Chapter XXXVIII: Section VI: Textile Manufactures

In the preceding volumes the progress of textile manufactures in Scotland to the end of the seventeenth century was narrated so far as they had then been introduced, for the manufacture of cotton was not introduced into this country till well through the eighteenth century. It will save repetition to present a short account of the inventions of the eighteenth century in connection with the spinning and weaving of textile fabrics.

Before the middle of the eighteenth century the improvement of spinning and weaving machinery began in England, and long before its close great progress had been made. In 1738, John Kay, a native of Bury, in Lancaster, invented the fly-shuttle, which enabled the weaver to make twice as much cloth as he made before; and his son, Robert Kay, invented the drop-box, by which the weaver can use any one of three shuttles, each with a different coloured weft, without the trouble of taking them from and replacing them in the lathe. The great impediment to the progress of textile manufactures was the impossibility of obtaining an ample supply of yarn by the appliances then in use. The one-thread wheel, although then worked from morning till night in many thousands of cottages, could not keep up with the weaver’s shuttle or the demand of the merchant. Genius, therefore, had to remove this difficulty, and at length a contrivance was invented by which fifty, a hundred, or a thousand threads could be spun at once by one pair of hands. As to who was the real originator of this achievement has been a subject of much controversy, to which I can only allude in the briefest terms. It seems to be clearly ascertained that John Wyatt, of Birmingham, was the inventor of the mode of spinning by rollers.¹ The patent for the invention was taken out in 1738, in the name of one Paul, with whom Wyatt was in partnership; the name of the latter only appears as a witness, although there is evidence to show that Wyatt was really the inventor of the machine. It was tried and produced yarn, but it does not seem to have been successful for some time, and it yielded no fruit to Wyatt. Regarding Wyatt’s machine, Mr. Baines says:――“So far is the one from being a copy of the other, that of Arkwright indicates great inventive talent even if we suppose he had seen the former machine; but the mechanical details of the two have so little in common that I am inclined to think ... that Arkwright had not seen the machine of Wyatt. It must, however, be admitted that to contrive and adjust the details of such a machine, though of the greatest practical importance, is a merit very subordinate to that of him who conceived the great principle. The latter is the glory of Wyatt. How much Arkwright owed to his predecessors can only be matter of conjecture; that he thus learned the principle of spinning by rollers I am convinced.... The latter unquestionably knew of the attempts to spin cotton by machinery at Birmingham and Northampton, and of the patent of 1738, which describes the two pairs of rollers, as he himself declares as much in the case which he drew up to be presented to Parliament in 1782.”

¹ “Having thus proved that the principle of Wyatt’s invention
was the same as that of the spinning frame brought into
use by Arkwright, I must add that the details of the
Birmingham machine were far from being perfect, and that the
machine differed greatly from Arkwright’s in its form and
construction.”――Baines’ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_,
pages 121‒138.

But whatever may have been the claims or the merits of Arkwright’s predecessors, it was he who rose from a very humble position and perfected and successfully introduced the invention of spinning by rollers. He was for many years engaged in perfecting his method of spinning cotton, and his sagacity and perseverance were at length rewarded, for he became exceedingly rich. “Wealth flowed in upon him with a full stream from his skilfully managed concerns. For several years he fixed the price of cotton twist, all other spinners conforming to his prices.... It has been shown that the splendid inventions, which even to the present day are ascribed to Arkwright by some of the ablest and best-informed persons in the kingdom, belong in a great part to other and much less fortunate men....

“The most marked traits in the character of Arkwright were his wonderful ardour, energy, and perseverance. He commonly laboured from five o’clock in the morning at his multifarious concerns till nine at night.... Arkwright was a severe economist of time; and that he might not waste a moment, he generally travelled with four horses and at a very rapid speed. His concerns in Derbyshire, in Lancaster, and in Scotland were so extensive and numerous as to show at once his astonishing power of transacting business and his all-grasping spirit. In many of these he had partners, but he generally managed in such a way that whoever lost he himself was a gainer. So unbounded was his confidence in the success of his machinery and in the national wealth to be produced by it that he would make light of discussions on taxation, and say that he would pay the national debt. His speculative schemes were vast and daring; he contemplated entering into the most extensive mercantile transactions and buying up all the cotton in the world in order to make an enormous profit by the monopoly.”¹

¹ Baines’ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, pages 140,
193‒196. Arkwright made a considerable sum of money by his
patents. He offered his patented machines for sale by public
advertisement, and gave many permission to use them, on
receiving a certain sum for each spindle; in several cases
he took shares in the mills erected; while he had several
large mills chiefly in his own hands, and from these various
sources he drew a large annual income.

