Chapter VIII: The Saturnalia and Kindred Festivals (7)

Sacrifice, human, successive mitigations of, 396 _sq._, 408;
the Brahmanical theory of, 410 _sq._

Sacrifices, human, their influence on cosmogonical theories, 409 _sqq._;
of deified men, 409

Sacrificial victims, beating people with the skins of, 265

Sagar in India, use of scapegoat at, 190 _sq._

Sahagun, B. de, 276, 280, 300 _n._ 1, 301 _n._ 1

“Saining,” a protection against spirits, 168

St. Barbara’s Day, custom of putting rods in pickle on, 270

St. Dasius, martyrdom of, 308 _sqq._

St. Edmund’s Day in November, 332

St. Eustorgius, church of, at Milan, 331

St. George, Eve of, witches active on the, 158

St. George’s Day among the South Slavs, 54

St. Guirec, 70

St. Hiztibouzit, 413 _n._ 2

St. John the Baptist, 53

St. John (the Evangelist), festival of, 334

St. John’s Day in Abyssinia, 133

St. John’s wort a protection against witchcraft, 160

St. Joseph, feast of, 297

St. Nicholas Day, 337, 338

St. Paul’s, London, the Boy Bishop at 337

St. Peter’s, Canterbury, the Boy Bishop at, 337

St. Peter’s Day (22nd February), ceremony on, 159 _n._ 1

St. Pierre d’Entremont in Normandy, 183

St. Romain, the shrine of, at Rouen, 216

St. Stephen’s Day, 333, 334;
custom of beating young women on, 270

St. Sylvester’s Day (New Year’s Eve), precautions against witches on, 164
_sq._

—— Eve at Trieste, 165

St. Tecla, 52

St. Thomas’s Eve, witches active on, 160

Saints, cairns near shrines of, 21;
Mohammedan, 21, 22

Salii, the dancing priests of Mars, 231 _sqq._

Salisbury, the Boy Bishop at, 337, 338

Salt, the goddess of, 278, 283

—— -makers worship the goddess of Salt, 283;
their dance, 284

Saluting the rising sun, a Syrian custom, 416

Salzburg, the _Perchten_ in, 240, 242 _sqq._

Samon, a month of the Gallic calendar, 343

Sampson, Agnes, a witch, 38

Samsi-Adad, king of Assyria, 370 _n._ 1

Samyas monastery near Lhasa, 220

San Pellegrino, church of, at Ancona, 310

Sandan, 368;
legendary or mythical hero of Western Asia, 388 _sqq._

Sandes, the Persian Hercules, 389.
_See_ Sandan

Santiago Tepehuacan, Indians of, 4, 347. 4

Sarawak, the Sea Dyaks of, 154

Sardan or Sandan, the burning of, 389 _sq._

Sardanapalus, 368; the epitaph of, 388

—— and Ashurbanapal, 387 _sq._

Sardes in Lydia, 389, 391

Sarn, valley of the, in Salzburg, 245

Sarum use, service-books of the, 338

Satan annually expelled by the Wotyaks, 155 _sq._;
by the Cheremiss, 156

Saturn, the Roman god of sowing, 232, 306, 307 _n._ 1;
his festival the Saturnalia, 306 _sqq._;
and the Golden Age, 306, 344, 386;
man put to death in the character of, 309;
dedication of the temple of, 345 _n._ 1;
the old Italian god of sowing, 346

Saturnalia among the Hos and Mundaris of N. E. India, 136 _sq._;
and kindred festivals, 306 _sqq._;
the Roman, 306 _sqq._;
as celebrated by Roman soldiers, 308 _sq._;
the King of the, 308, 311, 312;
its relation to the Carnival, 312, 345 _sqq._;
and Lent, 345 _sqq._;
in ancient Greece, 350 _sqq._;
in Western Asia, 354 _sqq._;
wide prevalence of festivals like the, 407 _sqq._

Savages, their regulation of the calendar, 326

Saxon cure for rupture, 52

Scapegoat, plantain-tree as a, 5;
decked with women’s ornaments, 192;
Jewish use of, 210;
a material vehicle for the expulsion of evils, 224

Scapegoats, immaterial objects as, 1 _sqq._;
animals as, 31 _sqq._, 190 _sqq._, 208 _sqq._;
birds as, 35 _sq._;
human beings as, 38 _sqq._, 210 _sqq._;
public, 170 _sqq._;
divine animals as, 216 _sq._, 226 _sq._;
divine men as, 217 _sqq._, 226 _sq._;
in general, 224 _sqq._

——, human, 194 _sqq._;
in classical antiquity, 229 _sqq._;
in ancient Greece, 252 _sqq._;
beaten, 252, 255;
stoned, 253, 254;
cast into the sea, 254 _sq._;
reason for beating the, 256 _sq._

