes offerings of toddy, beaten rice, plantains, and cocoanuts, and soon turns oracle, and, as one inspired, tells what the deity wishes, and gives information as regards the departure of the demons from the body. It is now believed that the patient is free from all demoniacal attacks. The buried man is exhumed, and allowed to go home.

"In the Palghat taluk, the following form of sorcery is practiced, which is believed to relieve persons from demoniacal attacks and disease. If, in the house of any casteman, it is suspected that some malign influence is being exercised by demons, a Panan is sent for, who comes in the evening with his colleagues. A homam is lighted with the branches of the trees already mentioned, and into it are thrown six kinds of grains, as well as oil and ghee. As this is being done, Kallatikode Nili, the presiding archdemon, is propitiated with songs and offerings. The next part of the ceremony consists in bringing a bier and placing a Panan on it, and a measure of rice is placed at his head. He is, as in the case of a dead body, covered with a piece of new cloth, and a small plantain tree is placed between the thighs. At his head a sheep and at his feet a fowl are killed. He pretends gradually to recover consciousness. In this state he is taken outside the compound. The Panan, lying on the bier, evidently pretends to be dead, as if killed by the attack of some demon. The propitiation with songs and offerings is intended to gratify the demons. This is an instance of sympathetic magic.

"Some among the Panans practice the oti (or odi) cult, like the Parayas. The following medicines, with the aid of magic, are serviceable to them in enticing pregnant women from their houses. Their preparation is described as follows. A Panan, who is an adept in the black art, bathes early in the morning, dresses in a cloth unwashed, and performs puja to his deity, after which he goes in search of a Kotuveli plant (Manihot utilissima). When he finds such a one as he wants, he goes round it three times every day, and continues to do so for ninety days, prostrating himself every day before it. On the last night, which must be a new-moon night, at twelve o'clock he performs puja to the plant, burning camphor, and, after going round it three times, prostrates himself before it. He then places three small torches on it, and advances twenty paces in front of it. With his mouth closed, and without any fear, he plucks the plant by the root, and buries it in the ashes on the cremation ground, on which he pours the water of seven green cocoanuts. He then goes round it twenty-one times, muttering all the while certain mantrams, after which he plunges himself in the water, and stands erect until it extends to his mouth. He takes a mouthful of water, which he empties on the spot, and then takes the plant with the root, which he believes to possess peculiar virtues. When it is taken to the closed door of a house, it has the power to entice a pregnant woman, when the foetus is removed (cf. article Parayan). It is all secretly done on a dark midnight. The head, hands and legs are cut off, and the trunk is taken to a dark-coloured rock, on which it is cut into nine pieces, which are all burned until they are blackened. At this stage, one piece boils, and is placed in a new earthen pot, with the addition of the water of nine green cocoanuts. The pot is removed to the burial-ground. The Panan performs a puja here in favour of his favourite deity. Here he fixes two poles deep in the earth, at a distance of thirty feet from each other.

The poles are connected by a strong wire, from which is suspended the pot to be heated and boiled. Seven fire-places are made, beneath the wire. The branches of bamboo, katalati (Achyranthes Emblica), conga (Bauhinea variegata), cocoanut palm, jack tree (Artocarpus integrifolia), and pavatta (Pavatta indica), are used in forming a bright fire. The mixture in the pot soon boils and becomes oily, at which stage it is passed through a fine cloth. The oil is preserved, and a mark made with it on the forehead enables the possessor to realise anything that is thought of. The sorcerer must be in a state of vow for twenty-one days, and live on a diet of chama kanji. The deity, whose aid is necessary, is propitiated with offerings.

"One of the ceremonies which the Panans perform is called Thukil Onarthuka (waking thukil, a kind of drum). In the month of Karkadakam (July-August), a Panan, with his wife, provided with a drum and kuzhithalam (circular bell-metal cymbals), goes to the houses of Brahmans and Nayars after midnight, and sings sacred songs. During the week, they sing standing underneath a banyan tree near the western gate of the Trichur temple. From the temple authorities they get five measures of paddy, half a measure of rice, some gingelly oil, and a cocoanut. For their services in other houses, they receive a similar remuneration. This is intended to drive evil spirits, if any, from houses. Another of their festivals is known as Panan Kali. The traditional account therefor is as follows. Once, when a Panan and his wife went to a forest to bring bamboos for the manufacture of umbrellas, they missed their way, night approached, and they could not return. They began to be frightened by the varieties of noise heard by them in the wilderness. They collected pieces of dry bamboo and leaves of trees, and burned them. In the presence of the light thus obtained, the woman caught hold of a creeper hanging from a tree, and danced in honour of Bhagavathi, while her husband sang songs praising her. The day dawned at last, and they found their way home in safety. In memory of this incident, the Panans organise a party for a regular play. There are ten male and two female actors, and the play is acted during the whole night.