Thus the fly shuttle was invented by Mr. John Kay in 1738; the same year Mr. John Wyatt invented a machine for spinning by rollers, and showed its practicability; Mr. James Hargreaves¹ invented the spinning-jenny about 1767, which he patented in 1770; and Arkwright, about the year 1769, invented the spinning-frame, sometimes called the water-frame, which he patented; and in 1779, Mr. Samuel Crompton completed his invention of the mule-jenny, which combined the action of both the preceding machines. But Arkwright introduced other improvements in carding, drawing, and roving machines. In 1785, the Rev. Dr. Cartwright invented a power-loom which has been usually regarded as the forerunner of those subsequently introduced. The mechanical inventions just enumerated indicate the commencement of a revolution in the modes of producing textile manufactures; although most of them were originally intended for the cotton manufacture, the application of machinery was extended to the whole circle of textile fabrics. It is needless to say that in the present century, the machines, the apparatus, and the appliances brought into use in this department of manufactures have reached an astonishing degree of perfection.

¹ James Hargreaves was a native of Standhill, near Blackburn;
and, shortly after 1770, he entered into partnership with
Mr. Thomas James, a joiner, and they erected a small mill
at Hockley, in which they spun yarn for the hosiers with
the jenny. This spinning business was carried on with fair
success, until the death of Hargreaves in 1778. Although
he did not amass wealth like Arkwright, he was enabled to
live comfortably in the latter years of his life; but many
afterwards made fortunes by means of his invention.

The stocking-frame was invented by William Lee in the
reign of Queen Elizabeth; but a prejudice against it long
prevailed, and it was not used in Scotland till 1771, when
a stocking frame was set up in the town of Hawick.

I. I now proceed to indicate the development of the woollen manufactures in Scotland. The woollen manufacture for many centuries has been carried on to a greater or less extent in all the counties of the kingdom; though, of course, in early times, the greater part of the produce was for home consumption. In the second quarter of the eighteenth century the manufacture of woollen goods consisted of the cheaper and coarser kinds, such as cheap serges made at Kilmarnock, Stirling, Aberdeen, and other places; Galashiels produced kerseys, and in Hawick and other Border towns blankets were made. At this period only a small quantity of woollen goods was exported.

The woollen and hosiery manufactures continued to extend. In 1776, it was recorded that in Stirling 160 looms, 38 stocking-frames, and 17 carpet-frames were employed; Kilmarnock had 66 looms engaged on carpets, and 80 on other branches of manufacture; in Montrose there was a woollen factory in which 70 hands were employed; in Alloa there were twenty manufacturers, who employed 150 looms and upwards of 400 workers; in Ayr there were 100 looms and 15 stocking-frames. In Edinburgh and Leith blanket-making, carpet-weaving, and stocking-knitting on frames were carried on; and Edinburgh and Leith had wool markets. There were 140 looms in Melrose, chiefly engaged in making woollen cloth; in Hawick there were 65 looms; in Kelso 40 looms were employed in making blankets and flannels; and in Peebles 40 looms were engaged in making coarse woollen goods; in Galashiels, then only a village, there were 30 looms and three waulk mills. In Haddington a considerable manufacture of woollen goods was carried on; in Glasgow there was then only one woollen factory. In Perth, Linlithgow, and other places, woollen cloth, carpets, and stockings were manufactured. In Aberdeenshire a considerable trade was carried on in cloth and stocking manufactures; Peterhead had two woollen factories which turned out goods to the value of £110 a-week; and the people of Ellon knitted stockings by the hand to the value of £100 a-month. In Aberdeen there were about 200 looms engaged on woollen manufactures; and the value of the hosiery goods produced in the city amounted to £120,000 per annum: this was then the staple trade of the town. The woollen manufacture was carried on to some extent in Inverness and Elgin; the latter city produced yarn to the value of £15,000 annually, which was chiefly sent to the London and Glasgow markets.

During the last ten years of the eighteenth century and the first quarter of this one, a marked progress took place in the woollen manufacture of Scotland. New machinery and improved carding and spinning appliances were introduced; and a few years later the power-loom was successfully brought into operation in this department of textile manufacture. In Aberdeen machinery was introduced into the woollen manufactures in 1790, by Mr. Charles Baird, who brought from England two carding-engines and four spinning-jennies; and he erected a mill on the river Don, about two miles from Aberdeen. At Galashiels carding-machines and spinning-jennies were introduced in 1791; and twelve years after, six new woollen factories had been erected in this ♦enterprising town. In 1814, spinning “mules” were introduced there, by which one man was enabled to work 500 spindles; and the shearing also was simplified and perfected in 1819. This manufacturing town has been long famous for its coloured tweeds and tartans, and other woollen fabrics. In 1828, the number of looms employed was 175, and in 1838, 265. The population of the town at the latter date was about 2500, ♠and it has since continued to increase. But hand labour has been superseded by machines in every department. It has now a population of upwards of 17,000; and, in 1871, it had 76 sets of carding-engines, and about 70,000 spindles. Carding-engines were introduced into the woollen manufactures in Hawick about the end of the last century.

