Chapter VIII: The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals (9)

358 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. At
Kotedougou a French officer saw a number of disguised men called
_dou_ dancing and performing various antics about the houses, under
the trees, and in the fields. Hemp and palm leaves were sewn on
their garments and they wore caps of hemp surmounted by a crest of
red-ochred wood, sometimes by a wooden beak of a bird. He gathered
that the ceremony takes place at the beginning of winter, and he
thought that the processions “are perhaps intended to drive away the
evil spirits at the season of tillage or perhaps also to procure
rain.” See Le Capitaine Binger, _Du Niger au Golfe de Guinée par le
pays de Kong et le Mossi_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 378-380.

M103 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hos of North-Eastern India at
harvest.

359 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872),
pp. 196 _sq._ We have seen that among the Pondos of South Africa the
harvest festival of first-fruits is in like manner a period of
licence and debauchery. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_,
ii. 66 _sq._

M104 Annual expulsion of demons among the Hindoo Koosh tribes at harvest.
Annual expulsion of demons among the Khonds at sowing.

360 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p.
103.

361 W. Macpherson, _Memorials of Service in India from the
Correspondence of the late Major S. C. Macpherson_ (London, 1865),
pp. 357 _sq._ Possibly this case belongs more strictly to the class
of mediate expulsions, the devils being driven out upon the car.
Perhaps, however, the car with its contents is regarded rather as a
bribe to induce them to go than as a vehicle in which they are
actually carted away. Anyhow it is convenient to take this case
along with those other expulsions of demons which are the
accompaniment of an agricultural festival.

M105 Annual expulsion of disease in Chota Nagpur. Annual expulsion of
demons among the Mossos of China.

362 H. C. Streatfield, “Ranchi,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii. (Calcutta, 1904) p. 36.

_ 363 Le Tour du Monde_, iii. (Paris, 1897) pp. 227 _sq._, quoting _Aux
sources de l’Irraouaddi, d’Hanoï à Calcutta par terre_, par M. E.
Roux, Troisième Partie.

M106 Periodical expulsion of demons in Bali.

364 R. van Eck, “Schetsen van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii. (1879) pp. 58-60. Van Eck’s account
is reprinted in J. Jacobs’s _Eenigen tijd onder de Baliërs_
(Batavia, 1883), pp. 190 _sqq._ According to another writer, each
village may choose its own day for expelling the devils, but the
ceremony must always be performed at the new moon. A necessary
preliminary is to mark exactly the boundaries of the village
territory, and this is done by stretching the leaves of a certain
palm across the roads at the boundaries. See F. A. Liefrinck,
“Bijdrage tot de kennis van het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 246 _sq._
As to the “dark moon” it is to be observed that some eastern
nations, particularly the Hindoos and the Burmese, divide the
monthly cycle of the moon into two parts, which they call the light
moon and the dark moon respectively. The light moon is the first
half of the month, when the luminary is waxing; the dark moon is the
second half of the month, when the luminary is waning. See Francis
Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,” _Asiatick
Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) p. 171. The Balinese have no doubt
derived the distinction, like much else, from the Hindoos.

M107 Annual expulsion of the fire-spirit among the Shans. Annual ceremony
in Fiji. Annual ceremony in Tumleo.

365 J. Anderson, _Mandalay to Momien_ (London, 1876), p. 308.

_ 366 United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and Philology_, by
H. Hale (Philadelphia, 1846), pp. 67 _sq._; Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative
of the U.S. Exploring Expedition_, New Edition (New York, 1851),
iii. 90 _sq._, 342. According to the latter writer, the sea-slug was
eaten by the men alone, who lived during the four days in the
temple, while the women and boys remained shut up in their houses.
As to the annual appearance and catch of the sea-slug in the seas of
Fiji, see further B. Seeman, _Viti, an Account of a Government
Mission to the Vitian or Fijian Islands in the Years 1860-1862_
(Cambridge, 1862), pp. 59-61; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_ (London,
1908), pp. 324-327. A somewhat different account of the appearance
of the slug (_Palolo veridis_) in the Samoan Sea is given from
personal observation by Dr. George Brown. He says: “This annelid, as
far as I can remember, is about 8 or 12 inches long, and somewhat
thicker than ordinary piping-cord. It is found only on two mornings
in the year, and the time when it will appear and disappear can be
accurately predicted. As a general rule only a few _palolo_ are
found on the first day, though occasionally the large quantity may
appear first; but, as a rule, the large quantity appears on the
second morning. And it is only found on these mornings for a very
limited period, viz. from early dawn to about seven o’clock, _i.e._
for about two hours. It then disappears until the following year,
except in some rare instances, when it is found for the same limited
period in the following month after its first appearance. I kept
records of the time, and of the state of the moon, for some years,
with the following result: that it always appeared on two out of the
following three days, viz. the day before, the day of, and the day
after the last quarter of the October moon.” See George Brown, D.D.,
_Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 135 _sq._ The slug
is also caught in the sea off Samoa, according to one account, at
intervals of six months. One of its appearances takes place on the
eighth day after the new moon of October. So regular are the
appearances of the creature that the Samoans reckon their time by
them. See E. Boisse, “Les îles Samoa, Nukunono, Fakaafo, Wallis et
Hoorn,” _Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vi. Série,
x. (1875) pp. 430 _sq._ In antiquity every year vast shoals of a
small fish used to ascend the river Olynthiac from the lake of Bolbe
in Macedonia, and all the people of the neighbourhood caught and
salted great store of them. They thought that the fish were sent to
them by Bolbe, the mother of Olynthus, and they noted it as a
curious fact that the fish never swam higher up than the tomb of
Olynthus, which stood on the bank of the river Olynthiac. The shoals
always made their appearance in the months of Anthesterion and
Elaphebolion, and as the people of Apollonia (a city on the bank of
the lake) celebrated their festival of the dead at that season,
formerly in the month of Elaphebolion, but afterwards in the month
of Anthesterion, they imagined that the fish came at that time on
purpose. See Athenaeus, viii. 11, p. 334 F.

367 M. J. Erdweg, “Die Bewohner der Insel Tumleo Berlinhafen,
Deutsch-New-Guinea,” _Mittheilungen der anthropologischen
Gesellschaft in Wien_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 329 _sq._

M108 Annual expulsion of demons in Japan.