"The religion of the Panans consists of an all-pervading demonology. Their chief gods are Mukkan, Chathan, Kappiri, Malankorathi, and Kali. Pujas are performed to them on the first of Medom (April-May), Karkadakam (July-August), Desara, and on Tuesday in Makaram (January-February). These deities are represented by stones placed under a tree. They are washed with water on the aforesaid days, and offerings of sheep and fowls, malar (parched rice), plantains, cocoanuts, and boiled rice are made to them. Their belief is that these deities are ever prone to do harm to them, and should therefore be propitiated with offerings. The Panans also worship the spirits of their ancestors, who pass for their household gods, and whose help they seek in all times of danger. They fast on new-moon nights, and on the eleventh night after full-moon or new-moon.

"The Panan is the barber of the polluting castes above Cherumans. By profession he is an umbrella-maker. Panans are also engaged in all kinds of agricultural work. In villages, they build mud walls. Their women act as midwives.

"As regards social status, the Panans eat at the hands of Brahmans, Nayars, Kammalans, and Izhuvans. They have to stand at a distance of thirty-two feet from Brahmans. Panans and Kaniyans pollute one another if they touch, and both bathe should they happen to do so. They are their own barbers and washermen. They live in the vicinity of the Izhuvans, but cannot live in the Nayar tharas. Nor can they take water from the wells of the Kammalans. They cannot approach the outer walls of Brahman temples, and are not allowed to enter the Brahman streets in Palghat."

In the Census Report, 1891, Panan occurs as a sub-division of the Paraiyans. Their chief occupation as leather-workers is said to be the manufacture of drum-heads. [30]

Panasa.--The Panasas are a class of beggars in the Telugu country, who are said to ask alms only from Kamsalas. The word panasa means constant repetition of words, and, in its application to the Panasa, probably indicates that they, like the Bhatrazu bards and panegyrists, make up verses eulogising those from whom they beg. It is stated in the Kurnool Manual (1886) that "they take alms from the Beri Komatis and goldsmiths (Kamsalas), and no others. The story goes that, in Golkonda, a tribe of Komatis named Bacheluvaru were imprisoned for non-payment of arrears of revenue. Finding certain men of the artificer class who passed by in the street spit betel nut, they got it into their mouths, and begged the artificers to get them released. The artificers, pitying them, paid the arrears, and procured their release. It was then that the Kamsalis fixed a vartana or annual house-fee for the maintenance of the Panasa class, on condition that they should not beg alms from the other castes." The Panasas appear every year in the Kurnool district to collect their dues.

Pancha.--Pancha, meaning five, is recorded as a sub-division of the Linga Balijas, and Panchachara or Panchamsale as a sub-division of Lingayats. In all these, pancha has reference to the five acharas or ceremonial observances of the Lingayats, which seem to vary according to locality. Wearing the lingam, worshipping it before meals, and paying reverence to the Jangam priests, are included among the observances.

Panchala.--A synonym for Canarese Kammalans, among whom five (panch) classes of workers are included, viz., gold and silver, brass and copper, iron, and stone.

Panchalinga (five lingams).--An exogamous sept of Boya. The lingam is the symbol of Siva.

Panchama.--The Panchamas are, in the Madras Census Report, 1871, summed up as being "that great division of the people, spoken of by themselves as the fifth caste, and described by Buchanan and other writers as the Pancham Bandam." According to Buchanan, [31] the Pancham Bandum "consist of four tribes, the Parriar, the Baluan, the Shekliar, and the Toti." Buchanan further makes mention of Panchama Banijigaru and Panchama Cumbharu (potters). The Panchamas were, in the Department of Public Instruction, called "Paraiyas and kindred classes" till 1893. This classification was replaced, for convenience of reference, by Panchama, which included Chacchadis, Godaris, Pulayas, Holeyas, Madigas, Malas, Pallans, Paraiyans, Totis, and Valluvans. "It is," the Director of Public Instruction wrote in 1902, "for Government to consider whether the various classes concerned should, for the sake of brevity, be described by one simple name. The terms Paraiya, low caste, outcaste, carry with them a derogatory meaning, and are unsuitable. The expression Pancham Banda, or more briefly Panchama, seems more appropriate." The Government ruled that there is no objection to the proposal that Paraiyas and kindred classes should be designated Panchama Bandham or Panchama in future, but it would be simpler to style them the fifth class.