♦ “enterpising” replaced with “enterprising”

♠ “aud” replaced with “and”

In 1825, the number of persons employed in the various branches of the woollen manufacture in Scotland was 24,000. In 1831, the power-loom was introduced into the woollen manufacture, and the rate of production was much increased. The superfine broadcloths manufactured in Aberdeenshire began to compete successfully in the London markets with the productions of the English looms; while the rapidly advancing prosperity of the nation created an increasing demand for narrow cloths, tartans, tweeds, flannels, and other kinds of woollen goods. The tweed and cloth branches continued to advance, new machinery and improved appliances were from time to time brought into operation; and, step by step, competition in the markets of the world became keener and keener, and every nerve was strained to the utmost to produce cheap and marketable goods. The tweed manufacturers have devoted great attention to colours and dyeing, and the resources of chemical science have been called into requisition in this art.

In 1812, the hosiery manufacture of Scotland had attained a considerable development, as there were then 1449 stocking-frames in operation, which were spread over thirty-eight different towns and villages; and this branch of industry still continued to expand. In 1844, a census of the trade was taken, and it was found that there were 2605 frames, distributed thus:――In Hawick and its vicinity, 1200; Dumfries and vicinity, 500; Edinburgh and vicinity, 150; Glasgow and Kilmarnock, 280; Selkirk and vicinity, 128; Perth, 108; Langholm, 92; Denholm and vicinity, 87; and Jedburgh and vicinity, 60. In 1871, the number of stocking-frames in Scotland was about 1650, of which 900 were in Hawick and 400 in Dumfries, and in both places power-frames were at work. The goods in the Scotch hosiery branch of trade consist of stockings of every description, drawers, under-shirts, and other articles of common use, and what is called fancy goods, such as tweed hose, shooting-socks, and a variety of goods in bright and variegated colours. Hawick and Dumfries have been long well-known centres of this department of the woollen manufacture.

Carpet-making as a branch of manufacture was begun in Scotland in the second quarter of the eighteenth century, and in 1735, it had attained to some success in Kidderminster. The first kind of Scotch carpet was the two-ply fabric, into which two colours only can be woven, which renders the range of pattern very limited. It was known under the name of Kidderminster carpet, and it became popular.

The manufacture of carpets was established in Kilmarnock in 1777, when eighty looms were employed. In this enterprising town the manufacture of carpets continued to extend, and it has long enjoyed a wide reputation for its products in this branch of industry. In 1825, there were 800 carpet-weavers in Kilmarnock, each producing about six yards of carpet a-day, and were paid at the rate of 3½ pence to 4¾ pence per yard. At this time there were 1200 carpet-weavers in Scotland. New appliances were devised, and the quality and patterns were greatly improved. Carpet-manufacture is now carried on in Glasgow, Aberdeen, Ayr, and Paisley. Various kinds and qualities of carpets have been produced for many years in Scotland, such as Brussels carpets, Turkish, Wilton, patent tapestry, and other varieties. In 1891 there were 6000 hands employed in this branch.

An extensive manufacture of bonnets has been carried on in Kilmarnock for upwards of two centuries. The manufacture of this class of goods in Kilmarnock, Kilmaurs, and Stewarton, which are all near each other, in 1869, was estimated at the gross yearly value of £150, 000, and £48,000 a year was paid in wages.

In 1875, the number of woollen factories in Scotland was upwards of 250, and of these 102 were engaged in spinning only, while 40 were employed in weaving only, and 105 were employed both in spinning and weaving.

In 1871, the number of people employed in the woollen and worsted manufactures in Scotland was 42,217. Of this number 18,403 were males, of whom 4230 were under twenty years of age; while the large number of 23,815 were females, of whom 9115 were under twenty. In 1891 there were upwards of 43,000 hands employed in this department of manufacture.

In Orkney and Shetland, in 1891, 5,370 persons were employed in the woollen and worsted manufactures, chiefly in making knitted goods, which have long been well known.

Touching the several branches of the woollen manufacture, there were 6226 employed in making knitted goods; in making worsted 1448 were engaged. In the wincey manufacture there were 916 hands employed. In the carpet and rug branch there were 6684 persons employed; in the woollen bonnet manufacture there were 3070 persons engaged; but only 100 persons were returned as engaged in the blanket and flannel manufacture.

