Chapter XVIII: The Period of Classic Scholasticism (1200–1453) (2)

Middle Ages
characteristics and conditions of, 319–333;
and the Hellenic-Roman period, comparison of, 319, 320;
the mediæval man, 320, 321;
how the universe appeared to the mediæval man, 322–325;
the mediæval man at school, 325, 326;
a mediæval library, 326–328;
the three periods of, 328–330;
summary of the political and educational worlds of the
mediæval man, 330–333;
the early period of, 330–332, 334–353;
the transitional period of, 332, 354–367;
the period of classic scholasticism, 333, 368–394.

Milesian school
24;
the members of, 24, 25;
the philosophy of, 25, 26
the teaching of, compared with that of Heracleitus and the
Eleatics, 22, 23.

Milton, John
325.

Modern philosophy
length of, 1;
underlying character of, 3;
divisions of, 4.

Mohammedanism
growth of, during the Middle Ages, 370–372;
first contact with Christianity, 372, 373;
conflict with Christianity, 374, 375.

Monism
defined, 10 n.;
of the early Greeks, 10;
displaced by pluralism in Greek philosophy, 39.

Monists
list of early Cosmologists who were, 20;
discussion of the, 22–38.

Monotheism
defined, 10 n.;
for the first time conceptually framed, 191.

Monte Cassino
founding of the monastic school at, 348.

Moral postulate
philosophy for the first time founded upon, 85;
of Socrates, 85–88.

Motion
according to Aristotle, 195, 196.

Mysteries
Orphic and Eleusinian, 16–18, 38;
Orphic, dangers of, averted by Cosmologists, 54.

Mysticism
in neo-Platonism, 287.

Natural Science
_See_ Physics.

Nature
the philosophy of, 15–38;
the word as used by the Sophists, 72, 73;
a logical, Socrates’ attempt to find, 92;
physical, Plato’s conception of, 142–144;
Aristotle’s conception of, 192–194;
Stoic conception of, 251–257.

Neo-Platonism
and Christianity, difference in their conception of
inspiration, 276, 277;
rise of, 279, 280;
summary of its history, 281;
and Platonism, 287, 288;
and the philosophies of Philo and the neo-Pythagoreans, 288;
and Christianity, 288–290;
the periods of, 290;
the Alexandrian school (scientific theory of neo-Platonism,
life and writings of Plotinus), 290–298;
the Syrian school (the systematizing of polytheism, Jamblichus),
290, 298, 299;
the Athenian school (Proclus), 290, 299–301;
its influence on Christianity, 306.

Neo-Pythagoreanism
281, 285–287;
and neo-Platonism, 288.

Nominalism
103, 358, 362–365, 391, 392.

Norton, Arthur O.
_Readings in the History of Education_, 377 n.

_Nous_
Anaxagoras’ conception of, 47;
of Plotinus, 294.

Numbers
Pythagorean conception of, 49–51.

Objective character of Greek philosophy
2, 100, 101.

Objective Idealism
104.

Objective Realism
104.

Ockam, William of
387 n., 390;
the course of philosophy after, 393, 394.

Order
thought of, developed into clearness by Cosmologists, 54.

Origen
280, 281, 314–318.

Orphic
_See_ Mysteries.

Oxford, University of
377.

Palmer, G. H.
on Socrates, 79.

Panætius
270, 271.

Pantheism
defined, 10 n.;
dynamic, of Plotinus, 293;
of Erigena, 351–353;
of the realists, 363.

Paris, University of
377.

Parker, C. P.
cited, 258 n.

Parmenides
life, 32;
develops the doctrine of Xenophanes, 32 f.;
his philosophy, 33–35;
and Heracleitus, results of the conflict between, 37, 38.
_See_ Eleatic School.

Particulars and Universals
according to Thomas Aquinas, 383–385.

Pater, Walter
_Marius the Epicurean_, 227 n.

Patmore, Coventry
_Angel in the House_, 153 n.

Patristics
302–318.

Perception
and conception, 83 n.;
according to Plato, 134;
in Aristotle, 177–179.

Pericles
58.

Periods
of philosophy, the three general, 1–4;
of Greek philosophy, 12–14.

Peripatetics
_See_ Lyceum.

Persia
15, 16.

Persian Wars
their importance, 55–57, 62.

Personality
spiritual, increased importance of, in history, 277–279.

Pessimism
result of theory of Cyrenaics, 97.

Peter the Lombard
379, 380.

Phædo
founder of the Elean-Eretrian school, 93.