368 A. Humbert, _Le Japon illustré_ (Paris, 1870), ii. 326.

369 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. (Jena, 1869) p.
367.

370 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 309.

371 Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), ii.
498 _sq._ The writer agrees with Mr. Aston as to the formula of
exorcism—“_Oni wa soto! fuku wa uchi_”, “Devils out! Good fortune
in!”

M109 Annual expulsion of poverty and demons in China, India, and Persia.

372 Eitel, “Les Hak-ka,” _L’Anthropologie_, iv. (1893) pp. 175 _sq._

_ 373 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. pp. 146 _sq._, § 792 (June, 1885);
D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,
1883), p. 119; W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern
India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 188, 295 _sq._

374 John Richardson, _Dictionary of Persian, Arabic, and English_, New
Edition (London, 1829), p. liii.

M110 Annual expulsion of demons in China at the end of the year.

375 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 977 _sq._

376 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 978.

377 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 979.

378 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. 944 _sqq._;
_id._, _The Religion of China_ (New York, 1910), pp. 38 _sq._; J. H.
Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 251 _sq._

379 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and
Superstitions of Korea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891)
p. 185.

M111 Annual expulsion of demons in Tonquin.

380 S. Baron, “Description of the Kingdom of Tonqueen,” in J.
Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, ix. (London, 1811) pp. 673, 695
_sq._; compare Richard, “History of Tonquin,” _ibid._ p. 746. The
account of the ceremony by Tavernier (whom Baron criticises very
unfavourably) is somewhat different. According to him, the expulsion
of wicked souls at the New Year is combined with sacrifice to the
honoured dead. “At the beginning of every year they have a great
solemnity in honour of the dead, who were in their lives renowned
for their noble actions and valour, reckoning rebels among them.
They set up several altars, some for sacrifices, others for the
names of the persons they design to honour; and the king, princes,
and mandarins are present at them, and make three profound
reverences to the altars when the sacrifices are finished; but the
king shoots five times against the altars where the rebels’ names
are; then the great guns are let off, and the soldiers give vollies
of small shot, to put the souls to flight. The altars and papers
made use of at the sacrifices are burnt, and the bonzes and sages go
to eat the meat made use of at the sacrifice” (Tavernier, in John
Harris’s _Collection of Voyages and Travels_, vol. i. (London, 1744)
p. 823). The translation is somewhat abridged. For the French
original, see J. B. Tavernier, _Voyages en Turquie, en Perse, et aux
Indes_ (The Hague, 1718), iii. 230 _sq._

M112 Annual expulsion of demons in Cambodia and Siam.

381 É. Aymonier, _Notice sur le Cambodge_ (Paris, 1875), p. 62.

382 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp.
237, 298, 314, 529 _sq._; Mgr. Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume
Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), i. 252. Bastian (p. 314), with whom
Pallegoix seems to agree, distinctly states that the expulsion takes
place on the last day of the year. Yet both say that it occurs in
the fourth month of the year. According to Pallegoix (i. 253) the
Siamese year is composed of twelve lunar months, and the first month
usually begins in December. Hence the expulsion of devils would
commonly take place in March, as in Cambodia. In Laos the year
begins in the fifth month and it ends in the fifth month of the
following year. See Lieutenant-Colonel Tournier, _Notice sur le Laos
Français_ (Hanoi, 1900), p. 187. According to Professor E. Seler the
festival of Toxcatl, celebrated in the fifth month, was the old
Mexican festival of the New Year. See E. Seler, _Altmexikanische
Studien_, ii. (Berlin, 1899) pp. 153, 166 _sq._ (_Veröffentlichungen
aus dem königlichen Museum für Völkerkunde_, vi. Heft 2/4). Hence it
appears that in some calendars the year is not reckoned to begin
with the first month.

383 Ernest Young, _The Kingdom of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898),
pp. 135 _sq._

384 “Lettre de Mgr. Bruguière, évêque de Capse, à M. Bousquet,
vicaire-général d’Aire,” _Annales de l’Association de la Propagation
de la Foi_, v. (Paris and Lyons, 1831) p. 188. As to the temporary
king of Siam, his privileges and the ceremony of ploughing which he
performs, see _The Dying God_, pp. 149-151.

M113 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in Japan.

385 Charlevoix, _Histoire et description generale du Japon_ (Paris,
1736), i. 128 _sq._; C. P. Thunberg, _Voyages au Japon_ (Paris,
1796), iv. 18-20; A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v.
(Jena, 1869) p. 364; Beaufort, in _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 102; A. Morgan, in _Journal of American
Folk-lore_, x. (1897) pp. 244 _sq._; Lafcadio Hearn, _Glimpses of
Unfamiliar Japan_ (London, 1894), i. 106-110, ii. 504 _sq._ The
custom of welcoming the souls of the dead back to their old homes
once a year has been observed in many lands. See _Adonis, Attis,
Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 301 _sqq._

M114 Annual reception and expulsion of the spirits of the dead in ancient
Greece and Rome.