The following educational privileges according to the various classes classified as Panchama may be noted:--

(1) They are admitted into schools at half the standard rates of fees.

(2) Under the result grant system (recently abolished), grants were passed for Panchama pupils at rates 50 per cent. higher than in ordinary cases, and 15 per cent. higher in backward localities.

(3) Panchama schools were exempted from the attendance restriction, i.e., grants were given to them, however small the attendance. Ordinary schools had to have an attendance of ten at least to earn grants.

(4) Panchama students under training as teachers get stipends at rates nearly double of those for ordinary Hindus.

An interesting account of the system of education at the Olcott Panchama Free Schools has been written by Mrs. Courtright. [32]

Panchama is returned, in the Census Reports, 1891 and 1901, as a sub-division of Balija and Banajiga.

Pancharamkatti.--A sub-division of Idaiyan, which derives its name from the neck ornament (pancharam) worn by the women.

Pandamuttu.--A sub-division of Palli. The name is made by Winslow to mean a number of torches arranged so as to represent an elephant. The Pallis, however, explain it as referring to the pile of pots, which reaches to the top of the marriage pandal (pandal, booth, mutti, touching). The lowest pot is decorated with figures of elephants and horses.

Pandaram.--Pandaram is described by Mr. H. A. Stuart [33] as being "the name rather of an occupation than a caste, and used to denote any non-Brahmanical priest. The Pandarams seem to receive numerous recruits from the Saivite Sudra castes, who choose to make a profession of piety, and wander about begging. They are in reality very lax in their modes of life, often drinking liquor and eating animal food furnished by any respectable Sudra. They often serve in Siva temples, where they make garlands of flowers to decorate the lingam, and blow brazen trumpets when offerings are made, or processions take place. Tirutanni is one of the chief places, in which they congregate."

It is recorded, in the Gazetteer of the Trichinopoly district, that "the water for the god's bath at Ratnagiri is brought by a caste of non-Brahmans known as Tirumanjana Pandarams, who fetch it every day from the Cauvery. They say that they are descended from an Aryan king, who came to the god with the hope of getting rubies from him. The god, in the guise of a Brahman, tested his devotion by making him fill a magic vessel with Cauvery water. The vessel would not fill, and the Aryan stranger in a fit of anger cut off the Brahman's head. The dead body at once turned into a lingam, and the Aryan was ordered to carry water for the temple till eternity."

Pandaram is used both as the name of a caste, and of a class composed of recruits from various castes (e.g., Vellala and Palli). The Pandaram caste is composed of respectable people who have settled down as land-holders, and of Sanyasis and priests of certain matams (religious institutions), and managers of richly endowed temples, such as those at Tiruvadudurai in Tanjore and Mailam in South Arcot. The common name for these managers is Tambiran. The caste Pandarams are staunch Saivites and strict vegetarians. Those who lead a celibate life wear the lingam. They are said to have been originally Sozhia Vellalas, with whom intermarriage still takes place. They are initiated into the Saivite religion by a rite called Dhikshai, which is divided into five stages, viz., Samaya, Nirvana, Visesha, Kalasothanai, and Acharya Abhishekam. Some are temple servants, and supply flowers for the god, while others sing devaram (hymns to the god) during the temple service. On this account, they are known as Meikaval (body-guard of the god), and Oduvar (reader). The caste Pandarams have two divisions, called Abhisheka and Desikar, and the latter name is often taken as a title, e.g., Kandasami Desikar. An Abhisheka Pandaram is one who is made to pass through some ceremonies connected with Saiva Agama.

The mendicant Pandarams, who are recruited from various classes, wear the lingam, and do not abstain from eating flesh. Many villages have a Pandaram as the priest of the shrine of the village deity, who is frequently a Palli who has become a Pandaram by donning the lingam. The females are said to live, in some cases, by prostitution.

The Lingayat Pandarams differ in many respects from the true Lingayats. The latter respect their Jangam, and use the sacred water, in which the feet of the Jangam are washed, for washing their stone lingam. To the Pandarams, and Tamil Lingayats in general, this proceeding would amount to sacrilege of the worst type. Canarese and Telugu Lingayats regard a Jangam as superior to the stone lingam. In the matter of pollution ceremonies the Tamil Lingayats are very particular, whereas the orthodox Lingayats observe no pollution. The investiture with the lingam does not take place so early among the Tamil as among the Canarese Lingayats.