Philo
Greek-Jewish philosophy of, 281–284;
and neo-Platonism, 288.

Philoponus
299.

Philosophic skepticism
_See_ Skepticism.

Physical universe
early Greek tendency toward scientific explanation of, 10, 11.

Physics
Socrates’ view of, 80;
enrichment of, under Democritus, 109–111;
Plato’s conception of, 142–144;
Aristotle’s theory of, 194–196;
of Epicurus, 238–240.

Plato
104;
parts of works to be read, 75 n.;
his place in Greek history, 93, 98–100, 103, 104;
and Democritus, their similarities and differences, 104–106;
the period of his life, 119, 120;
the difficulties in understanding the teaching of, 120, 121;
the chronology of his dialogues, 119, 120;
the life and writings of, 121, 126;
his student life, 121, 122;
as traveler, 122–124;
as teacher of the Academy, 124–126;
concerning his dialogues, 126–128;
the factors in the construction of his doctrine, 128–131;
his inherited tendencies, 128–130;
his philosophical sources, 130, 131;
the divisions of his philosophy, 131, 132;
summary of his doctrine, 132;
the formation of his metaphysics, 132–136;
the development of his metaphysics (the development of his
ideas in the two drafts), 136–141;
his conception of God, 141, 142;
his conception of physical nature, 142–144;
his conception of man, 144–146;
his doctrine of immortality, 146–150;
the two tendencies in, 150, 151;
Platonic love, 151–153;
his theory of ethics, 153–158;
development of his theory of the Good, 153, 154;
the four cardinal virtues, 154, 155;
his theory of political society, 155–158;
a selection of passages from, for English readers, 158–165;
in the Middle Ages, 331, 337, 338, 360, 363.

Platonism
the revival of, 279;
and neo-Platonism, 287, 288.

Platonists
Eclectic, 285.

Pleasure
of Epicurus, 230–233.
_See_ Happiness.

Plotinus
280, 287, 288;
life and writings of, 290, 291;
general character of his teaching, 291, 292;
the mystic God of, 292, 293;
the two problems of, 293;
the metaphysical problem of, 294–297;
the ethical problem of, 297, 298.

Pluralism
tried to reconcile extremes of Milesian school, 39, 40;
and hylozoism, 41.

Pluralists
list of later Cosmologists who were, 20;
their new conception of change, 40;
their new conception of the unchanging, 40, 41;
introduction of conception of efficient cause by, 41;
summary of similarities and differences in theories of,
41, 42;
their lives span the fifth century, 42.
_See_ Empedocles, etc.

Plutarch
neo-Platonist, 299.

Political philosophy of Aristotle
202, 203.

Political society
Plato’s theory of, 155–158.

Polytheism
Homeric, 19.

Polytheisms
the systematizing of, 298, 299.

Porphyry
291, 298, 357.

Posidonius
270, 271.

Primary and secondary qualities
116.

Probabilism in Stoicism
262.

Proclus
299–301.

Prodicus
66, 68.

Protagoras
66, 67;
the relativism of, 69, 70;
his point of view compared with that of Socrates, 81.

Psychology
materialistic, of Democritus, 111–114;
Plato’s, 144–146;
of Aristotle, 196–199;
the Stoic, 248–250.

Ptolemy
his cosmography, 322–325.

Purpose
Aristotle’s conceptions of, 186–190.

Pyrrho
266.

Pyrrhonism
265, 266.

Pythagoras
17.

Pythagoreanism
neo-, 281, 285–287;
and neo-Platonism, 288.

Pythagoreans
the early, 17;
the later, 44, 48, 49;
their conception of Being, 49–51;
their astronomy, 49, 52, 53;
their dualism, 51, 52.

Qualitative changes of phenomena
196–202.

Rationalism
defined, 104 n.;
of Plato and Democritus, 104;
of Abelard, 365–367.

Realism
100, 104, 358, 362–365;
objective, 104.

Reason and dogma
the relation between, 355, 356, 360–362, 365–367.

Reconcilers
_See_ Pluralists.

Relativism
of Protagoras, 69, 70;
represented by the anthropologists, 103.

Religion
of the Greeks, organization of, 8, 9, 10;
the new, perils of, 16–18;
in Epicurus’s system, 236, 237;
and science, the separation of, under Duns Scotus, 387, 388.

Religious feeling
two causes of the rise of, 272–274.

Religious period of the Hellenic-Roman period
208, 209;
treated, 273–301;
the divisions of, 280, 281.