II. The state of the linen trade in Scotland has been narrated in the preceding volumes, down to the end of the seventeenth century; and I quoted the Stamp Act of 1693, which, among other provisions touching the qualities and the breadth of linen made in Scotland, enacted that all linen cloth offered for sale should be regularly stamped. Linen was the staple manufacture of Scotland in the eighteenth century, and the Union was favourable to its progress. The Board of Manufactures, established in 1727, endeavoured to promote the manufacture of linen; and the British Linen Company, incorporated at Edinburgh in 1746, contributed to extend the linen trade by advancing money to the manufacturers. This company is now known under the name of the British Linen Company Bank.

In 1710, the quantity of linen produced was 1,500,000 yards, and, in 1720, Scotland exported to England alone £200,000 worth of Scotch linen. In 1727, the manufacture of linen was carried on more or less in twenty-five counties; and the quantity produced in each varied from 65 yards in Wigtonshire to 595,821 yards in Forfarshire; Perth, Fife, and Lanark came next in order. Afterwards linen was made in all the counties except Peebles, but Forfarshire has kept the lead throughout; in some of the counties and small towns in the country a considerable trade was done in linen-making in the eighteenth century, in which it has long ago been dropped.

In 1772, there were 252 lint-mills in Scotland, distributed through the country thus:――In Ross, 3; Caithness, 1; Elgin, 3; Banff, 8; Aberdeen, 7; Kincardine, 2; Forfar, 31; Lanark, 31; Perth, 73; Renfrew, 3; Linlithgow, 4; Dumbarton, 16; Stirling, 28; Fife, 11; Edinburgh, 1; Dumfries, 1; and Haddington, 1. About the same time, it was reported that new kinds of manufactures had been introduced in Paisley, and that the spinning of silk and the woollen and cotton manufactures had been extending.

In Orkney the making of linen yarn from home-grown flax was introduced in 1747, and the trade gradually spread over most of the islands. The yarn gained a reputation in southern markets, and from 1750 till 1785 a considerable quantity of yarn was annually exported; but after that time the trade declined, and it was dropped about the end of the century. Weaving was introduced at the same time as spinning, but the greatest quantity produced in any one year did not reach 30,000 yards. A large hemp factory was established at Inverness in 1765, and for a time nearly 1000 persons were employed. A company began the manufacture of linen thread at Inverness in 1780, which carried on a successful business for a number of years, and gave employment to 10,000 persons throughout the county, most of whom worked at their own homes. The flax was imported from the Baltic ports, and the thread was sent to London, and thence spread over the world. In 1822, the quantity of linen stamped for sale in Inverness was 318,465 yards; but from that date the trade declined till it became extinct in the county. In Aberdeenshire a large number of hands were engaged in the manufacture of linen yarn and cloth in the eighteenth century. In 1794 a considerable manufacture of thread was carried on in Peterhead; there were 52 twist mills in the town. Thread and linen cloth were also manufactured in Huntly, in Kincardineshire, and at Bervie, where a mill was erected for spinning linen yarn in 1787.¹

¹ _Statistical Account of Scotland._

There was a marked improvement in the quality of linen goods produced in Scotland, as well as a large increase in the quantity annually manufactured before the end of the eighteenth century, as the following table indicates, which is taken from the record formed under the Stamp Laws:

Years. Number of Yards. Estimated Value.
1728 2,183,978 £103,312 9 3
1738 4,666,011 185,026 11 9
1748 7,353,098 293,864 12 11
1758 10,624,435 424,141 10 7
1768 11,795,437 599,699 4 2
1778 13,264,410¾ 592,023 5 4½
1788 20,506,310½ 854,900 16 0¾
1798 21,207,059 850,403 9 9
1808 19,390,496 1,014,629 18 4
1818 31,238,100¼ 1,253,528 8 0½
1819 29,334,428¼ 1,157,923 4 11
1820 26,259,011¼ 1,038,708 18 5
1821 30,473,461¼ 1,232,038 15 4¾
1822 36,268,530¼ 1,396,295 19 11½

These figures show that the linen manufacture had advanced pretty steadily for about a century. It has, of course, had to compete with its rival, cotton, which attacked it in many localities, and especially in the west of Scotland. The result has been to concentrate the linen manufacture in a few localities which, from various causes, were well suited and advantageously placed for the successful prosecution of this branch of industry, while the introduction of machinery, the power-loom, and highly improved appliances set into operation in the large factories, soon rendered it impossible for the small mills throughout the country to compete in the markets of the world with them. Hence the disappearance of the linen manufacture in many of the counties where it was once carried on, and a similar result has taken place in shipbuilding.

Dunfermline has long had a wide reputation for linen manufactures. It is the chief seat of table linen manufacture in Britain. For upwards of a century the linen manufacturers of Dunfermline have devoted great attention to this branch, and exerted their utmost skill to perfect it, and the result was that they attained, and have long held, a leading position in their special industry.