386 Above, pp. 123 _sq._

387 Hesychius, _s.v._ μιαραὶ ἡμέραι; τοῦ Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν αἶς τὰς
ψυχὰς τῶν κατοιχομένων ἀνιέναι ἐδόκουν. Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.vv._
Θύραζε Κᾶρες; οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια ... τινὲς δὲ οὕτως τὴν παροιμίαν
φασί; Θύραζε Κῆρες οὐκέτ᾽ Ἀνθεστήρια; ὡς κατὰ τὴν πόλιν τοῖς
Ἀνθεστηρίοις τῶν ψυχῶν περιερχομένων. _Id._, _s.vv._ μιαρὰ ἡμέρα; ἐν
τοῖς Χουσὶν Ἀνθεστηριῶνος μηνός, ἐν ᾧ δοκοῦσιν αἱ ψυχαὶ τῶν
τελευτησάντων ἀνιέναι, ῥάμνῳ ἕωθεν ἐμασῶντο καὶ πίττῃ τὰς θύρας
ἔχριον. Pollux, viii. 141: περισχοινίσαι τὰ ἱερὰ ἔλεγον ἐν ταῖς
ἀποφράσι καί τὸ παραφράξαι. As to the closing of the temples, see
further Athenaeus, x. 49, p. 447 C. As to the Anthesteria in
general, see E. Rohde, _Psyche_3 (Tübingen and Leipsic, 1903), i.
236 _sqq._, who rightly adopts Hesychius’s second explanation of
Κῆρες. The reasons given by August Mommsen for rejecting that
explanation betray an imperfect acquaintance with popular
superstition (_Feste der Stadt Athen im Altertum_, Leipsic, 1898, p.
386, note 1). Compare Miss J. E. Harrison, _Prolegomena to the Study
of Greek Religion_, Second Edition (Cambridge, 1908), pp. 32 _sqq._
The Greeks thought that branches of buckthorn (_rhamnus_) fastened
to doors or windows kept out witches (Dioscorides, _De materia
medica_, i. 119). A similar virtue was attributed to buckthorn or
hawthorn by the ancient Romans and modern European peasants. See A.
Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Göttertranks_2 (Güterslöh,
1886), pp. 209 _sq._; J. Murr, _Pflanzenwelt in der griechischen
Mythologie_ (Innsbruck, 1890), pp. 104-106; _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 54 _sq._, 191. According to Mr. Murr,
_rhamnus_ is _Lycium europaeum_ L. I learn from Miss J. E. Harrison
that Sir Francis Darwin believes it to be buckthorn (_Rhamnus
catharticus_). In some parts of Bosnia, when peasant women go to pay
a visit in a house where a death has occurred they put a little
hawthorn (_Weissdorn_) behind their headcloth, and on returning from
the house they throw it away on the street. They think that if the
deceased has turned into a vampyre, he will be so occupied in
picking up the hawthorn, that he will not be able to follow them to
their homes. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen
Volksglauben,” _Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. At childbirth also the
Greeks smeared pitch on their houses to keep out the demons (εἰς
ἀπέλασιν τῶν δαιμόνων) who attack women at such times (Photius,
_Lexicon_, _s.v._ ῥάμνος). To this day the Bulgarians try to keep
wandering ghosts from their houses by painting crosses with tar on
the outside of their doors, while on the inside they hang a tangled
skein composed of countless broken threads. The ghost cannot enter
until he has counted all the threads, and before he has done the sum
the cock crows and the poor soul must return to the grave. See A.
Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 454. The Servians paint
crosses with tar on the doors of houses and barns to keep out
vampyres. See F. S. Krauss, “Vampyre im südslavischen Volksglauben,”
_Globus_, lxi. (1892) p. 326. In the Highlands of Scotland it was
believed that tar put on a door kept witches away. See J. G.
Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands
of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 13. The Thompson Indians of British
Columbia used to bar their houses against ghosts by means not unlike
those adopted by the Athenians at the Anthesteria. When a death had
happened, they hung a string of deer-hoofs across the inside of the
house, and an old woman often pulled at the string to make the hoofs
rattle. This kept the ghost out. They also placed branches of
juniper at the door or burned them in the fire for the same purpose.
See James Teit, “The Thompson Indians of British Columbia” (April
1900), p. 332 (_The Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the
American Museum of Natural History_). With the Athenian use of ropes
to keep ghosts out of the temples at the Anthesteria we may compare
the Siamese custom of roping demons out of the city at the New Year
(above, p. 149). Ropes of rice-straw, which are supposed to repel
demoniacal and evil influences, are hung by the Japanese in front of
shrines, and at the New Year they hang them also before ordinary
houses. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 335 _sq._ Some
of the Kayans of Borneo stretch ropes round their houses to keep out
demons of disease; in order to do so more effectually leaves of a
certain plant or tree are fastened to the rope. See A. W.
Nieuwenhuis, _Quer durch Borneo_, i. (Leyden, 1904) p. 448.

388 Scholiast on Aristophanes, _Frogs_, 218.

389 J. Perham, “Sea Dyak Religion,” _Journal of the Straits Branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 14, December 1884, pp. 296-298.

390 Ovid, _Fasti_, v. 419-486; Varro, quoted by Nonius Marcellus, p. 135
(p. 142 ed. Quicherat), _s.v._ “Lemures”; Festus, p. 87 ed. C. O.
Müller, _s.v._ “Fabam.” Ovid, who is our chief authority for the
ceremony, speaks as if the festival lasted only one day (the ninth
of May). But we know from the inscribed calendars that it lasted
three days. See W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the period
of the Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 106 _sqq._

M115 Annual expulsion of Satan among the Wotyaks and Cheremiss of Russia.

391 Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken_ (Stuttgart, 1882), pp. 153 _sq._

392 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 94;
P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer Beitrag zur Ethnographie der
Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890) p. 204.

M116 Annual expulsion of witches and other powers of evil in Christian
Europe.

393 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_ (Cosenza, 1884), pp. 42
_sq._

394 Vincenzo Dorsa, _La tradizione greco-latina negli usi e nelle
credenze popolari della Calabria Citeriore_, p. 48.

395 J. G. von Hahn, _Albanesische Studien_ (Jena, 1854), i. 160. Compare
_The Dying God_, pp. 264 _sq._

396 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 86.

M117 Widespread fear of witches and wizards in Europe.

397 As to the activity of the evil powers on the twelve days from
Christmas to Twelfth Night, see Gustav Bilfinger, _Das germanische
Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), pp. 74 _sqq._; as to witches on St.
George’s Eve, May Eve, and Midsummer Eve, see _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127, 334 _sqq._

M118 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May Day),
on May Day in the Tyrol.

398 G. Bilfinger, _Das germanische Julfest_ (Stuttgart, 1901), p. 76.

399 J. M. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,
1857), pp. 260 _sq._ Compare J. E. Waldfreund, “Volksgebräuche und
Aberglauben,” _Zeitschrift für deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,
iii. (1855) p. 339. A Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil is
the driving out the _Süntevögel_, _Sunnenvögel_, or _Sommervögel_,
that is, the butterfly. On St. Peter’s Day, 22nd February, children
go from house to house knocking on them with hammers and singing
doggerel rhymes in which they bid the _Sommervögel_ to depart.
Presents are given to them at every house. Or the people of the
house themselves go through all the rooms, knocking on all the
doors, to drive away the _Sunnenvögel_. If this ceremony is omitted,
it is thought that various misfortunes will be the consequence. The
house will swarm with rats, mice, and other vermin, the cattle will
be sick, the butterflies will multiply at the milk-bowls, etc. See
J. F. L. Woeste, _Volksüberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_
(Iserlohn, 1848), p. 24; J. W. Wolf, _Beiträge zur deutschen
Mythologie_, i. (Göttingen and Leipsic, 1852) p. 87; A. Kuhn,
_Westfälische Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. pp.
119-121, §§ 366-374; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste,
Volksbräuche, und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 21
_sq._; U. Jahn, _Die deutschen Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und
Viehzucht_ (Breslau, 1884), pp. 94-96.