Religious philosophies
Hellenic, rise of, 280, 282;
summary of history of, 281;
introductory period of, 281–287;
development period of, 281, 287, 288.

Revival of Learning, the
375–378.

Rhabanus Maurus
350.

Rhetoric among the Greeks
60.

Romans
their conquest of Greece, 205–208.

Roscellinus
life and teaching, 361, 362.

Rossetti, Christina
_Shadow of Dante_ cited, 325 n.

Rousseau and Epicurus
229.

St. Ambrose
306.

Salerno, University of
377.

Scholasticism
what it is, 355–359;
of Anselm, 359–361;
of Roscellinus, 361, 362;
of Abelard, 363–367;
classic, period of, 333, 368–394.

School
in early Greek philosophy, meaning of, 19.

Schools, the
214, 218–226;
fusion of doctrines in, 269;
after 150 B. C., notable names in, 271.
_See_ Academy, Lyceum, etc.

Science
early tendencies toward, among the Greeks, 10, 11;
growth of, in Hellenic-Roman period, 216, 217;
secular, of the age of Augustine, 339;
and religion, the separation of, under Duns Scotus, 387, 388.

Scotus, Duns
gave a new direction to philosophy, 369;
upheld the primacy of the Will, 385, 386;
the founder of the Franciscan tradition (life and philosophical
position of), 386, 387;
his conception of the twofold truth, 387;
the inscrutable will of God, according to, 388, 389;
the problem of individuality, according to, 389, 390;
the course of philosophy after, 390, 391.

Secondary and primary qualities
116.

Secular science of the age of Augustine
339.

Seignobos, Charles
_History of Mediæval Civilization_, 373 n.

Seneca
quoted, 234.

Sensationalism
defined, 104 n.

Sensationalistic skepticism
268, 269.

Sextus Empiricus
268.

Sill
_The Two Aphrodites_, 153 n.

Simplicius
299.

Skepticism
what it is, 69;
the undercurrent of, in the Hellenic-Roman period, 209–211;
philosophic, the appearances of, 264, 265;
the three phases of, 265–269;
of the Academy, 266–268;
sensationalistic, 268, 269.

Socrates, and Aristophanes
opposed the Sophists, 74;
works on, for reading, 75;
personality and life of, 75–80;
his dæmon, 77, 83;
and the Sophists, 80–82;
unsystematic character of his philosophy, 82, 83;
the ideal of, 83–85;
what his ideal involves, 85–88;
the two steps of his method, 88–91;
and Athens, 91;
the logical expedients of, 92, 93;
and the Lesser Socratics, 93–95.

Socratics
the Lesser, and Socrates, 93–95.

Sophists
significance of, 64–67;
the prominent, 67, 68;
the philosophy of, 68–71;
the ethics of, 71–73;
summary of their work, 73;
met in two ways by Socrates and Aristophanes, 74;
and Socrates, 80–82.

Soul
Plato’s doctrine of, 145–150;
according to Aristotle, 196, 197;
of Plotinus, 295, 297, 298.

Spenser, Edmund
_Hymn in Honor of Beauty_, 153 n.

Spiritual authority
the need of, 275–277;
the turning to the present for, 287, 288.

Spirituality
rise of the conception of, 277–279.

State
Plato’s doctrine of, 155–158;
and church, Aquinas’s and Dante’s views of, 382.

Stoic school, the
222–225;
inclines to eclecticism, 269, 270.

Stoicism
and Epicureanism, summary of agreements and differences,
225, 226;
position of, in antiquity, 241, 242;
the three periods of, 242, 243;
leaders of, 243–246;
writings of, 246;
the two prominent conceptions of, 247, 248;
the conception of personality, 248;
the psychology of, 248–250;
the highest good, 250, 251;
the conception of nature, 251–256;
conceptions of nature and personality supplement each
other, 256, 257;
and society, 257–259;
duty and responsibility, 259, 260;
the problem of evil and the problem of freedom, 260, 261;
modifications of, after the first period, 261–263;
its influence on Christianity, 305.

Stoics and Cynics
246, 247.

Storm and Stress
362, 363.

_Sums_
of Peter the Lombard, 379, 380.

Syllogism, the
182.

Syrian school of neo-Platonism
290, 298, 299.

Syrianus
299.

Systematic period of Greek philosophy
12–14;
treated, 98–203;
the three philosophers of, their place in Greek history,
98–100;
the fundamental principle of, 100–102.

Tatian
313.

Teleology
defined, 105 n.

Terminism
392.