The largest work in Dunfermline is the St. Leonard’s Power-Loom Factory, which is placed on the south side of the town, and is reported to be a model establishment. In 1869, it had 900 power-looms and 180 hand-looms, and the firm to which it belonged――Messrs. Beveridge & Company――gave employment to 1500 persons, the greater portion of whom were females. The quantity of linen produced by the firm per week averaged 200,000 square yards, and its value per annum was £360,000.

At the above date it was calculated that there were in Dunfermline 2670 power-looms and upwards of 1000 hand-looms, all in operation. There were over 2100 hands employed, and the total quantity of linen cloth annually produced was over 30,000,000 square yards――“which, formed into a web of the uniform width of one yard, would measure the distance between Great Britain and New Zealand, with a thousand miles or so to spare.” The value of the linen goods then produced in Dunfermline nearly reached £2, 000,000 per annum.¹ In 1891 there were 2,375 persons employed in the linen manufacture, and 229 in the cotton manufacture in Dunfermline.

¹ _Industries of Scotland_, by D. Bremner, pages 242‒246.

During the present century the linen manufacture has been extensively carried on in Arbroath, Forfar, Kirkcaldy, Montrose, and Aberdeen; but Dundee became a centre of the linen trade, and for about twenty years it had a monopoly of the manufacture of jute.

The jute trade is quite a recent development. The jute manufacture only began in 1835, and for some years so little progress was made that, in 1838, only 1136 tons of it were imported into Dundee. From this time onward the quantity of jute annually imported into Dundee increased at an enormous rate, in 1853 it rose to 15,400 tons; in 1858, it was over 30,000 tons, and, by the year 1868, the annual consumption of jute in Dundee had reached the figure of 60,000 tons. There are many large flax and jute factories in Dundee, and the jute manufacture has proved a source of wealth to the city.

When the jute was first introduced, it was only used for making goods of a coarse description; but, by improvements in the machinery and experience in working it, sheetings and many other kinds of goods were manufactured solely from it. A variety of goods are manufactured from jute and cotton mixed. In 1867, at some of the large jute works in Dundee over 4000 hands were employed. At the same date it was recorded that “the capital invested in the factories in Dundee is stated to be £2,500,000; in the district of which that town is centre, £2,200,000; in other parts of Scotland, £1,000,000――total, £5,700,000, to which has to be added the value of the bleaching-works, calendars, etc., in the trade, which cannot be put down at less than £1,300,000. It takes about six months from the purchase of the raw material before the goods can be manufactured or the proceeds drawn, so the stock-in-trade of manufacturers and merchants will amount to £5,000,000. It would thus appear that a capital of £12,000,000 is required for carrying on the linen trade of Scotland.”¹

¹ _Industries of Scotland_, by D. Bremner, page 269.

In 1871, there were upwards of 200 flax, linen, and jute factories in Scotland, and the total number of persons employed in all the branches of those manufactures was about 91,000. Of this number upwards of 61,000 were females. The chief centres of the linen and jute manufactures are the three counties of Forfar, Fife, and Perth; the manufactures are carried on in the chief towns of these counties, with Dundee as the metropolis. The manufacture of linen and jute is carried on in some of the other towns; in Glasgow there were 2000 hands employed on flax and jute, and in Aberdeen 1800.

Touching the different branches of the linen and jute manufactures, in 1862 there were 27 jute factories in Scotland, which had 30,538 spindles, 554 power-looms, and 5418 hands employed; the greater part of these were in Dundee. But, in 1875, there were 84 jute factories, classified thus:――(1) Fifteen were engaged in spinning, and these had 115 carding machines, 18 combing machines, 33,527 spinning spindles, 1080 doubling spindles; (2) nineteen were employed in weaving, and these had 1384 power-looms; (3) fifty were employed in spinning and weaving, and these had 747 carding machines, 42 combing machines, 151,892 spinning spindles, 6578 doubling spindles, and 6941 power-looms. In these jute factories there were then 37,943 persons employed, and of this number 21,350 were females.

In making linen thread there were 240 persons engaged, of whom 143 were females. There were 184 hands employed in the linen lace manufacture; in making sheeting, ticking, and tape, there were 168 hands employed, of whom 71 were females. In the jute carpet manufacture 91 persons were employed.

III. The manufacture of cotton was not introduced into Scotland till past the middle of last century. Cotton is not grown in this country, a circumstance of great moment, as was shown during the late American War; while wool and flax have been produced at home in smaller or greater quantities from very early times, although large quantities of both are annually imported.¹ But the cotton manufacture has attained a remarkable development in Scotland. An account has already been given of the mechanical inventions which were made in England; and the introduction of machinery which followed thereupon was at first almost entirely applied to the cotton manufacture, and from it transferred and gradually made suitable to the other departments of textile manufactures. Although there are many appliances specially suited for each of the great branches of textile manufacture, the application of steam-power to the processes of preparing the raw materials, and the use of the power-loom in spinning and weaving, has greatly increased production.