M119 Annual expulsion of witches on Walpurgis Night in Bavaria and
Voigtland.

_ 400 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_ (Munich,
1860-1866), ii. 272, iii. 302 _sq._, 934; O. Freiherr von
Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137.

_ 401 Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, xx. 493.

402 R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210.

403 August Witzschel, _Sitten, Sagen und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_
(Vienna, 1878), pp. 262 _sq._

M120 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Bohemia.

404 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_
(Prague, preface dated 1861), pp. 210-212; _id._, _Das festliche
Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 137; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 70-73.

405 Alois John, _op. cit._ p. 71.

406 Willibald Müller, _Beiträge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in Mähren_
(Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p. 324.

M121 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night in Silesia.

407 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 108-110. With regard to the dance of the witches in
the snow, it is a common saying in the northern district of the Harz
Mountains that the witches must dance the snow away on the top of
the Blocksberg on the first of May. See A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz,
_Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 376.
At Dabelow in Mecklenburg all utensils are removed from the
fireplace on Walpurgis Night, lest the witches should ride on them
to the Blocksberg. See A. Kuhn and W. Schwartz, _l.c._

M122 Annual “Burning of the Witches” on Walpurgis Night among the Wends
of Saxony.

408 R. Wuttke, _Sächsische Volkskunde_ (Dresden, 1901), p. 359.

409 Lady Agnes Macdonell, in _The Times_, May 3rd, 1913, p. 6. In a
letter to me (dated 31, Kensington Park Gardens, May 5th [1913])
Lady Macdonell was kind enough to give me some further particulars
as to the custom. It seems that the boys use their horns on May Day
as well as on the thirtieth of April. Processions of boys and girls
decorated with flowers and leaves, and carrying flags and horns,
went about Penzance on May Day of the present year (1913). The horns
are straight; some of them terminate in a bell-shaped opening,
others have no such appendage. The latter and plainer are the older
pattern.

M123 Annual expulsion of witches during the Twelve Days from Christmas to
Epiphany. “Burning out the Old Year” at Biggar.

410 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,
1903-1906), i. 15-18. With regard to the superstitions attached to
these twelve days or twelve nights, as the Germans call them, see
further A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und
Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), pp. 408-418; A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche
und Märchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic, 1859), ii. 111-117; L.
Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_
(Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 28 _sqq._; M. Toeppen, _Aberglauben aus
Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 61 _sqq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche
Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), pp. 61 _sqq._, § 74; E. Mogk,
“Mythologie,” in H. Paul’s _Grundriss der germanischen Philologie_,2
iii. (Strasburg, 1900) pp. 260 _sq._; Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und
Volksglaube im deutschen Westböhmen_ (Prague, 1905), pp. 11 _sqq._

411 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus Böhmen_
(Prague, preface dated 1861), p. 602.

412 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 312, referring to Lady
Burton’s life of her husband.

413 T. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 506.

414 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
1834), p. 670.

M124 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Switzerland and France.

415 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx.
(1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipzic and Berlin,
1913), p. 109; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Bräuche des
Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.

416 H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und Gebräuche_ (Aaran,
1884), pp. 212 _sq._

417 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de
France_ (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 81, 85.

M125 Befana in the Piazza Navona at Rome, in the Tuscan Romagna.

418 As to Befana and her connexion with Epiphany, see J. Grimm,
_Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 234. The personified Befana, an ugly but
good-natured old woman, is known in Sicily as well as Italy. See G.
Pitrè, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p.
167. As to the ceremony in the Piazza Navona, see H. Usener,
“Italische Mythen,” _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin,
1913) pp. 108 _sqq._, who rightly compares it to the Swiss
ceremonies observed at and near Brunnen on Twelfth Night. I
witnessed the noisy scene in the Piazza Navona in January, 1901.

419 P. Fabbri, “Canti popolari raccolti sui monti della
Romagna-Toscana,” _Archivio per lo Studio delle Tradizioni
Popolari_, xxii. (1903) pp. 356 _sq._; H. Usener, _Kleine
Schriften_, iv. 108 note 62. In the Abruzzi, on the evening before
Epiphany, musicians go from house to house serenading the inmates
with songs and the strains of fiddles, guitars, organs, and so
forth. They are accompanied by others carrying lanterns, torches, or
burning branches of juniper. See Antonio de Nino, _Usi e Costumi
Abruzzesi_ (Florence, 1879-1883), ii. 178-180; G. Finamore,
_Credenze, Usi e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 88 _sq._
Such house to house visitations may be a relic of an old expulsion
of witches and demons.

M126 Expulsion of the Trows in Shetland on Up-helly-a’, the twenty-fourth
day after Christmas.

420 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a
Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 136. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol.
iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black
(London, 1903), p. 196. As to the Trows, whose name is doubtless
identical with the Norse Trolls (Swedish _troll_, Norwegian
_trold_), see Edmondston and Saxby, _op. cit._ pp. 189 _sqq._; John
Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New
Edition, edited by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley,
1879-1882), iv. 630 _sq._, who observes that “while the Fairies are
uniformly represented as social, cheerful, and benevolent beings,
the _Trows_ are described as gloomy and malignant, ever prone to
injure men.”