Tertullian
313.

Teuffel, W. S.
_History of Roman Literature_, 227 n.

Thales
24, 25.

Theological series of Aristotle
196–202.

Thrasymachus
68.

Timon
266.

Transitional period of Middle Ages
332, 354–357.

Turner, William
_History of Philosophy_, 336 n.

Twofold reality
world of, Democritus’ theory of, 114–116.

Ueberweg
_History of Philosophy_, quoted, 6;
cited, 269 n.

Unchanging, the
as conceived by the Pluralists, 40, 41.

_Universalia ante rem_
104, 358, 362–365, 384.

_Universalia in re_
104, 358, 364, 365, 384.

_Universalia post rem_
103, 358, 362–365, 384.

Universals and particulars
according to Thomas Aquinas, 383–385.

Universe
diagram of Dante’s conception of, 376.

Universities
the establishment of, 377.

Useful, the
according to Socrates, 87, 88.

Valentinus
Gnostic, 310.

Vincent of Beauvais
379.

Virtue
meaning of, 84;
according to Socrates, 84–88;
according to the Cynics, 95;
according to Aristotle, 199–202;
place of, in Epicureanism, 233.

Virtues
the four cardinal, in Plato, 154, 155.

Weber
_History of Philosophy_ cited, 269 n.

Wheeler, B. I.
_Life of Alexander the Great_, cited, 56 n.;
quoted, 172.

Will
freedom of. _See_ Freedom.

Will or intellect
the question of the primacy of, 385, 386, 388, 389.

William of Aubergne
379.

William of Champeaux
363.

Windelband
_History of Ancient Philosophy_, 37 n.;
cited, 121 n., 311 n.;
quoted, 254.

Witte, Karl
_Essays on Dante_, 325 n.

Wordsworth, William
_Dion_, 123 n.;
_Ode on Intimations of Immortality_ quoted, 148.

Xenophanes
religious philosopher, 26 f.;
philosophy of, 27 f.

Xenophon
parts of works to be read, 75 n.;
on Socrates, 76, 93.

Zeller, Edward
_Pre-Socratic Philosophy_, 3 n., 100 n.;
quoted, 101, 102;
_Greek Philosophy_, 37 n.

Zeno
Eleatic, his life, 35 f.;
his philosophy, 36, 37.
_See_ Eleatic school.

Zeno
Stoic, 242, 244, 245.

Footnotes.

1 – Read Knight, _Life and Teaching of Hume_, pp. 102 f.
(Blackwood Series); Falckenberg, _Hist. Modern Phil._,
p. 10; Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Phil._, vol. i, pp. 161 f.

2 – Read Fairbanks, _First Philosophers of Greece_, pp. 263
ff., especially the résumé.

3 – Ueberweg, _Hist. of Phil._, vol. i, p. 7.

4 – Monism is the belief that reality is a oneness without
any necessary implication as to the character of that
oneness. Monotheism is a kind of monism, in which some
definite character is ascribed to the oneness, like the
active principle in the world or the cause of the world.
Pantheism, on the other hand, is a kind of monism in
which the emphasis is upon the all-inclusive character of
reality. In pantheism God and nature are two inseparable
aspects of reality.

5 – Bury, _Hist. of Greece_, p. 321, calls the tradition of
the Wise Men a legend.

6 – Bury, _History of Greece_, p. 311.

7 – Burnet, _Early Greek Philosophers_, p. 104, for
injunctions upon the private life of the early
Pythagoreans.

8 – Note further that in future philosophical discussions
of this problem, the technical word “Being” is used for
the Unchanging or the substance that remains forever like
itself, and the technical word “Becoming” is used for the
changing processes of Nature.

9 – “Just as our soul, being air, holds us together, so do
breath and air encompass the whole world.”

10 – Read Windelband, _Hist. of Ancient Phil._, pp. 67 ff.;
Zeller, _Greek Philosophy_, pp. 63 ff.

11 – Read Matthew Arnold, _Empedocles_ (a poem).

12 – Read Plato, _Phaedo_, 97, B.

13 – Dualism: the belief that the world is to be explained by
two independent and coexistent principles.

14 – Wheeler, _History of Alexander the Great_.

15 – Read Grote, _History of Greece_, vol. viii, pp. 334–347.

16 – Read H. Jackson in _Encyclopædia Britannica_, article
“Sophists”.

17 – The student should read the following references
in Plato’s dialogues and Xenophon’s _Symposium_ and
_Memorabilia_. The translations referred to here are
Jowett’s Plato and Cooper, Spelman, etc., translation,
_Whole Works of Xenophon_. (1851.)