“Scaring away the devil” at Penzance on the Eve of May Day, 163 _sq._

Scarlet thread in charm against witchcraft, 267

Schechter, Dr. S., 364 _n._ 1

Scheil, Father, on Elamite inscriptions, 367 _n._ 3

_Schmeckostern_ in Germany and Austria, 268 _sq._

Schönthal, the abbot of, 105

Schönwert, village of Bohemia, 161

Schrader, O., 326 _n._

Schuyler, E., 45

Schwaz, on the Inn, the “grass-ringers” at, 247

Scorpion’s bite, cure for, 49 _sq._

Scotch witch, 38 _sq._

Scotland, the Highlands of, 20;
cure of warts in, 48;
witches burnt in, 165;
Abbot of Unreason in, 331.
_See also_ Highlands

Scourgings, mutual, of South American Indians, 262

Scythian kings married the wives of their predecessors, 368 _n._ 1

Scythians, revellers disguised as, 355

Sea, scapegoats cast into the, 254 _sq._

—— Dyaks of Sarawak, their Festival of Departed Spirits, 154

Sea-god, sacrifice to, 255

—— -slugs, ceremonies at the annual appearance of, 141 _sqq._

Secret Societies in North-Western America, 377 _sq._

Sedna, Mistress of the Nether World, among the Esquimaux, 125 _sq._

Seed-time, annual expulsion of demons at, 138

Selangor, demons of disease expelled in a ship from, 187 _sq._

Selemnus, the river, 3

Seler, E., 277

Seleucia, 64

Semiramis, mythical and historical, 369 _sqq._;
the mounds of, 370, 371, 373, 388 _n._ 1;
the sad fate of her lovers, 371;
burnt herself on a pyre, 407 _n._ 2

Sena-speaking people, 7

Senegambia, 16;
the Banmanas of, 261

Senseless Thursday in Carnival, 248

September, expulsion of evils by the Incas of Peru in, 128

Serpents and lizards supposed to renew their youth by casting their skins,
302 _sqq._

Servians, their precaution against vampyres, 153 _n._ 1

Set, the birth of, 341

Sham fight at New Year, 184;
as religious rite, 289

Shaman, function of the, 79 _sq._

Shamans, necessity of, 99, 100;
expel demons, 126;
among the Esquimaux, 379, 380

Shammuramat and Semiramis, 370 _n._ 1

Shampoo, the fatal, 42

Shans of Kengtung, their expulsion of demons, 116 _sq._;
of Southern China, their annual expulsion of the fire-spirit, 141

Shawms blown to ban witches, 160

Sheepskins, people beaten with, 265

Shepherd beloved by Ishtar, 371

Shetland Islands, Yule in the, 167 _sqq._

Shinto priest, 116

Ship, sicknesses expelled in a, 185 _sqq._;
demons expelled in a, 201 _sq._

Shogun’s palace in Japan, 144

“Shooting the Witches,” 164

Shropshire, 182;
the sin-eater in, 44;
fires on Twelfth Night in, 321

Shrove Tuesday, the tug-of-war on, 182 _sq._;
dances to promote the growth of the crops on, 239, 347

Siam, the Laosians of, 97;
annual expulsion of demons in, 149 _sqq._;
human scapegoats in, 212

Siamese year of twelve lunar months, 149 _n._ 2

Sicily, Ascension Day in, 54

Sickness transferred to animals in Europe, 49 _sqq._;
ascribed to demons, 109 _sqq._

Sicknesses expelled in a ship, 185 _sqq._

Sihanaka, the, of Madagascar, 2

Sikhim, cairns in, 26;
demonolatry in, 94

Silence, compulsory, to deceive demons, 132 _sq._, 140.
_Compare_ 142

Silesia, expulsion of witches on Good Friday in, 157;
precautions against witches in, 162 _sq._, 164;
“Easter Smacks” in, 268, 269;
mode of reckoning the Twelve Days in, 327

Silili, a Babylonian goddess, 371

Sin-eater, the, 43 _sq._

Sin-eating in Wales, 43 _sq._

Singalang Burong, a Dyak war-god, 383

Sins, confession of, 36, 127;
transferred to a buffalo calf, 36 _sq._;
transferred vicariously to human beings, 39 _sqq._;
of people transferred to animals, 210;
Delaware Indian remedies for, 263

Sirius associated with Ishtar, 359 _n._ 1

Situa, annual festival of the Incas, 128

Siyins, of N. E. India, their belief in demons, 93

Skin disease, supposed remedy for, 266;
Mexican remedy for, 298

Skins, creatures that slough their, supposed to renew their youth, 302
_sqq._

—— of human victims, worn by men in Mexico, 265 _sq._, 288, 290, 294
_sq._, 296 _sqq._, 301 _sq._