421 Rev. Biot Edmondston and Jessie M. E. Saxby, _The Home of a
Naturalist_ (London, 1888), p. 146. Compare _County Folk-lore_, vol.
iii. _Orkney and Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black
(London, 1903), pp. 202 _sq._

_ 422 The Shetland News_, February 1st, 1913, p. 5. As January 5th is
reckoned Christmas in Shetland, the celebration of Up-helly-a’ falls
on January 29th. See J. Nicolson, in _The World’s Work and Play_,
February, 1906, pp. 283 _sqq._ For further information relating to
the ceremony I am indebted to the kindness of Sheriff-Substitute
David J. Mackenzie (formerly of Lerwick, now of Kilmarnock).
According to one of his correspondents, the Rev. Dr. J. Willcock of
Lerwick, the present elaborate form of the ceremony dates only from
1882, when the Duke of Edinburgh visited Lerwick on naval business,
and Up-helly-a’ was celebrated in his honour on a grander scale than
ever before. Yet Dr. Willcock apparently does not deny the antiquity
of the festival in a simpler form, for in his letter he says: “In
former times an old boat filled with tar was set on fire and dragged
about, as were also lighted tar-barrels.” Another authority on
Shetland antiquities, Mr. Gilbert Goudie, writes to Sheriff
Mackenzie that “the kicking about and burning a tar-barrel is very
old in Lerwick.” Compare _County Folk-lore_, iii. _Orkney and
Shetland Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 205:
“Formerly, blazing tar-barrels were dragged about the town, and
afterwards, with the first break of morning, dashed over the knab
into the sea.” Up-helly-a’, the Shetland name for Antinmas, is no
doubt the same with Uphalyday, which Dr. J. Jamieson (_Dictionary of
the Scottish Language_, New Edition, iv. 676) defines as “the first
day after the termination of the Christmas holidays,” quoting two
official documents of A.D. 1494 and 1541 respectively.

I have to thank my friend Miss Anderson of Barskimming, Mauchline,
Ayrshire, for kindly calling my attention to this interesting relic
of the past.

M127 Annual expulsion of witches and demons in Europe. M128 The expulsion of embodied evils. M129 Expulsion of demons personified by men among the American Indians. Expulsion of a demon embodied in an image among the Mayas of Yucatan.

423 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 159.

424 G. Catlin, _North American Indians_, Fourth Edition (London, 1844),
i. 166 _sqq._; _id._, _O-kee-pa, a Religious Ceremony, and other
Customs of the Mandans_ (London, 1867).

425 Diego de Landa, _Relation des Choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp.
203-205, 211-215; E. Seler, “The Mexican Chronology,” _Bureau of
American Ethnology, Bulletin 28_ (Washington, 1904), p. 17. As to
the Maya calendar see further Cyrus Thomas, _The Maya Year_
(Washington, 1894), pp. 19 _sqq._ (_Smithsonian Institution, Bureau
of Ethnology_).

M130 Expulsion of a demon personified by a man among the aborigines of
Queensland. Expulsion of demons embodied in effigies in India and
Russia. Expulsion of demons embodied in animals or boys in Esthonia
and Spain.

426 W. E. Roth, _Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central
Queensland Aborigines_ (Brisbane and London, 1897), pp. 120-125.

427 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 172. Compare
above, p. 149.

428 R. H. Elliot, _Experiences of a Planter in the Jungles of Mysore_
(London, 1871), i. 60 _sq._

429 A. C. Winter, “Russische Volksbräuche bei Seuchen,” _Globus_, lxxix.
(1901) p. 302. For the Russian ceremony of drawing a plough round a
village to keep out the cattle plague, see also W. R. S. Ralston,
_Songs of the Russian People_, Second Edition (London, 1872), pp.
396 _sqq._

430 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 278.

_ 431 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 174.

M131 Annual expulsion of the demon of plague among the Khasis of Assam.
The Tug of War probably a contest with demons represented by human
beings. The Tug of War at funerals in Chittagong and Burma.

432 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), p. 157; A.
Bastian, in _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_, 1881, p. 151; _id._,
_Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), pp. 6 _sq._

433 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 605. See _The Dying God_, p.
259.

434 Capt. T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-Eastern India_ (London,
1870), p. 185.

435 Father Sangermano, _Description of the Burmese Empire_ (Rangoon,
1885), p. 98; Capt. C. J. F. S. Forbes, _British Burma_ (London,
1878), pp. 216 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_
(London, 1882), ii. 334 _sq._, 342.

M132 The Tug of War as a rain-making ceremony in Burma and else where.

436 F. E. Sawyer, “S. Swithin and Rainmakers,” _The Folk-lore Journal_,
i. (1883) p. 214.

437 Francis Buchanan, “On the Religion and Literature of the Burmas,”
_Asiatick Researches_, vi. (London, 1801) pp. 193 _sq._ Compare
Lieut.-General A. Fytche, _Burma Past and Present_ (London, 1878),
i. 248 note 1; Max and Bertha Ferrars, _Burma_ (London, 1900), p.
184; (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma
and the Shan States_ (Rangoon, 1900-1901), Part ii. vol. ii. pp. 95,
279.

438 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Celebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 282.

439 For particulars as to the winds of Assam I am indebted to my friend
Mr. J. D. Anderson, formerly of the Indian Civil Service, who
resided many years in that country.

M133 The Tug of War between the sexes. The Tug of War in Kamtchatka and
New Guinea.

_ 440 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 98 _sq._

441 G. W. W. C. Baron van Hoevell, “Leti-eilanden,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 207.
However, it is not quite clear from the writer’s words (“_Immers de
mannen en vrouwen in twee partijeen verdeelt en elk een stuk van de
roten in de hande houdende bootsen toch ook door’t voor- en
achteroverbuigen van’t lichaam de bewegingen van cohabitie na_”)
whether the men and women take opposite sides or are distributed
between the two.

442 T. C. Hodson, _The Naga Tribes of Manipur_ (London, 1911), p. 168;
compare 64. “The Chirus have six crop festivals, one of which, that
before the crops are cut, is marked by a rope-pulling ceremony of
the same nature as that observed among the Tangkhuls” (_op. cit._ p.
172). The headman (_khullākpa_) “is a sacrosanct person, the
representative of the village in all religious rites, and surrounded
by special alimentary, social and conjugal _gennas_” or taboos (_op.
cit._ p. 110).

443 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 35; A. C.
Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), p. 274.

444 G. W. Steller, _Beschreibung von dem Lande Kamtschatka_ (Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1774), pp. 327 _sq._

445 H. von Rosenberg, _Der malayisch Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1878), p. 462.

M134 The Tug of War in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.