For the following note, I am indebted to Mr. C. Hayavadana Rao. "Dr. H. H. Wilson [34] is of opinion that the word Pandaram is 'more properly Panduranga, pale complexioned, from their smearing themselves with ashes. It is so used in Hemachandra's history of Mahavira, when speaking of the Saiva Brahmans.' A more popular derivation of the name is from Bandaram, a public treasury. A good many well-to-do Pandarams are managers of Siva temples in Southern India, and accordingly have the temple treasuries under their care. It is, however, possible that the name has been acquired by the caste by reason of their keeping a yellow powder, called pandaram, in a little box, and giving it in return for the alms which they receive.

Opinions are divided as to whether the Pandarams are Lingayats or not. The opinion held by F. W. Ellis, the well-known Tamil scholar and translator of the Kural of Tiruvalluvar, is thus summarised by Colonel Wilks. [35] "Mr. Ellis considers the Jangam of the upper countries, and the Pandaram of the lower, to be of the same sect, and both deny in the most unequivocal terms the doctrine of the metempsychosis. A manuscript in the Mackenzie collection ascribes the origin of the Pandarams as a sacerdotal order of the servile caste to the religious disputes, which terminated in the suppression of the Jain religion in the Pandian (Madura) kingdom, and the influence which they attained by the aid which they rendered to the Brahmans in that controversy, but this origin seems to require confirmation. In a large portion, perhaps in the whole of the Brahmanical temples dedicated to Siva in the provinces of Arcot, Tanjore, Trichinopoly, Madura and Tinnevelly, the Pandaram is the highest of the temple, and has the entire direction of the revenues, but allows the Brahmans to officiate in the ceremonial part according to their own good pleasure, as a concern altogether below his note. He has generally the reputation of an irreproachable life, and is treated by the Brahmans of the temple with great reverence, while on his part he looks with compassion at the absurd trifles which occupy their attention. These facts seem to point to some former revolution, in which a Jangam government obtained a superiority over the Brahmanical establishments, and adopted this mode of superseding the substantial part of their authority. It is a curious instance of the Sooder (Sudra) being the spiritual lord of the Brahman, and is worthy of further historical investigation." Dr. Wilson [36] also thinks that the Pandarams are Lingayats. Mr. H. A. Stuart [37] says that they are a class of priests who serve the non-Brahman castes. They have returned 115 sub-divisions, of which only two are sufficiently large to require mention, Andi of Tinnevelly and Malabar, and Lingadari of Chingleput and Tinnevelly. Andi is a quasi-caste of beggars recruited from all castes, and the Lingadari Pandarams are the same as Jangams. Pandaram is, in fact, a class name rather than the name of a caste, and it consists of priests and beggars. Mr. C. P. Brown [38] thinks that the Pandarams are not Lingayats. 'The Saiva worshippers among the Tamils are called Pandarams: these are not Vira Saivas, nor do they wear the linga or adore Basava. I name them here chiefly because they are often mentioned as being Vira Saivas, whereas in truth they are (like the Smartas) Purva Saivas, and worship the image of Siva in their houses.' It must be remarked that Mr. Brown appears to have had a confused idea of Pandarams. Pandarams wear the linga on their bodies in one of the usual modes, are priests to others professing the Lingayat religion, and are fed by them on funeral and other ceremonial occasions. At the same time, it must be added that they are--more especially the begging sections--very lax as regards their food and drink. This characteristic distinguishes them from the more orthodox Lingayats. Moreover, Lingayats remarry their widows, whereas the Pandarams, as a caste, will not.

"Pandarams speak Tamil. They are of two classes, the married and celibate. The former are far more numerous than the latter, and dress in the usual Hindu manner. They have the hind-lock of hair known as the kudumi, put on sacred ashes, and paint the point between the eyebrows with a sandal paste dot. The celibates wear orange-tawny cloths, and daub sacred ashes all over their bodies. They allow the hair of the head to become matted. They wear sandals with iron spikes, and carry in their hands an iron trisulam (the emblem of Siva), and a wooden baton called dandayudha (another emblem of Siva). When they go about the streets, they sing popular Tamil hymns, and beat against their begging bowl an iron chain tied by a hole to one of its sides. Married men also beg, but only use a bell-metal gong and a wooden mallet. Most of these help pilgrims going to the more famous Siva temples in the Madras Presidency, e.g., Tirutani, Palni, Tiruvannamalai, or Tirupparankunram. Among both sections, the dead are buried in the sitting posture, as among other Lingayats. A samadhi is erected over the spot where they are buried. This consists of a linga and bull in miniature, which are worshipped as often as may be found convenient.