—— of sacrificial victims used to beat people, 265

Sky-goddess, the Egyptian, 341

Sladen, Colonel, 141

Slave Coast, 74

—— women, religious ceremony performed by, 258

Slaves, license granted to, at the Saturnalia, 307 _sq._, 350 _sq._, 351
_sq._;
feasted by their masters, 308, 350 _sq._;
feasted by their mistresses, 346

Slavonia, Good Friday custom in, 268

Slavonic custom of “carrying out Death,” 230

—— peoples, “Easter Smacks” among the, 268

—— year, the beginning of the, 228

Slavs, black god and white god among the, 92

Sleeman, General Sir William, 191

Sloth, the animal, imitated by masker, 381

Sloughing the skin supposed to be a mode of renewing youth, 302 _sqq._

Smallpox, cure for, 6;
attributed to a devil, 117, 119, 120, 123;
expelled in a proa, 186

——, demon of, 172;
sent away in a canoe, 188 _sq._

Smell, foul, used to drive demons away, 112

Smith, W. Robertson, on Semiramis, 369 _sq._

Smut in wheat, ceremony to prevent, 318

Snails as scapegoats, 52, 53

Snake or lizard in annual ceremony for the riddance of evils, 208

Snipe as scapegoat, 51

Social ranks, inversion of, at festivals, 350, 407

Socrates, church historian, 394

Sods, freshly cut, a protection against witches, 163

Soldiers, Roman, celebration of the Saturnalia by, 308 _sq._

Solomon Islanders, their expulsion of demons, 116

—— Islands, 9

Solstice, the winter, ceremony after the, 127

Soma, worship of, 90

Songs, liturgical, revealed by gods, 381

—— and dances, how they originate, 378 _sq._

Sonnenberg, popular cure for gout in, 56

Soracte, Mount, 311

Sorcerers as protectors against demons, 94;
exorcise demons, 113

_Soule_, a ball contended for in Normandy, 183

Souls of the dead received once a year by their relations, 150 _sqq._

South American Indians, 12, 20

Sow as scapegoat, 33

Sowing, prayer at, 138;
expulsion of demons at, 225;
the god of, 232;
dances at, 234 _sqq._;
Saturn the god of, 346;
in Italy, season of the spring, 346

Sown fields, fire applied to, on Eve of Twelfth Night, 316, 318, 321

Spain, the Boy Bishop in, 338

Spear, sacred, 218

Spears used to expel demons, 115, 116

Spirits, retreat of the army of, 72 _sq._;
guardian, 98;
good and evil, personated by children, 139;
Festival of Departed, 154

Spitting as a mode of transferring evil, 3, 10, 11;
as a mode of transferring disease, 187;
at ceremony for expulsion of evils, 208

Spittle as a protection against demons, 118

Spring, rites to ensure the revival of life in, 400

Squills used to beat human scapegoats, etc., 255 _sq._

Star, the Morning, personated by a man, 238;
of Bethlehem, 330

Steele, Sir Richard, quoted, 333

Sternberg, L., quoted, 101 _sq._

Sticks, fertilizing virtue attributed to certain, 264 _sq._

—— and stones, evils transferred to, 8 _sqq._;
piled on the scene of crimes, 13 _sqq._
_See also_ Throwing

Stinging young people with ants and wasps, custom of, 263

Stone-throwing at Mecca, rite of, 24;
in ancient Greece, 24 _sq._

Stones heaped up near shrines of saints, 21;
communion by means of, 21 _sq._;
thrown at demons, 131, 146, 152

—— and sticks, evil transferred to, 8 _sqq._;
piled on the scene of crimes, 13 _sqq._
_See also_ Throwing

Stoning, execution by, 24 _n._ 2

—— human scapegoats, 253, 254

_Stopfer_, maskers in Switzerland, 239

Stow, John, on Lords of Misrule, quoted, 331 _sq._

Strabo, on the Sacaea, 355, 369;
on the worship at Zela, 370 _n._ 4;
on the sanctuary at Zela, 421 _n._ 1

Strack, H. L., 395 _n._ 3

Stratification of religious beliefs among the Malays, 90 _n._ 1

Straw wrapt round fruit-trees as a protection against evil spirits, 164

Strehlitz, in Silesia, 157

Strudeli and Strätteli, 165

Substitutes in human sacrifice, 396 _sq._, 408

Sucla-Tirtha in India, expulsion of sins in, 202

Suffering, principle of vicarious, 1 _sq._

Suffolk cure for ague, 68

Suicides, ghosts of, feared, 17 _sq._

Sukandar river, 60

Sumatra, the Battas or Bataks of, 87, 213

Sun, appeal to the, 3;
charm to prevent the sun from setting, 30 _n._ 2;
reappearance of, in the Arctic regions, ceremonies at, 124 _sq._, 125
_n._ 1;
temple of the, at Cuzco, 129;
spirit who lives in the, 186;
hearts of human victims offered to the, 279, 298;
Mexican story of the creation of the, 410;
Syrian custom of saluting the rising, 416