For the method of Socrates, read _Charmides_, _Lysis_, and
_Laches_.

For the personal appearance of Socrates, read Plato,
_Symposium_, pp. 586 ff. and Xenophon, _Symposium_, p. 615.

For the physical endurance of Socrates, read Plato,
_Symposium_, p. 591.

For Socrates’ dislike of nature, read Plato, _Phædrus_,
p. 435, and Xenophon, _Memorabilia_, p. 521.

For the charges, defense, and trial of Socrates, read
Plato, _Apology_, pp. 116 and 129.

For the confinement of Socrates in prison, read _Crito_,
beginning and end of the dialogue.

For description of the death scene of Socrates, read Plato,
_Phædo_, beginning and end of the dialogue.

For description of the dæmoniacal sign, read Plato,
_Apology_, pp. 125–126, and Xenophon, _Memorabilia_,
pp. 531 ff., 585 ff.

For the oracle’s statement that Socrates is the wisest of
men, read Plato, _Apology_, p. 114.

18 – What is the difference between perception and conception?
We have heard a good deal about perceptions in the
doctrine of Protagoras. We have now reached a point
where many of the theories will involve a comparison
of perception with conception. An understanding of
the difference between perception and conception will
be necessary for an understanding of the doctrines,
especially of Democritus, Plato, and Aristotle. In general,
perception is the consciousness of an object in which some
actual sensation of it is present; a conception is the
consciousness of an object in which no actual sensation
of it is present. Thus I perceive a tree, when my retina
is actually stimulated; I conceive a tree, when I turn
my head away and no sense organ is actually stimulated,
_i. e._ I do not touch, see, hear the tree. To the Greek
the perception was particular and transient; the conception
was, on the other hand, universal or general and permanent.

19 – Read Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Phil._, vol. i, pp. 138–149,
concerning the objective character of Greek morality, art,
and philosophy.

20 – Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Phil._, vol. i, p. 162.

21 – Zeller, _Pre-Socratic Phil._, vol. i, p. 162.

22 – Rationalism and sensationalism refer to the sources
from which knowledge is obtained. Rationalism is to be
contrasted with sensationalism. Rationalism is the belief
that the reason is an independent source of knowledge
and has a higher authority than sense-perception.
Sensationalism is the belief that all our knowledge
originates in sensations. Empiricism is often used for
sensationalism.

23 – Teleology is the doctrine that things exist for some
purpose. A teleological cause, which is the same as “final
cause” or “end,” is the purpose involved in an action.
It is contrasted with mechanical or efficient cause.
A trolley car is moving and a man runs to catch it.
Electricity is the mechanical cause of the movement of the
car. The purpose of the man is the teleological cause of
his running; the strength in his legs is the mechanical or
efficient cause of his running.

24 – Atoms differ primarily in form (ἰδέα); size is referred in
part to form.

25 – These all reduce to form,――see above.

26 – Windelband, _Hist. of Ancient Phil._, pp. 183–189.

27 – Read Wordsworth, _Dion_.

28 – B. Jowett, _Dialogues of Plato_, trans. into English with
analyses and introductions, 4 vols.

See p. 158 for selections from the dialogues made by
Jowett for English readers.

29 – Goethe.

30 – For the distinction between perception and conception, see
p. 83.

31 – Read Wordsworth’s _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_.

32 – Read Edmund Spenser, _Hymn in Honor of Beauty_; Emerson,
_Essay on Love_, also the poem on _Initial, Dæmonic, and
Celestial Love_; Bacon, _Essay on Love_; Patmore, _Angel
in the House_; Sill, _The Two Aphrodites_.

33 – B. I. Wheeler, _Life of Alexander the Great_.

34 – Read Walter Pater, _Marius the Epicurean_; Hicks,
_Stoic and Epicurean_, p. 184, for the _Golden Maxims_
of Epicurus; Teuffel, _History of Roman Literature_,
pp. 83–86.

35 – Windelband, _Hist. of Phil._, p. 183.

36 – Adamson, _The Development of Greek Philosophy_, p. 267.

37 – Professor C. P. Parker.

38 – A. Hicks, _Stoic and Epicurean_, pp. 322 ff.

39 – Read Grote, _Plato_, vol. iii, pp. 482–490, for the
interesting sophistical problems of the Liar, the Person
Disguised under a Veil, Electra, Sorites, Cornutus, and
the Bald Man.