"The managers of temples and mutts (religious institutions), known as Pandara Sannadhis, belong to the celibate class. They are usually learned in the Agamas and Puranas. A good many of them are Tamil scholars, and well versed in Saiva Siddhanta philosophy. They call themselves Tambirans--a title which is often usurped by the uneducated beggars."

In the Census Report, 1901, Vairavi is returned as a sub-caste of Pandaram, and said to be found only in the Tinnevelly district, where they are measurers of grains and pujaris in village temples. Vairavi is further used as a name for members of the Melakkaran caste, who officiate as servants at the temples of the Nattukottai Chettis.

Pandaram is a title of the Panisavans and Valluvan priests of the Paraiyans.

A class of people called hill Pandarams are described [39] by the Rev. S. Mateer as "miserable beings without clothing, implements, or huts of any kind, living in holes, rocks, or trees. They bring wax, ivory (tusks), and other produce to the Arayans, and get salt from them. They dig roots, snare the ibex (wild goat, Hemitragus hylocrius) of the hills, and jungle fowls, eat rats and snakes, and even crocodiles found in the pools among the hill streams. They were perfectly naked and filthy, and very timid. They spoke Malayalam in a curious tone, and said that twenty-two of their party had been devoured by tigers within two monsoons." Concerning these hill Pandarams, Mr. N. Subramani Aiyar writes that they live on the banks of streams in crevices of rocks, caves, and hollows of trees. They are known to the dwellers on the plains as Kattumanushyar, or forest men. They clad themselves in the bark of trees, and, in the rainy and cold seasons, protect their bodies with plantain leaves. They speak a corrupt form of Tamil. They fear the sight of other men, and try to avoid approaching them. A former European magistrate of the Cardamom Hills took some of them to his residence, but, during their three days' stay there, they refused to eat or talk. There is a chieftain for every four hills, but his authority is little more than nominal. When women are married, the earth and hills are invoked as witnesses. They have Hindu names, such as Raman, Kittan (Krishna), and Govindan.

In a lecture delivered some years ago at Trivandrum, Mr. O. H. Bensley described the hill Pandarams as being "skilful in catching fish, their mode of cooking which is to place the fish on roots on a rock, and cover them with fire. They keep dogs, and, by their aid, replenish their larder with rats, mungooses, iguanas (lizard, Varanus), and other delicacies. I was told that the authority recognised by these people is the head Arayan, to whom they give a yearly offering of jungle produce, receiving in exchange the scanty clothing required by them. We had an opportunity of examining their stock-in-trade, which consisted of a bill-hook similar to those used by other hillmen, a few earthen cooking-pots, and a good stock of white flour, which was, they said, obtained from the bark of a tree, the name of which sounded like ahlum. They were all small in stature, with the exception of one young woman, and, both in appearance and intelligence, compared favourably with the Uralis."

Pandariyar.--Pandariyar or Pandarattar, denoting custodians of the treasury, has been returned as a title of Nattaman, Malaiman, and Sudarman.

Pandava-kulam.--A title, indicative "of the caste of the Pandava kings," assumed by Jatapus and Konda Doras, who worship the Pandavas. The Pandava kings were the heroes of the Mahabharata, who fought a great battle with the Kauravas, and are said to have belonged to the lunar race of Kshatriyas. The Pandavas had a single wife named Draupadi, whom the Pallis or Vanniyans worship, and celebrate annually in her honour a fire-walking festival. The Pallis claim to belong to the fire race of Kshatriyas, and style themselves Agnikula Kshatriyas, or Vannikula Kshatriyas.

Pandi (pig).--Recorded as an exogamous sept of Asili, Boya, and Gamalla. Pandipattu (pig catchers) and Pandikottu (pig killers) occur as exogamous septs of Odde.