446 Edward Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in
Morocco,” _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) pp. 158 _sq._; _id._,
_Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture, Certain Dates of
the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), p.
122.

M135 Games of ball in Morocco to procure rain or sunshine.

447 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture,
Certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_
(Helsingfors, 1913). pp. 121 _sq._

M136 The Tug of War in Morocco to ensure prosperity.

448 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,”
_Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 159.

M137 Spiritual significance of the Tug of War. The Tug of War in French
Guiana, in North-Western India.

449 H. Coudreau, _Chez nos Indiens, Quatre Années dans la Guayane
Française_ (Paris, 1895), p. 234.

450 Major Forbes, _Eleven Years in Ceylon_ (London, 1840), i. 358.

451 Sir Henry M. Elliot, _Memoirs on the History, Folk-lore, and
Distribution of the Races of the North-Western Provinces of India_,
edited, revised, and re-arranged by John Beames (London, 1869), i.
235.

452 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), ii. 321.

453 E. Westermarck, “The Popular Ritual of the Great Feast in Morocco,”
_Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p. 158.

M138 The Tug of War in Shropshire and Radnorshire. Contests for a ball
(_soule_) in Normandy.

454 John Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_, New Edition
(London, 1883), i. 92; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson,
_Shropshire Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), pp. 319-321.

455 C. S. Burne and G. F. Jackson, _op. cit._ p. 321.

456 Jules Lecœur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Condé-sur-Noireau,
1883-1887), i. 13, ii. 153-165. Compare Laisnel de la Salle,
_Croyances et Légendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875), i. 86
_sqq._; and as to the game of _soule_, see Guerry, in _Mémoires des
Antiquaires de France_, viii. (1829) pp. 459-461.

457 In the parish of Vieux-Pont, in the department of Orne, the man who
is last married before the first Sunday in Lent must throw a ball
from the foot of the cross. The village lads compete with each other
for its possession. To win it the lad must carry it through three
parishes without being overtaken by his rivals. See A. de Nore,
_Coutumes, Mythes, et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and
Lyons, 1846), pp. 244 _sq._

M139 Annual sham fights may represent contests with demons.

458 J. H. F. Kohlbrugge, “Die Tenggeresen, ein alter Javanischer
Volksstamm,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, liii. (1901) pp. 140 _sq._

459 Edouard Chavannes, _Documents sur les Tou-Kiue (Turcs) Occidentaux_
(St. Petersburg, 1903), p. 148.

M140 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Ceram.

460 François Valentyn, _Oud- en nieuw Ost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and
Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 14. L. de Backer (_L’Archipel Indien_,
Paris, 1874, pp. 377 _sq._) copies from Valentyn.

M141 Demons of sickness expelled in a small ship in Timor-laut, in a ship
in Buru, removed from the persons of the sufferers.

461 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 304 _sq._

462 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 25 _sq._

_ 463 Ibid._ p. 141.

464 See above, p. 155.

465 J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 78.

_ 466 Ibid._ p. 357.

_ 467 Ibid._ pp. 266, 304 _sq._, 327, 357; H. Ling Roth, _Natives of
Sarawak and British North Borneo_ (London, 1896), i. 284.

468 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London,
1912), ii. 122 _sq._

M142 Demons of disease expelled in a ship in Selangor.

469 W. W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 433-435. For other
examples of sending away plague-laden boats in the Malay region see
J. G. F. Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 181, 210; R. van Eck, “Schetsen van
het eiland Bali,” _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indië_, N.S., viii.
(1879) p. 104; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 147; C. Hupe, “Korte
verhandeling over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakkers,”
_Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 150; C. F. H.
Campen, “De godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,”
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii.
(1882) p. 441; _Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic
Society_, No. 12, pp. 229-231; A. L. van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving
van Midden-Sumatra_ (Leyden, 1882), p. 98; C. M. Pleyte,
“Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,” _Tijdschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
(1893) p. 835; H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Sarawak,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxii, (1893) p. 25; C. Snouck
Hurgronje, _De Atjehers_ (Batavia and Leyden, 1893-1894), i. 461
_sq._; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in der Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_
(Berlin, 1896), p. 110.

M143 Demons of sickness expelled in small ships in New Guinea, the
Philippines, Tikopia, and the Nicobar Islands.

470 H. Zahn, “Die Jabim,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(1911) pp. 329 _sq._

471 F. Blumentritt, “Über die Eingeborenen der Insel Palawan und der
Inselgruppe der Talamianen,” _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 183.

472 J. Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et à la recherche de La
Pérouse, sur la corvette Astrolabe_ (Paris, 1832-1833), v. 311.

473 Roepstorff, “Ein Geisterboot der Nicobaresen,” _Verhandlungen der
Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und
Urgeschichte_ (1881), p. 401; W. Svoboda, “Die Bewohner des
Nikobaren-Archipels,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, vi.
(1893) pp. 10 _sq._

474 P. Denjoy, “An-nam, Médecins et Sorciers, Remèdes et Superstitions,”
etc., _Bulletins de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, v. (1894)
pp. 409 _sq._ Compare É. Aymonier, _Voyage dans le Laos_ (Paris,
1895-1897), i. 121. For Siamese applications of the same principle
to the cure of individuals, see A. Bastian, _Die Völker des
östlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) pp. 295 _sq._, 485 _sq._

M144 Demons of sickness expelled in the form of animals in India.

_ 475 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 48, § 418 (January, 1884).

_ 476 Id._, iii. p. 81, § 373 (February 1886).

477 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 142. Bulls are used as scapegoats for
cholera in Cashmeer (H. G. M. Murray-Aynsley, in _Folk-lore_, iv.
(1893) pp. 398 _sq._).

478 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _Rambles and Recollections of
Indian Official_, New Edition (Westminster, 1893), i. 203.

479 Major-General Sir W. H. Sleeman, _op. cit._ i. 198.

M145 Goats and cocks employed as scapegoats in various parts of India.

480 F. Fawcett, “On the Saoras (or Savaras), an Aboriginal Hill People
of the Eastern Ghats,” _Journal of the Anthropological Society of
Bombay_, i. 213, note.