40 – For a statement of these tropes, see Weber, _Hist. of
Phil._, p. 153.

41 – Ueberweg, _Hist. of Phil._, vol. i, p. 216.

42 – Read Dill, _Roman Society_, first three chapters.

43 – Read Charles Kingsley, _Hypatia_, a novel.

44 – Hatch, _Hibbert Lectures_, 1888, p. 182.

45 – Harnack, _Outlines of the Hist. of Dogma_, p. 120.

46 – Windelband, _Hist. of Ancient Phil._, p. 357.

47 – Harnack, _Outlines of the History of Dogma_, p. 159.

48 – Read Rossetti, _Shadow of Dante_, pp. 9–14; Karl Witte,
_Essays on Dante_, pp. 99 ff.

49 – Read Eucken, _Problem of Human Life_, pp. 219–221, 232,
236, 245–248; Turner, _Hist. of Philosophy_, p. 226;
De Wulf, _Hist. of Mediæval Phil._, pp. 90–98; Harnack,
_Hist. of Dogma_, vol. v, pp. 3–6.

50 – Eucken, _Problem of Human Life_, p. 247.

51 – Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, vol. v, p. 3.

52 – There is this difference between Augustine’s position and
that of Descartes. Augustine’s _Quod si fallor, sum_ is a
refutation of the doctrine of probability of the Academy,
not a demonstration; Descartes’ _Cogito, ergo sum_ is
positive,――a subtle but an important difference between
the two thinkers.

53 – Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, vol. v, p. 337.

54 – Harnack, _Hist. of Dogma_, vol. v, p. 112, n. 4.

55 – Harnack, vol. vi, p. 7.

56 – Glaber, _Hist._, lib. III, 4.

57 – In this period the conceptualists were confused with
nominalists and called nominalists.

58 – Historians are attaching more importance than formerly to
Constantinople as an intellectual centre of that time.

59 – Read on this point Seignobos, _Hist. of Mediæval
Civilization_, pp. 117 f.

60 – Read Emerton, _Mediæval Europe_, pp. 358–397; Adams,
_Civilization during the Middle Ages_, pp. 258–278.

61 – THE CRUSADES

_Major Crusades_

First Crusade, 1096–1099
Second Crusade, 1147–1149
Third Crusade, 1189–1192
Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204
Children’s Crusade, 1212

_Minor Crusades_

Fifth Crusade, 1216–1220
Sixth Crusade, 1228–1229
Seventh Crusade, 1248–1254
Eighth Crusade, 1270–1272

It will be noted that five of these nine Crusades occurred
within thirty years of the year 1200. The First Crusade
resulted in the capture of Jerusalem and the founding of
a kingdom. The other Crusades were directly or indirectly
concerned with the defense or recapture of that kingdom.

62 – Read Norton, _Readings in the Hist. of Education_,
pp. 102–103.

63 – Dante in _De Monarchia_ did not share in Thomas’s
subordination of the state to the church. Both Dante and
Thomas believed that destiny lies in the race, but the
great poet regarded man as destined equally for earthly
and heavenly happiness. To Dante the church and the state
are powers of like authority.

64 – Dante follows Thomas in placing the intellectual virtues
above the practical, and in pointing to the intellectual
intuition of God as the goal of human attainment. Beatrice
is Dante’s expression of this ideal.

65 – De Wulf, _Hist. of Mediæval Phil._, p. 323.

66 – Roger Bacon (1214–1292) lived at Oxford two generations
before Scotus. He was so versatile that he was not able
to dogmatize in any one field. He believed that theology
was based on the will of God, all other science on the
reason. He influenced both Scotus and Ockam to turn from
authority to experience. Morality was to him the content
of universal religion.

Transcriber’s Notes.

The following corrections have been made in the text:

Page 9:
Sentence starting: The passionate party strife....
– ‘familes’ replaced with ‘families’
(old, ruling families of nobles)

Page 193:
Sentence starting: On the other hand,...
– ‘evolulution’ replaced with ‘evolution’
(Darwin’s theory of evolution.)

Page 196:
Sentence starting: Studying the organic realm,...
– ‘organism’ replaced with ‘organisms’
(we find organisms to consist of)

Page 215:
Sentence starting: There were many other....
– ‘Pergamus’ replaced with ‘Pergamos’
(Rhodes, Antioch, Alexandria, Pergamos, Tarsus,)

Page 337:
Sentence starting: By means of neo-Platonism....
– ‘judye’ replaced with ‘judge’
(God as a judge )