Pandito.--Pandit or Pundit (pandita, a learned man) has been defined [40] as "properly a man learned in Sanskrit lore. The Pundit of the Supreme Court was a Hindu law-officer, whose duty it was to advise the English Judges when needful on questions of Hindu law. The office became extinct on the constitution of the High Court (in 1862). In the Mahratta and Telugu countries, the word Pandit is usually pronounced Pant (in English colloquial Punt)." In the countries noted, Pant occurs widely as a title of Brahmans, who are also referred to as Pantulu varu. The titles Sanskrit Pundit, Telugu Pundit, etc., are still officially recognised at several colleges in the Madras Presidency. Pandit sometimes occurs as an honorific prefix, e.g., Pandit S. M. Natesa Sastri, and Panditan is a name given to Tamil barbers (Ambattan). In some parts of the Tamil country, Panditar is used as a name for Madhva Brahmans, because, it is said, many of them were formerly engaged as pandits at the Law Courts.

Pandito is further the name of "an Oriya caste of astrologers and physicians. They wear the sacred thread, and accept drinking water only from Brahmans and Gaudos. Infant marriage is practiced, and widow marriage is prohibited." [41] I am informed that these Panditos engage Brahmans for their ceremonials, do not drink liquor, and eat fish and mutton, but not fowls or beef. The females wear glass bangles. They are known by the name of Khodikaro, from khodi, a kind of stone, with which they write figures on the floor, when making astrological calculations. The stone is said to be something like soapstone.

Pandita occurs as an exogamous sept of Stanikas.

Pandya.--The territorial name Pandya, Pandiya, Pandiyan, or Pandi has been returned, at recent times of census, as a sub-division of various Tamil classes, e.g., Ambattan, Kammalan, Occhan, Pallan, Vannan, and Vellala. Pandiya is further a title of some Shanans. In Travancore, Pandi has been returned by some Izhavans. The variant Pandiangal occurs as an exogamous sept of the Tamil Vallambans, and Pandu as a Tamil synonym for Kapu or Reddi.

Panikkar.--Panikkar, meaning teacher or worker, has been recorded, in the Malayalam country, as a title of barbers, Kammalan, Maran, Nayar, Panan, and Paraiyan. In former times, the name was applied, in Malabar, to fencing-masters, as the following quotations show :--

1518. "And there are very skilful men who teach this art (fencing),
and they are called Panicars."--Barbosa.

1553. "And when the Naire comes to the age of 7 years, he is
obliged to go to the fencing-school, the master of which (whom
they call Panical) they regard as a father, on account of the
instruction he gives them."--Barros.

1583. "The maisters which teach them be graduates in the
weapons which they teach, and they be called in their language
Panycaes."--Castaneda.

A class of people called Panikkan are settled in the Madura and Tinnevelly districts. Some of them are barbers to Shanans. Others have taken to weaving as a profession, and will not intermarry with those who are employed as barbers. "The Panikkans are," Mr. Francis writes, [42] "weavers, agriculturists, and traders. They employ Brahmans as priests, but these are apparently not received on terms of equality by other Brahmans. The Panikkans now frequently call themselves Illam Vellalas, and change their title in deeds and official papers from Panikkan to Pillai. They are also taking to wearing the sacred thread and giving up eating meat. The caste is divided into three vagais or endogamous classes, namely, Mital, Pattanam, and Malayalam, and each of these again has five partly exogamous septs or illams (families), namely, Muttillam, Toranattillam, Pallikkillam, Manjanattillam, and Soliya-illam. It is stated that the Mital and Pattanam sections will eat together though they do not intermarry, but that the Malayalam section can neither dine with nor marry into the other two. They are reported to have an elaborate system of caste government, under which eleven villages form a gadistalam (or stage), and send representatives to its council to settle caste matters; and eleven gadistalams form a nadu (or country), and send representatives to a chief council, which decides questions which are beyond the competence of the gadistalams." The occurrence of Malayam as the name of a sub-division, and of the Malayalam word illam as that of the exogamous septs, would seem to indicate that the Panikkans are immigrants from the westward into the Tamil country.

Panimagan (work children).--A name for Mukkuvans who are employed as barbers for members of their caste.

Panisavan.--Panisavan is defined in the Salem Manual as "a corruption of paniseygiravan (panisaivon), literally meaning one who works (or does service), and is the caste name of the class, whose business it is to carry news of death to the relations of the deceased, and to blow the tharai or long trumpet." According to Mr. H. A. Stuart, [43] Panisavan appears to answer among the Tamilians to the Dasaris or Tadas of the Telugus. It is a mendicant caste, worshipping Siva. Unlike the Tadas, however, they often employ themselves in cultivation, and are, on the whole, a more temperate and respectable class. Their priests are Brahmans, and they eat flesh, and drink alcoholic liquor very freely. The dead are generally burned.