—— -god, Christmas, an old pagan festival of the, 328;
the Egyptian, 341

Sunderland, cure for cough in, 52

_Süntevögel_ or _Sunnenvögel_, 159 _n._ 1

Superhuman power supposed to be acquired by actors in sacred dramas, 382,
383

Supplementary days of the year, 171

Supreme Being in West Africa, 74 _sq._

—— God of the Oraons, 92 _sq._

Susa, capital of the Elamites, 366

Swabia, the “Twelve Lot Days” in, 322

Swahili, the, of East Africa, their New Year’s Day, 226 _n._ 1

Swallow dance, 381

Swallows as scapegoats, 35

Sweden, 14, 20, 27

Sweeping misfortune out of house with brooms, 5

—— out the town, annual ceremony of, 135

Swords used to ward off or expel demons, 113, 118, 119, 120, 123, 203;
carried by mummers, 245

Syria, 17, 21;
Aphrodite and Adonis in, 386

Syro-Macedonian calendar, 358 _n._ 1

Tagbanuas of the Philippines, their custom of sending spirits of disease
away in little ships, 189

Tahiti, transference of sins in, 45 _sq._

Tahitians, the, 80

Taigonos Peninsula, 126

Taleins, the, of Burma, their worship of demons, 96

Talmud, the, on Purim, 363

Tamanachiers, Indian tribe of the Orinoco, 303

_Tamanawas_, dramatic performances of myths, 376, 377

Tamarisk branches used to beat people ceremonially, 263

_Tambaran_, demons, 82, 83

Tammuz, the lover of Ishtar, 371, 373;
annual death and resurrection of, 398;
at Jerusalem, the weeping for, 400.
_See also_ Adonis

—— and Ishtar, 399, 406

Tanganyika, Lake, 10

Tangkhuls of Assam, 177

Tanjore, Rajah of, 44

Taoism, 99

Tar to keep out ghosts and witches, 153 _n._ 1

—— -barrels burnt, 169

Tarahumares, the, of Mexico, 10;
their dances for the crops, 236 _sqq._

Taros, mode of fertilizing, 264

Tarsus in Cilicia, Sandan at, 388, 389, 391, 392

_Taupes et Mulots_, fire ceremony on Eve of Twelfth Night, 317

Tavernier, J. B., quoted, 148 _n._ 1

Taylor, Rev. J. C., quoted, 133, 211

Taylor, Rev. R., quoted, 81

Tellemarken in Norway, 14

Telugu remedy for a fever, 38

Temple, Sir Richard C., quoted, 88

Temple, the Inner and the Middle, Lords of Misrule in the, 333

—— church, Lord of Misrule in the, 333

Temporary king, 403 _sq._;
in Siam, 151

Tench as scapegoat, 52

Tenggerese of Java, their sham fight at New Year, 184

Tepehuanes, the, of Mexico, 10

Teshu Lama, the, 203

—— Lumbo in Tibet, 203

Teso people of Central Africa, their use of bells to exorcise fiends, 246
_sq._

Tezcatlipoca, great Mexican god, 276;
young man annually sacrificed in the character of, 276 _sqq._

Thales on spirits, 104

Thargelia, human scapegoats at the festival of the, 254, 255, 256, 257,
259, 272, 273

Thay, the, of Indo-China, their worship of spirits, 97 _sq._

Theal, G. McCall, on fear of demons, 77 _sq._

_Theckydaw_, expulsion of demons, 147 _sq._

_Then_, spirits, 97

Theodosius and Honorius, decree of, 392

Theory of sacrifice, the Brahmanical, 410 _sq._

Thompson Indians of British Columbia, their charms against ghosts, 154
_n._

Thorns, wreaths of, 140

Thrace, Abdera in, 254

Thrashing people to do them good, 262 _sqq._
_See also_ Beating _and_ Whipping

Thread, red, in popular cure, 55

Three Kings on Twelfth Day, 329 _sqq._

Threshold protected against witches by knives, 162;
by sods, 163

Throwing of sticks or stones interpreted as an offering or token of
respect, 20 _sqq._, 25 _sqq._;
as a mode of riddance of evil, 23 _sqq._

Thule, ceremony in Thule at the annual reappearance of the sun, 125 _n._ 1

Thunder, the first peal heard in spring, 144;
demon of, exorcised by bells, 246 _sq._

Thüringen, expulsion of witches in, 160;
custom of beating people on Holy Innocents’ Day in, 271