¹ The cultivation of flax was one of the objects which Lord
Kames endeavoured to promote and extend in Scotland. In
the year 1765, he published a pamphlet on the progress of
“Flax Husbandry in Scotland,” with the patriotic aim of
stimulating his countrymen to continue and redouble their
efforts in this valuable branch of national industry. He
showed that the linen manufacture had made great progress
between 1727 and 1765; and he insists on the expediency of
encouraging and prosecuting the culture of flax at home. At
the date of Kames’ pamphlet the annual value of the foreign
flax imported into Scotland was £110,000 sterling; but the
yearly saving of this large sum is not the only or the chief
benefit to be reaped from raising the commodity on our own
fields. “Experience has shown that the commodity itself,
when of home growth, is of a superior quality to the foreign:
and experience shows also that no crop is more valuable to
the farmer or yields a quicker return for the labour and
cost of cultivation.” Lord Kames’ pamphlet was reprinted in
the _Scots’ Magazine_ for January, 1766.――Tytler’s _Memoirs
of the Life of Lord Kames_, Volume II., pages 60‒62.

The first cotton mills in Scotland were one erected at Rothesay in 1778, and another at Penicuik about the same time, which were soon followed by others. In 1787, there were 19 cotton mills in Scotland, all driven by water; and they were distributed thus:――4 in Lanarkshire, 4 in Renfrewshire, 3 in Perthshire, 2 in Midlothian, and 6 in other places. At that time labour was cheap and hands were easily obtained. The few simple operations which required to be performed in the factory were soon learned, while the wages in the factories were higher than those of agricultural labourers. In a short time, however, when a superabundance of hands had entered the trade, wages were reduced, and throughout the history of the factory system in Scotland the wages of the workers has never been high.

Before the end of the century the Scotch cotton manufacturers were producing a variety of goods. The production of muslin began in 1780, and in Paisley, shortly after, the manufacture of fancy cotton fabrics began. After the plain muslins came the mulls, nainsooks, ginghams, pullicates, and other varieties were rapidly turned out.

The first steam-engine for spinning cotton in Scotland was erected at Springfield, Glasgow, in January, 1792, by Messrs. Scott, Stevenson & Company Mr. Robert Miller, of Glasgow, obtained a patent for a power-loom in 1796; and Mr. John Monteith, of Glasgow, adopted it, and erected a factory at Pollokshaws with 200 looms; and as the apparatus was improved in efficiency, its working power soon became great.

In 1820, there were 2000 power-looms in Scotland; in 1829, there were 10,000; and in 1833, there were upwards of 14,000. At the latter date there were 134 cotton mills in Scotland, and at this time the cotton manufacture was centred in Glasgow and the district around it. Out of the total number of mills in Scotland nearly 100 belonged to Glasgow. In 1838, there were upwards of 37, 000 hand-loom weavers in the west of Scotland directly connected with cotton weaving.

According to a parliamentary return, there were 168 cotton factories in Scotland in 1850, and of these 94 were in Lanarkshire; in Renfrewshire, 51; in Ayrshire, 4; Dumbartonshire, 4; in Stirlingshire, 4; in Buteshire, 4; in Perthshire, 3; in Aberdeenshire, 2; and a few in other places. Thus Lanark and Renfrew had 145 cotton factories, leaving only 23 in all the other cotton manufacturing districts of the kingdom. These two counties had 1,385,238 spindles and 20,788 power-looms. The total number of persons in Scotland then employed in this branch of manufacture was 36,322.

In 1861, the number of cotton factories had decreased to 163, but the number of hands had increased and also the quantity of steam-power. In that year there were 1,915,398 spindles and 30,110 power-looms in operation, and 41,237 persons were employed. The American War, however, between 1861 and 1866 seriously disturbed the cotton trade, and many of those employed in it suffered severely both in England and Scotland, as this country was largely dependent for the supply of raw material upon the Southern States. Some of the cotton factories are very large, and in Glasgow several of them employ from 1500 to nearly 2000 hands.

In 1871, the number of persons employed in the cotton manufacture was about 50,000, and of this number over 30,000 were females. In 1891 the number of hands was about 47,000. The several branches of this manufacture are the following:――1. Plain cotton goods, of which great quantities are produced. 2. Lace manufacture, in which 1,621 persons were employed, of whom 795 were females. 3. In embroidering muslin, 487 hands were engaged. 4. In the branches of calico printing, dyeing, and bleaching, 10,599 persons were employed, of whom 4,858 were females. 5. The manufacture of thread, which has been greatly developed.