There are two classes of Panisavans, of which one works for the right-hand section, and the other for the left. This division is purely professional, and there is apparently no bar to intermarriage between the two classes. The insignia of a Panisavan are the conch-shell (Turbinella rapa) and tharai, which he supports from the ground by means of a bamboo pole while he blows it. At marriage processions, it is his duty to go in front, sounding the tharai from time to time. On such occasions, and at festivals of the village goddesses, the tharai is decorated with a string bearing a number of small triangular pieces of cloth, and tufts of yak's hair. The cloth should be white for the right-hand section, and of five different colours for the left. At the present day, the Panisavan is more in request for funerals than for weddings. In the city of Madras, all the materials necessary for the bier are sold by Panisavans, who also keep palanquins for the conveyance of the corpse in stock, which are let out on hire. At funerals, the Panisavan has to follow the corpse, blowing his conch-shell. The tharai is only used if the deceased was an important personage. When the son goes round the corpse with a pot of water, the Panisavan accompanies him, and blows the conch. On the last day of the death ceremonies (karmandhiram), the Panisavan should be present, and blow his conch, especially when the tali (marriage badge) is removed from a widow's neck. In some places, the Panisavan conveys the news of death, while in others this duty is carried out by a barber. In the Chingleput and North Arcot districts, the Panisavans constitute a separate caste, and have no connection with the Nokkans, who are beggars attached to the Palli or Vanniyan caste. In South Arcot and Tanjore, on the other hand, the name Nokkan is used to signify the caste, which performs the duties of the Panisavan, for which it seems to be a synonym. The Panisavans of the Tinnevelly district have nothing in common with those of the northern districts, e.g., Chingleput and North Arcot, whose duty it is to attend to the funeral ceremonies of the non-Brahman castes. The main occupations of the Tinnevelly Panisavans are playing in temples on the nagasaram (reed instrument), and teaching Deva-dasis dancing. Another occupation, which is peculiar to the Tinnevelly Panisavans, is achu velai, i.e., the preparation of the comb to which the warp threads of a weaving loom are tied. Socially the Panisavans occupy a lowly position, but they use the title Pulavar. Their other titles are Pandaram, Pillai, and Mudali.

Paniyan.--The Paniyans are a dark-skinned tribe, short in stature, with broad noses, and curly or wavy hair, inhabiting the Wynad, and those portions of the Ernad, Calicut, Kurumbranad and Kottayam taluks of Malabar, which skirt the base of the ghats, and the Mudanad, Cherangod, and Namblakod amshams of the Nilgiri district.

A common belief, based on their general appearance, prevails among the European planting community that the Paniyans are of African origin, and descended from ancestors who were wrecked on the Malabar coast. This theory, however, breaks down on investigation. Of their origin nothing definite is known. The Nayar Janmis (landlords) say that, when surprised in the act of some mischief or alarmed, the Paniyan calls out 'Ippi'! 'Ippi'! as he runs away, and they believe this to have been the name of the country whence they came originally; but they are ignorant as to where Ippimala, as they call it, is situated. Kapiri (Africa or the Cape?) is also sometimes suggested as their original habitat, but only by those who have had the remarks of Europeans communicated to them. The Paniyan himself, though he occasionally puts forward one or other of the above places as the home of his forefathers, has no fixed tradition bearing on their arrival in Malabar, beyond one to the effect that they were brought from a far country, where they were found living by a Raja, who captured them, and carried them off in such a miserable condition that a man and his wife only possessed one cloth between them, and were so timid that it was only by means of hunting nets that they were captured.

The number of Paniyans, returned at the census, 1891, was 33,282, and nine sub-divisions were registered; but, as Mr. H. A. Stuart, the Census Commissioner, observes:--"Most of these are not real, and none has been returned by any considerable number of persons." Their position is said to be very little removed from that of a slave, for every Paniyan is some landlord's 'man'; and, though he is, of course, free to leave his master, he is at once traced, and good care is taken that he does not get employment elsewhere.

In the fifties of the last century, when planters first began to settle in the Wynad, they purchased the land with the Paniyans living on it, who were practically slaves of the land-owners. The Paniyans used formerly to be employed by rich receivers as professional coffee thieves, going out by night to strip the bushes of their berries, which were delivered to the receiver before morning. Unlike the Badagas of the Nilgiris, who are also coffee thieves, and are afraid to be out after dark, the Paniyans are not afraid of bogies by night, and would not hesitate to commit nocturnal depredations. My friend, Mr. G. Romilly, on whose estate my investigation of the Paniyans was mainly carried out, assures me that, according to his experience, the domesticated Paniyan, if well paid, is honest, and fit to be entrusted with the responsible duties of night watchman.