Tiamat, mythical Babylonian monster, 410

Tibet, demonolatry in, 94;
human scapegoats in, 218 _sqq._

Tiger-spirits, 199

Tikopia, island of, 189

Timbo in French Guinea, 235

Time, personification of periods of, 230

Timor, the island of, 8;
belief in the spirits of the dead in, 85

_Timor fecit deos_, 93

Timor-laut Islands, the tug-of-war in the, 176;
demons of sicknesses expelled in a proa from, 185 _sq._

Tinchebray in Normandy, 183

Tjingilli tribe of Central Australia, 2

Tlacaxipeualiztli, Mexican festival, 296

Tlaloc, temple of, in Mexico, 284, 292

Tlemcen in Algeria, 31

Toad as scapegoat, 193, 206 _sq._

Toboongkoo, the, of Central Celebes, riddles among the, 112 _n._

Toci, Mexican goddess, 289

Todas, the, of the Neilgherry Hills, 37

Togoland, 3; the Hos of, 134, 206;
the negroes of, their remedy for influenza, 193

Tokio, annual expulsion of demons at, 213

Tomb of Moses, 21

Tonan, Mexican goddess, 287;
woman sacrificed in the character of, 287 _sq._

Tonocotes. _See_ Lules

Tonquin, demon of sickness expelled in, 119;
annual expulsion of demons in, 147 _sq._

Toothache, cure for, 6, 57, 58, 59 _sq._, 62, 63, 71

Toradjas, the, of Central Celebes, 34;
their cure by beating, 265

Torches used in the expulsion of demons, 110, 117, 120, 130, 131, 132, 133
_sq._, 139, 140, 146, 157, 171;
used in the expulsion of witches, etc., 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 163,
165, 166;
carried in procession by maskers, 243;
applied to fruit-trees on Eve of Twelfth Night, 316 _sq._

Torquemada, J. de, Spanish historian of Mexico, 279 _n._ 1, 286 _n._ 1,
300 _n._ 1

Totec, Mexican god, 297, 298;
personated by a man wearing the skin of a human victim, 300

Totonacs, their worship of the corn-spirit, 286 _n._ 1

Tototectin, men clad in skins of human victims, 298

Toxcatl, fifth month of old Mexican year, 149 _n._ 2;
Mexican festival, 276

Trajan, Pliny’s letter to, 420

Transference of evil, 1 _sqq._;
to other people, 5 _sqq._;
to sticks and stones, 8 _sqq._;
to animals, 31 _sqq._;
to men, 38 _sqq._;
in Europe, 47 _sqq._

Transformation of animals into men, 380

Transylvania, the Roumanians of, 16, 106 _sq._

Travancore, Rajah of, 42 _sq._;
demon-worship in, 94

Tree, disease transferred to, 6;
use of stick cut from a fruitful, 264

Trees, evils transferred to, 52, 54 _sqq._

Trieste, St. Sylvester’s Eve at, 165

Trinity, the Batta, 88 _n._ 1

—— College, Cambridge, Lord of Misrule at, 332

_Trinouxtion_, 343 _n._

Tripoli, mode of laying ghosts in, 63

Troezenians, their festival resembling the Saturnalia, 350

Trows in Shetland, 168 _sq._

Trumpets blown to expel demons, 116, 117, 156;
blown at the feast of Purim, 394

_Tsuina_, expulsion of demons in Japan, 212 _sq._

Tsûl, a Berber tribe, 179

Tuaran district of British North Borneo, 200

Tug-of-war as a religious or magical rite, 173 _sqq._;
as a charm to produce rain, 175 _sq._, 178 _sq._

Tul-ya’s e’en in Shetland, 168

Tullus Hostilius, 345 _n._ 1

Tumleo, annual fight in, 142 _sq._

Tuna, a spirit, expulsion of, 124 _sq._

Tung ak, a powerful spirit, 79, 80

Turkestan, 45;
Ferghana in, 184

Turkish tribes of Central Asia, riddles among the, 122 _n._

Turner, L. M., quoted, 79 _sq._

Tuscan Romagna, the, 167

Twelfth Day, serious significance of, 315;
the Three Kings on, 329 _sqq._
_See also_ Twelfth Night

—— Day, Eve of, 318;
expulsion of witches, etc., on, 166 _sq._

—— Night, expulsion of the powers of evil on, 165 _sqq._;
dances on, 238;
Perchta’s Day, 244;
(Epiphany), the King of the Bean on, 313 _sqq._
_See also_ Twelfth Day

—— Night, Eve of, 316;
old Mrs. Perchta on, 240, 241;
ceremonial fires on, 316 _sqq._

Twelve Days, weather of the twelve months supposed to be determined by the
weather of the, 322 _sqq._;
in Macedonia, superstitions as to the, 320;
in ancient India, 324 _sq._;
accounted a miniature of the year, 324;
in the Highlands of Scotland, 324;
difference of opinion as to the date of the, 324, 327;
probably an old intercalary period at midwinter, 338 _sq._, 342

—— Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night (Epiphany), precautions against
witches during the, 158 _sqq._, 164 _sqq._

—— Days or Twelve Nights not of Christian origin, 326 _sqq._

—— fires on Eve of Twelfth Day, 318 _sq._, 321 _sq._

Two-faced mask worn by image of goddess, 287

Typhon, the birth of, 341

Tyre and Sidon, 17

Tyrol, annual “Burning out of the Witches” in the, 159 _sq._;
the _Perchten_ in the, 240, 242 _sq._;
Senseless Thursday in the, 248

Uganda Protectorate, 6, 42;
funeral ceremony in, 45 _n,_ 2;
human scapegoats in, 194 _sq._
_See also_ Baganda

Unalashka, one of the Aleutian Islands, 16

Unkareshwar, the goddess of cholera at, 194

Unreason, Abbot of, in Scotland, 331

Up-helly-a’ in Shetland, 168 _sq._

Urquhart, Sir Thomas, quoted, 332

Usener, H., 167 _n._ 1, 229 _n._ 2

Utch Kurgan, in Turkestan, 45

Vampyres, charms against, 153 _n._ 1

Vashti and Esther, temporary queens, 401

—— and Haman the duplicates of Esther and Mordecai, 406

Vedic times, 3;
cure for consumption in, 51;
the creed of the, 90;
riddles in, 122 _n._;
the Aryans of the, 324

Vegetation, Mars a deity of, 229 _sq._;
out-worn deity of, 231;
processions representing spirits of, 250

—— -god, Easter an old vernal festival of the, 328

Vehicle, expulsion of evils in a material, 185 _sqq._, 198 _sqq._, 224

Vehicles, material, of immaterial things (fear, misfortune, disease,
etc.), 1 _sqq._, 22 _n._ 2, 23 _sqq._

Venus and Adonis, 406.
_See also_ Adonis, Aphrodite

Verrall, A. W., 391 _n._ 4

Vicarious suffering, principle of, 1 _sq._

Vienne, the Boy Bishop at, 337 _n._ 1

Vieux-Pont, in Orne, 183 _n._ 3

Vitzilopochtli, great Mexican god, 280;
young man annually sacrificed in the character of, 280 _sq._

Vohumano or Vohu Manah, a Persian archangel, 373 _n._ 1

Voigtland, cure for toothache in, 59;
belief in witchcraft in, 160;
“Easter Smacks” in, 268;
young people beat each other at Christmas in, 271

Vosges, cure for toothache in the, 59

—— Mountains, dances on Twelfth Day in the, 315;
the Three Kings of Twelfth Day in the, 330

Vulsinii in Etruria, 67

Wagogo, the, of German East Africa, 6

Walpurgis Night, witches abroad on, 158 _sqq._;
annual expulsion of witches on, 159 _sqq._;
dances on, 238

Warramunga tribe of Central Australia, 2

Warts, transference of, 48 _sq._;
popular cures for, 54, 57

Washamba, the, of German East Africa, 29

Wasps, stinging people with, 263

Wassailing on Eve of Twelfth Day, 319

Wax figures in magic, 47

Weapons turned against spiritual foes, 233

Weariness transferred to stones or sticks, 8 _sqq._

Weather of the twelve months determined by the weather of the Twelve Days,
322 _sqq._

Weber, A., on origin of the Twelve Days, 325 _n._ 3

Weeks, Rev. John H., quoted, 76 _sq._

Weights and measures, false, corrected in time of epidemic, 115

Weinhold, K., 327 _n._ 4

Welsh cure for cough, 51

—— custom of sin-eating, 43 _sq._

Wendland, P., on the crucifixion of Christ, 412 _sq._, 418 _n._ 1

Wends of Saxony, their precautions against witches, 163

Westermarck, Dr. Edward, 180

Westphalia, 266

Westphalian form of the expulsion of evil, 159 _n._ 1

Whale represented dramatically as a mystery, 377

Whipping people to rid them of ghosts, 260 _sqq._

Whips used in the expulsion of demons and witches, 156, 159, 160, 161,
165, 214;
used by maskers, 243, 244

White as a colour to repel demons, 115

—— and black in relation to human scapegoats, 220;
figs worn by human scapegoats, 253, 257, 272

—— cock, disease transferred to, 187;
as scapegoat, 210 _n._ 4

—— crosses made by the King of the Bean, 314

—— dog, sacrifice of, 127;
as scapegoat, 209 _sq._

—— god and black god among the Slavs, 92

—— Nile, the Dinkas of the, 193

Whitsuntide, 359

Whydah, the King of, 234

Widow, bald-headed, in cure, 38

Widows, cleansing of, 35 _sq._

Wild Huntsman, 164, 241

Willcock, Dr. J., 169 _n._ 2

William of Wykeham, 338

Williams, Monier, quoted, 91 _sq._

Willow used to beat people with at Easter and Christmas, 269, 270

—— -trees in popular remedies, 56, 58, 59

Willow-wood used against witches, 160

Winchester College, Boy Bishop at, 338

Wind, charm to produce a rainy or dry, 176, 178 _sq._

Winnowing-basket beaten at ceremony, 145

Winter, ceremony at the end of, 124;
dances performed only in, 376;
ceremony of the expulsion of, 404 _sq._;
effigies of, destroyed, 408 _sq._