In 1722 the manufacture of thread was introduced into Paisley; but it was on a small scale till the early part of this century, when cotton thread began to be largely manufactured, especially since about the middle of the century. Paisley is the chief centre of the thread manufacture. The thread works of Messrs. J. & P. Coats, Limited, occupy 40 acres of ground, and have been developed with remarkable skill, energy, and enterprise. All the appliances and machinery used in manufacturing the thread are of the most efficient description. There are six large boilers in a row at a short distance from each other, and the furnaces of these are fed with coal by a self-acting contrivance. The engine room is grand, with its powerful and beautiful engines, and the great motive wheel revolving at a surprising velocity. In a large one storey building the wood for making the spools or pirns is stored. The spools are manufactured thus:――The wood is sawn into suitable pieces of about four feet in length, each of these is put through a number of machines, the first of which rounds the piece of wood, the second advances it another stage, and so on through the other machines till the spools are finished and ready for the thread. The raw cotton requires various preparatory processes, such as cleaning, combing, etc., then the prepared material is taken to a large mill of five or six storeys in height. When the steam is turned on, the material is worked through an elaborate combination of mechanism, the process of manufacture being advanced successively in each storey till the finished thread is turned out――wound on the pirns and ready for use. A vast quantity of thread is produced in the works. The Company gives employment to over 5,000 hands,――the greater number of whom are girls. There is a very complete set of fire brigade appliances which can be instantly put into operation in the event of a fire occurring in the works.

Messrs. Clark & Company’s thread works in Paisley are also most extensive, and occupy 50 acres of ground on the banks of the Cart. There are several large mills, and ten engines which represent a total of 6,000 horse power. They employ 500 men and 3,500 girls. In Glasgow 1,100 are employed in the thread manufacture. The total number of hands engaged in this branch of industry in Scotland exceeds 12,000.

IV. The manufacture of silk gauze was commenced at Paisley in 1760, and from that date till about 1785 the silk gauze weaving trade was exceedingly prosperous in Scotland. At the latter date, in Paisley and the surrounding villages, 5000 looms were engaged on silk fabrics, and they produced goods of the annual value of £350,000. Although this branch has passed through many fluctuations, the manufacture of silk goods is still carried on in Paisley and Glasgow. In 1871, the number of persons employed in this industry was 2440, of whom 1256 were females. In 1875, there were four silk factories in Scotland. In 1891 there were nearly 4000 hands employed in it, mostly females.

V. There are many mixed textile fabrics produced, such as cotton and silk, wool and silk, cotton mixed with flax, and cotton with jute, and so on through all the varieties of fancy and coloured goods, down to the varied kinds and qualities of the cheap shoddy and mungo.

VI. Floorcloth is manufactured on a large scale at Kirkcaldy. The manufacture of this class of goods has recently attained a high degree of elaboration in Scotland. Thirty years ago, the firm of Messrs. Nairn had gained a high reputation for their floorcloth. In 1871 about 250 persons were engaged in this manufacture, while in 1891 the number of persons employed was 1266.

In 1871, the entire number of persons employed in textile manufactures was nearly 200,000; and if we add those dependent upon them, the total number of persons directly dependent for their support on this department of factory labour would be about 350,000. In 1891 the number of hands was 205,550, of whom 133,217 were females.

The introduction of machinery and the power-loom, it is well known, entailed great and widespread suffering on the hand-loom weavers and those dependent upon them; and without dwelling upon this sad side of the subject, I may notice a few facts and circumstances connected with it. About the end of the eighteenth century and the early years of this century, the weavers in the west and south of Scotland were the best paid class of workers in the country. They had in general the character of being men of intelligence, and exercised considerable influence upon the public opinion of the country; many of them were keen and able politicians, notwithstanding the sneers of some of the Scotch judges of the period touching their intellectual capacities. They probably did more to advance political reform than has yet been recognised. But owing to the introduction of the power-loom, and various circumstances, from about the year 1816, their wages began and continued to fall; and before the second quarter of the century had run far they had fallen very low. When engaged in weaving certain qualities of cloth they could earn from 30 shillings to 32 shillings a week in 1806; in 1810 they were making 26 shillings a week; but in 1820 they had fallen to 10 shillings a week; and in 1830 to 5 shillings 6 pence a week. To relieve their distress and suffering emigration on a large scale was applied, and many of them were forced to leave the home of their fathers.