In some localities, where the Janmis have sold the bulk of their land, and have consequently ceased to find regular employment for them, the Paniyans have taken kindly to working on coffee estates, but comparatively few are thus employed. The word Paniyan means labourer, and they believe that their original occupation was agriculture as it is, for the most part, at the present day. Those, however, who earn their livelihood on estates, only cultivate rice and ragi (Eleusine coracana) for their own cultivation; and women and children may be seen digging up jungle roots, or gathering pot-herbs for food. They will not eat the flesh of jackals, snakes, vultures, lizards, rats, or other vermin. But I am told that they eat land-crabs, in lieu of expensive lotions, to prevent baldness and grey hairs. They have a distinct partiality for alcohol, and those who came to be measured by me were made more than happy by a present of a two-anna piece, a cheroot, and a liberal allowance of undiluted fiery brandy from the Meppadi bazar. The women are naturally of a shy disposition, and used formerly to run away and hide at the sight of a European. They were at first afraid to come and see me, but confidence was subsequently established, and all the women came to visit me, some to go through the ordeal of measurement, others to laugh at and make derisive comments on those who were undergoing the operation.

Practically the whole of the rice cultivation in the Wynad is carried out by the Paniyans attached to edoms (houses or places) or devasoms (temple property) of the great Nayar landlords; and Chettis and Mappillas also frequently have a few Paniyans, whom they have bought or hired by the year at from four to eight rupees per family from a Janmi. When planting paddy or herding cattle, the Paniyan is seldom seen without the kontai or basket-work protection from the rain. This curious, but most effective substitute for the umbrella-hat of the Malabar coast, is made of split reeds interwoven with 'arrow-root' leaves, and shaped something like a huge inverted coal-scoop turned on end, and gives to the individual wearing it the appearance of a gigantic mushroom. From the nature of his daily occupation the Paniyan is often brought in contact with wild animals, and is generally a bold, and, if excited, as he usually is on an occasion such as the netting of a tiger, a reckless fellow. The young men of the villages vie with each other in the zeal which they display in carrying out the really dangerous work of cutting back the jungle to within a couple of spear-lengths of the place where the quarry lies hidden, and often make a show of their indifference by turning and conversing with their friends outside the net.

Years ago it was not unusual for people to come long distance for the purpose of engaging Wynad Paniyans to help them in carrying out some more than usually desperate robbery or murder. Their mode of procedure, when engaged in an enterprise of this sort, is evidenced by two cases, which had in them a strong element of savagery. On both these occasions the thatched homesteads were surrounded at dead of night by gangs of Paniyans carrying large bundles of rice straw. After carefully piling up the straw on all sides of the building marked for destruction, torches were, at a given signal, applied, and those of the wretched inmates who attempted to escape were knocked on the head with clubs, and thrust into the fiery furnace.

The Paniyans settle down happily on estates, living in a settlement consisting of rows of huts and detached huts, single or double storied, built of bamboo and thatched. During the hot weather, in the unhealthy months which precede the advent of the south-west monsoon, they shift their quarters to live near streams, or in other cool, shady spots, returning to their head quarters when the rains set in.

They catch fish either by means of big flat bamboo mats, or, in a less orthodox manner, by damming a stream and poisoning the water with herbs, bark, and fruit, which are beaten to a pulp and thrown into the water. The fish, becoming stupified, float on the surface, and fall an easy and unfairly earned prey.

It is recorded by Mr. H. C. Wilson [44] that the section of the Moyar river "stretching from the bottom of the Pykara falls down to the sheer drop into the Mysore ditch below Teppakadu is occupied principally by Carnatic carp. In the upper reaches I found traces of small traps placed across side runners or ditches, which were then dry. They had evidently been in use during the last floods, and allowed to remain. Constructed of wood in the shape of a large rake head with long teeth close together, they are fastened securely across the ditch or runner at a slight angle with teeth in the gravel. The object is to catch the small fry which frequent these side places for protection during flood times. Judging by their primitive nature and poor construction, they are not effective, but will do a certain amount of damage. The nearest hamlet to this place is called Torappalli, occupied by a few fisher people called Paniyans. These are no doubt the makers of the traps, and, from information I received, they are said to possess better fry and other traps. They are also accredited with having fine-mesh nets, which they use when the waters are low."