—— solstice, ceremony after the, 126

Witch, fire to burn old, on Twelfth Day, 319

Witchcraft in Scotland, 38 _sq._;
on the Congo, dread of, 77 _n._ 2;
permanence of the belief in, 89;
in Moravia, precautions against, 162

Witches burnt alive, 19;
the burning out of the, in the Tyrol, 158 _sq._;
in Bohemia, 161;
in Silesia and Saxony, 163;
special precautions against, at certain seasons of the year, 157 _sqq._;
annually expelled in Calabria, Silesia, and other parts of Europe, 157
_sqq._;
active during the Twelve Days from Christmas to Twelfth Night, 158
_sqq._;
shooting the, 164;
driving out the, 164;
burnt in Scotland, 165;
beaten with buckthorn, 266;
rob cows of milk on May Day, 267

Wives of a king taken by his successor, 368 _n._ 1

Woman’s ornaments, scapegoat decked with, 192

Women impregnated by ghosts, 18;
fertilized by effigy of a baby, 245, 249;
mode of fertilizing, 264;
put to death in the character of goddesses in Mexico, 283 _sqq._

Wood, King of the, at Aricia, 409

World conceived as animated, 90 _sq._;
daily created afresh by the self-sacrifice of the deity, 411

Worship of the dead, 97;
paid to human representatives of gods in Mexico, 278, 282, 289, 293

Wotyaks of Russia, annual expulsion of Satan among the, 155 _sq._

Wuttke, A., 327 _n._ 4

Xerxes identified with Ahasuerus, 360

Xilonen, Mexican goddess of the Young Maize, 285;
woman annually sacrificed in the character of, 285 _sq._

Xipe, Mexican god, 297, 298, 299;
statuette of, 291 _n._ 1;
his festival, 296 _sqq._;
his image, 297

Xixipeme, men clad in skins of human victims, 298, 299

Yabim of German New Guinea, their custom of sending disease away in a
small canoe, 188 _sq._

Yams, ceremonies before eating the new, 134

Year, burning out the Old, 165, 230 _n._ 7;
the old Roman, began in March, 229;
supposed representatives of the old, 230.
_See also_ New Year

——, lunar, of old Roman calendar, 232;
equated to solar year by intercalation, 325, 342 _sq._

——, solar, intercalation of the, 407 _n._ 1

—— -man, the, in Japan, 144

Years named after eponymous magistrates, 39 _sq._

——, the King of the, 220, 221

Yellow the royal colour among the Malays, 187

Yopico, temple in Mexico, 299

York, the Boy Bishop at, 337, 338

Yoruba negroes of West Africa, their use of human scapegoats, 211 _sq._

Younghusband, Sir Francis, 13

Youth supposed to be renewed by sloughing of skin, 302 _sqq._

Yucatan, the Mayas of, 171, 340

Yukon River, the Lower, 380

Yules, the, in Shetland, 168

_Yumari_, a dance of the Tarahumare Indians, 237 _sq._

Zakmuk or Zagmuk, the Babylonian festival of the New Year, 356 _sqq._

—— and the Sacaea, 399

Zambesi, the river, 7, 11

Zela in Pontus, Anaitis and the Sacaea at, 370, 372, 373, 421 _n._ 1;
Omanos and Anadates at, 373 _n._ 1

Zeus, cake with twelve knobs offered to, 351;
an upstart at Olympia, 352;
identified with the Babylonian Bel, 389

——, Laphystian, associated with human sacrifices, 354

——, Lycaean, human sacrifices to, 353, 354

——, Olympian, his temple at Athens, 351

——, Pelorian, 350

Zimmern, H., 358 _n._, 359 _n._ 1, 361 _n._ 4, 406 _n._ 2

Zoganes, a mock king at Babylon, 355, 357, 365, 368, 369, 387, 388, 406

Zoroaster, 389

Zündel, G., on demonolatry in West Africa, 74 _sqq._

Zuni sacrifice of turtle, 217

FOOTNOTES

M1 The principle of vicarious suffering.
M2 Transference of evil to things. Evils swept away by rivers.

1 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 266 _sq._, 305, 357 _sq._; compare
_id._, pp. 141, 340.

2 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _The Northern Tribes of Central
Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 474.