“At the present day it can only be said that a remnant of the great wreck continues to ply the ancient calling in the scattered villages of the west, where in early days the sound of the shuttle was heard all day long in almost every cottage. According to a rough census, made in 1872, of the counties of Lanark, Renfrew, and Ayr, there were then about 10,000 hand-loom weavers either at work in their own houses or in shops belonging to manufacturers; but they were a steadily declining remnant. In 1875, working upon Paisley shawls, they could earn from 4 shillings to 5 shillings per day, but at shirting and the common descriptions of work, which, however, are mostly left to women and boys, not more than 8 shillings a week could be earned, and that with the labour of twelve, fourteen, and sometimes even more, hours. Working practically beyond the range of factory inspectors’ supervision, the hand-loom weavers not only labour long and irregular hours, but children of tender years, taken in as apprentices, have to ply the shuttle for equally hurtful and unconscionable periods.”¹

¹ _Notices of some of the Principal Manufactures of the West
of Scotland_, page 190. The above statement was written in
1875.

Thus the industrial revolution was not accomplished without incidentally causing much suffering; but there are a few other points which must be noticed before passing from this class of manufactories. Prior to the year 1834 children of all ages were employed in factories. But in the beginning of that year an act of parliament came into operation, which enacted that no person under eighteen years of age should be permitted to work in the night between half-past eight P.M. and half-past five A.M. in any factory in which steam or water power was used, except in lace factories. That no person under eighteen years of age should be employed more than twelve hours a day, nor more that sixty-nine in one week. That no child under nine years of age should be employed in factories, except in silk mills; and after the 1st of March, 1835, none should be employed under twelve years of age; and after the 1st of March, 1836, none under thirteen years of age. There are other important provisions in the interest of children in this act, such as those requiring that the younger children should be educated. The act, however, seems to have been unsatisfactory. Mr. Baines in his _History of the Cotton Manufacture_ says: “All the inspectors declare that the clauses requiring the education of the younger children, and prohibiting those children from being worked more than 48 hours in the week――eight hours a-day――have only the effect of compelling the masters to discharge the children between nine and eleven years of age. If this act should continue in force, all children under twelve years of age would be discharged in March, 1835, and this would make it impossible in many cases to carry on the mills, as children above that age could not be had in sufficient numbers. The inspectors, therefore, state that the act must be amended in these respects, and there can be no doubt that this amendment will take place next session. It is found impossible to compel the education of the children, and the attempt to do it has only produced hardship to them and their parents, from the number who have lost their employment. The Commissioners had hoped that the manufacturers might obtain relays of children, each set working not more than eight hours a-day, whilst those above thirteen years of age worked twelve hours. But neither can the children be obtained, nor will the masters submit to the inconvenience caused by the change of hands.”¹

¹ _History of the Cotton Manufacture_, pages 479‒480.

By subsequent acts of Parliament the employment of children in factories has been entirely prohibited, and the hours of labour for adults has been shortened more than two hours per day in factories. Concerning the employment of children, the change which the factory acts have introduced was greatly needed, both on the grounds of humanity and considerations of physical vigour and health, as well as moral and mental education; for seventy-eight hours’ labour a-week for a child under ten years of age is nothing short of actual cruelty.

The operatives in textile factories were not highly paid for their labour in Scotland; and, although this is true generally, in the early stages of the cotton manufacture, and in certain branches, there were some exceptions. Glasgow may be taken as representing an average of the highest wages paid to workers in cotton factories. In 1833 the weekly wages of this class were as follows:――1. Boys under eleven years of age, 1 shillings 11¾ pence; girls under this age, 1 shilling 10½ pence. 2. Boys from eleven years of age to sixteen, 4 shillings 7 pence; girls of the same age, 3 shillings 8¾ pence. 3. The wages of men ranged from 18 shillings to 19 shillings; and those of women about 6 shillings 8 pence, but some of those who worked on piece-work made high wages. Men at wheels, containing from 252 to 300 spindles, earned 4 shillings 6 pence a-day; women engaged as reelers and winders, from 1 shilling 4 pence to 1 shilling 2 pence a-day. Youths and girls from fourteen to seventeen years of age, employed in the preparing room, or as piercers to the spinners, earned 1 shilling 4 pence a-day; boys and girls from ten to fourteen years of age, employed in the same kind of work, made from 10 pence to 8 pence a-day; children under ten years of age earned from 5 pence to 4 pence a-day. Youths and girls at wheels of from 120 to 180 spindles made from 3 shillings to 2 shillings a-day.

In 1867 the weekly wages of the cotton operatives in Glasgow were these:――Men, overlookers, 45 shillings; warpers, 22 shillings; drawers and twisters, 20 shillings; dressers, 33 shillings; sizers, 35 shillings Women, reelers and winders, 9 shillings to 10 shillings 6 pence; warpers, 14 shillings; weavers, taking charge of two or three looms, 11 shillings; of four looms, 15 shillings 6 pence. Girls, taking charge of one loom, 6 shillings. So much for textile manufactures.