481 Mr. Y. V. Athalye, in _Journal of the Anthropological Society of
Bombay_, i. 37.

482 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 169 _sq._; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the
North-Western Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 445.

_ 483 Kausika Sutra_, xiv. 22 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_,
Amsterdam, 1900, p. 29); H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 498.

_ 484 Kausika Sutra_, xviii. 16 (W. Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_,
pp. 44 _sq._).

M146 Cows, toads, and llamas as scapegoats in Africa and America.

485 Dom Daniel Sour Dharim Dena (a Dinka convert), in _Annales de la
Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) pp. 57 _sq._

486 H. Seidel, “Krankheit, Tod, und Begräbnis bei den Togonegern,”
_Globus_, lxxii. (1897) p. 24.

487 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, vol. ii. No. 3 (October, 1870),
p. 237.

M147 Goddess of disease expelled in a toy chariot.

488 Jivangi Jimshedji Modi, B.A., “On the Chariot of the Goddess, a
Supposed Remedy for driving out an Epidemic,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Society of Bombay_, vol. iv. No. 8 (Bombay, 1899),
pp. 420-424; Captain C. Eckford Luard, in _Census of India, 1901_,
vol. xix., _Central India_ (Lucknow, 1902), p. 78.

M148 Human scapegoats in Uganda.

489 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 342.

490 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, pp. 109, 200. As to the perpetual
fire at the entrance to a king’s enclosure, see _id._ pp. 103, 197,
202 _sq._

M149 Human scapegoats in China and India. Indian ceremony of sliding down
a rope.

491 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306.

_ 492 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 75, § 598 (April, 1884); W.
Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 170.

493 Rev. F. Hahn, “Some Notes on the Religion and Superstitions of the
Orāōs” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii.
(Calcutta, 1904) p. 17; compare H. C. Streatfield, _ibid._ p. 37.

_ 494 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. pp. 55, 74 _sq._, 77, §§ 417,
499, 516 (July and August, 1891), quoting G. W. Traill, _Statistical
Sketch of Kumaun_, pp. 68 sq., and Moorcroft and Trebeck, _Travels
in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjáb_, i. 17 _sq._
Compare E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the
North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884), pp. 834
_sq._

M150 Tibetan New Year ceremony of sliding down a rope.

495 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Tibet, A Geographical, Ethnographical, and
Historical Sketch, derived from Chinese Sources,” _Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 209. Compare Hue,
_Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet_, Sixième
Édition (Paris, 1878), ii. 379 _sq._ For a description of Potala
Hill and its grand palace, see L. Austine Waddell, _Lhasa and its
Mysteries_ (London, 1905), pp. 330 _sqq._, 387 _sqq._

M151 Periodic expulsion of evils in a material vehicle. Periodic
expulsion of spirits in rafts from Perak.

_ 496 Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Notes and Queries_,
No. 3 (Singapore, 1886), pp. 80 _sq._

M152 Annual expulsion of evils in small ships in the Indian Archipelago.

497 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 393.

498 A. Bastian, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), ii. 93.

499 Ivor H. N. Evans, “Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions,
Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk
Districts, British North Borneo,” _Journal of the Royal
Anthropological Institute_, xlii. (1912) pp. 382-384.

M153 Annual expulsion of demons in little ships in the Nicobar Islands.

500 A. Bastian, _op. cit._ ii. 91.

501 V. Solomon, “Extracts from Diaries kept in Car Nicobar,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 228 _sq._

M154 Annual expulsion of embodied evils in India, China, and Corea.
Annual expulsion or destruction of demons embodied in images in
Tibet.

502 Captain F. Wilford, “An Essay on the Sacred Isles in the West,”
_Asiatic Researches_, ix. (London, 1809) pp. 96 _sq._

503 J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), ii. 306 _sq._

504 W. Woodville Rockhill, “Notes on some of the Laws, Customs, and
Superstitions of Corea,” _The American Anthropologist_, iv. (1891)
p. 185; Mrs. Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), ii.
56.

505 Stewart Culin, _Korean Games_ (Philadelphia, 1895), p. 12.

_ 506 Narratives of the Mission of George Bogle to Tibet and of the
Journey of Thomas Manning to Lhasa_, edited by (Sir) Clements R.
Markham (London, 1876), pp. 106 _sq._ Compare Sarat Chandra Das,
_Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London, 1902), p. 116.

507 Missionary Fage, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, xxix.
(1857) p. 321.

M155 Biennial expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Old Calabar.

508 T. J. Hutchinson, _Impressions of Western Africa_ (London, 1858), p.
162; Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp.
105-107; Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition
(Edinburgh and London, 1901), pp. 49 _sq._; Miss Mary H. Kingsley,
_Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 495; Major A. G.
Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), pp.
449-451. The ceremony takes place both in Creek Town and Duke Town.
The date of it, according to Miss Kingsley, is either every November
or every second November; but with the exception of Mr. Macdonald,
who does not mention the period, the other authorities agree in
describing the ceremony as biennial. According to Major Leonard it
is celebrated usually towards the end of the year. Miss Kingsley
speaks of the effigies being set up in the houses themselves; but
all the other writers say or imply that they are set up at the doors
of the houses in the streets. According to Mr. Goldie the spirits
expelled are “all the ghosts of those who have died since the last
lustration.” He makes no mention of devils.

M156 Annual expulsion of demons embodied in effigies at Porto Novo.

509 Missionary F. Terrien, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_,
liv. (1882) pp. 375-377.

M157 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the Hos of Togoland.

_ 510 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 58 _sqq._

511 Jakob Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 305-307. We have
seen (above, p. 193) that these people used a toad as a scapegoat to
free them from the influenza.

M158 Annual expulsion of embodied evils among the gypsies.

512 H. von Wlislocki, _Volksglaube und religiöser Brauch der Zigeuner_
(Münster i. W., 1891), pp. 65 _sq._

M159 Annual expulsion of evils in an animal scapegoat among the Garos of
Assam.

513 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 92.

M160 Dogs as scapegoats in India, Scotland and America. The Jewish
scapegoat.

514 E. T. Atkinson, “Notes on the History of Religion in the Himalaya of
the North-West Provinces,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal_, liii. Pt. i. (1884) p. 62; _id._, _The Himalayan Districts
of the North-Western Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p.
871.

_ 515 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of
John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh,
1888), ii. 439.

516 W. M. Beauchamp, “The Iroquois White Dog Feast,” _American
Antiquarian_, vii. (1885) p. 237.

_ 517 Ibid._ p. 236; T. Dwight, _Travels in New England and New York_
(London, 1823), iv. 202.

518 Above, p. 127.

519 Leviticus xvi. The word translated “scapegoat” in the Authorised
Version is Azazel, which appears rather to be the name of a bad
angel or demon, to whom the goat was sent away. “In later Jewish
literature (Book of Enoch) Azazel appears as the prince of the
fallen angels, the offspring of the unions described in Gen. vi. 1
ff. The familiar rendering ‘scapegoat,’ _i.e._ the goat which is
allowed to escape, goes back to the _caper emissarius_ of the
Vulgate, and is based on an untenable etymology” (Professor A. R. S.
Kennedy, in his commentary on Leviticus xvi. 8, in the _Century
Bible_). There is some ground for thinking that the animal was
killed by being thrown over a certain crag that overhangs a rocky
chasm not far from Jerusalem. See _Encyclopædia Biblica_, ed. T. K.
Cheyne and J. S. Black, vol. i. (London, 1899) coll. 394 _sqq._,
_s.v._ “Azazel.” Modern Jews sacrifice a white cock on the eve of
the Day of Atonement, nine days after the beginning of their New
Year. The father of the family knocks the cock thrice against his
own head, saying, “Let this cock be a substitute for me, let it take
my place, let death be laid upon this cock, but a happy life
bestowed on me and on all Israel.” Then he cuts its throat and
dashes the bird violently on the ground. The intestines are thrown
on the roof of the house. The flesh of the cock was formerly given
to the poor. See J. Buxtorf, _Synagoga Judaica_ (Bâle, 1661), ch.
xxv. pp. 508 _sqq._

M161 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Africa.

520 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 343-345. Compare J. F. Schön and S. Crowther,
_Journals_ (London, 1848), pp. 48 _sq._ The account of the custom by
J. Africanus B. Horton (_West African Countries and Peoples_, pp.
185 _sq._) is taken entirely from Taylor.

521 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London,
1906), pp. 446 _sqq._

522 An Igbodu is a sacred grove in which oracles are given. It is
divided into three compartments by fences of palm branches and the
_omu_ shrub. Into the first compartment women and uninitiated men
may enter; into the other two only priestly officials are permitted,
according to their rank in the hierarchy, to enter. See Bishop James
Johnson, “Yoruba Heathenism,” quoted by R. E. Dennett, _At the Back
of the Black Man’s Mind_ (London, 1906), p. 254.

523 Bishop James Johnson, _op. cit._ p. 263. Bishop Johnson is a native
African. It does not appear whether the sacrifice which he describes
is occasional or periodical.

M162 Human scapegoats formerly put to death every year in Siam. Annual
human scapegoats in Japan and Sumatra.

524 Turpin, “History of Siam,” in J. Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_
(London, 1808-1814), ix. 579.

525 The _oho-harahi_ or “Great Purification” is a ceremony, which used
to be performed in the Japanese capital twice every year, namely on
the last days of the sixth and twelfth month. It included a
preliminary lustration, expiatory offerings, and the recital of a
_norito_ or formula (not a prayer), in which the Mikado, by virtue
of an authority transmitted to him from the Sun-goddess, pronounced
to his ministers and people the absolution and remission of their
sins. See W. G. Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), pp. 294 _sqq._ The
writer adds (p. 295): “The Chinese had an _oho-harahi_, defined by
Mr. Giles in his _Chinese Dictionary_ as ‘a religious ceremony of
purification performed in spring and autumn, with a view to secure
divine protection for agricultural interests.’ ” The popular
celebrations of the first of May and the first of November in Europe
seem to be relics of similar biennial purifications.

526 W. G. Aston, _Shinto_, pp. 308 _sq._

527 W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter und ihr Verhältnis zum
Brahmanismus,” _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) pp.
476, 478.

M163 Annual human scapegoats in Europe. The expulsion of Posterli in
Switzerland.

528 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), pp. 423 _sq._

529 H. Usener, “Italische Mythen,” _Rheinisches Museum_, N.F., xxx.
(1875) p. 198; _id._, _Kleine Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin,
1913) pp. 109 _sq._ The custom seems to have been revived in the
latter part of the nineteenth century; perhaps it may still be
observed. See H. Herzog, _Schweizerische Volksfeste, Sitten und
Gebräuche_ (Aarau, 1884), pp. 293 _sq._; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste
und Bräuche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 101.

M164 Annual expulsion of the devil, personified by a man, from Munich on
Ascension Day.

530 L. Curtius, “Christi Himmelfahrt,” _Archiv für
Religionswissenschaft_, xiv. (1911) p. 307, quoting the _Münchener
Neuesten Nachrichten_, No. 235, May 21st, 1909.

M165 The pardoned criminal at Rouen on Ascension Day may have been a
public scapegoat.

_ 531 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 164 _sqq._

532 On the use of eponymous magistrates as annual scapegoats see above,
pp. 39-41.

M166 Divine animals as scapegoats in India and ancient Egypt.

533 J. Thomas Phillips, _Account of the Religion, Manners, and Learning
of the People of Malabar_ (London, 1717), pp. 6, 12 _sq._

534 Herodotus, ii. 39.

535 Herodotus, ii. 38-41; Sir J. Gardner Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs
of the Ancient Egyptians_, New Edition (London, 1878), iii. 403
_sqq._

536 Herodotus, _l.c._ As to the worship of sacred bulls in ancient
Egypt, see further _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 34
_sqq._

_ 537 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 175 _sqq._, 314 _sq._

M167 Divine men as scapegoats among the Gonds of India and the Albanians
of the Caucasus.

_ 538 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 54, § 335 (December, 1884).

539 Strabo, xi. 4. 7, p. 503. For the custom of standing upon a
sacrificed victim, compare Demosthenes, _Or._ xxiii. 68, p. 642;
Pausanias, iii. 20. 9.

M168 Annual human scapegoats in Tibet. The Jalno, the temporary ruler of
Lhasa.
M169 The Jalno and the King of the Years. Expulsion of the King of the
Years.