3 J. Pearse, “Customs connected with Death and Burial among the
Sihanaka,” _The Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine_, vol.
ii., _Reprint of the Second four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1896), pp.
146 _sq._

4 Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries, and Resources
of Alaska_, p. 158.

5 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 322.

6 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), p. 800.

7 Pausanias, vii. 23. 3.

8 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), p. 29.

M3 Transference of evil to things.

9 This I learned from my friend W. Robertson Smith, who mentioned as
his authority David of Antioch, _Tazyin_, in the story “Orwa.”

10 R. Andree, _Ethnographische Parallele und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart,
1878), pp. 29 _sq._

11 “Lettre du curé de Santiago Tepehuacan à son évêque sur les mœurs et
coutumes des Indiens soumis à ses soins,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), Deuxième Série, ii. (1834) p. 182.

12 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 309 _sq._

M4 Dyak transference of evil to things.

13 C. Hupe, “Korte Verhandeling over de Godsdienst, Zeden enz. der
Dajakkers,” _Tijdschrift voor Neêrlands Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. pp.
149 _sq._; F. Grabowsky, “Die Theogonie der Dajaken auf Borneo,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, v. (1892) p. 131.

M5 Evils transferred to other persons through the medium of things.

14 J. Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and Adelaide,
1881), p. 59.

15 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 164 _sq._

16 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,” _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 103.

17 Rev. J. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1902) p. 313.

M6 Evils transferred to images. Mongol transference of evil to things.

18 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 343 _sq._

19 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 146.

_ 20 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii., _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907), p. 63.

21 M. v. Beguelin, “Religiöse Volksbräuche der Mongolen,” _Globus_,
lvii. (1890) pp. 209 _sq._

M7 Fatigue transferred to stones, sticks, or leaves.

22 J. G. F. Riedel, “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” _Deutsche
geographische Blätter_, x. 231.

23 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 340.

24 R. H. Codrington, D.D., _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 186.

M8 Heaps of stones or sticks among the American Indians.

25 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), pp. 42 _sq._
(Ternaux-Compans, _Voyages, Relations et Mémoires originaux, pour
servir à l’Histoire de la Découverte de l’Amérique_).

26 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 37, 130. As to the custom compare J. J. von Tschudi,
_Peru_ (St. Gallen, 1846), ii. 77 _sq._; H. A. Weddell, _Voyage dans
le Nord de la Bolivia et dans les parties voisines du Pérou_ (Paris
and London, 1853), pp. 74 _sq._ These latter writers interpret the
stones as offerings.

27 Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on the Boundaries of Bolivia and
Argentina,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxi. (1903) p. 518.

28 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 282.

29 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 564; compare iii.
486. Indians of Guatemala, when they cross a pass for the first
time, still commonly add a stone to the cairn which marks the spot.
See C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
Kekchi-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.
(1895) p. 197.

M9 Heaps of stones or sticks among the natives of Africa.

30 F. F. R. Boileau, “The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau,” _The Geographical
Journal_, xiii. (1899) p. 589. In the same region Mr. L. Decle
observed many trees or rocks on which were placed little heaps of
stones or bits of wood, to which in passing each of his men added a
fresh stone or bit of wood or a tuft of grass. “This,” says Mr. L.
Decle, “is a tribute to the spirits, the general precaution to
ensure a safe return” (_Three Years in Savage Africa_, London, 1898,
p. 289). A similar practice prevails among the Wanyamwezi (_ibid._
p. 345). Compare J. A. Grant, _A Walk across Africa_ (Edinburgh and
London, 1864), pp. 133 _sq._

31 Cowper Rose, _Four Years in Southern Africa_ (London, 1829), p. 147.

32 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 264.

M10 The heaps of stones or sticks generally on the tops of mountains or
passes.

33 S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), pp.
211 _sq._; Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, i.
66; D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_ (Edinburgh, 1875),
pp. 146 _sq._ Compare H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im südlichen Africa_
(Berlin, 1811-1812), i. 411.

34 W. Gowland, “Dolmens and other Antiquities of Corea,” _Journal of
the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 328 _sq._; Mrs.
Bishop, _Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 147, ii. 223.
Both writers speak as if the practice were to spit on the cairn
rather than on the particular stone which the traveller adds to it;
indeed, Mrs. Bishop omits to notice the custom of adding to the
cairns. Mr. Gowland says that almost every traveller carries up at
least one stone from the valley and lays it on the pile.

35 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Peru and Bolivia,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. (1870) pp. 237 _sq._; G. C.
Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; T. T. Cooper, _Travels of a Pioneer
of Commerce_ (London, 1871), p. 275; J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of
Thibet, a Bird’s Eye View of Independent Sikkhim, British Bhootan,
and the Dooars_ (Calcutta, 1894), pp. 111 _sq._; A. Bastian, _Die
Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866) p. 483. So among
the Mrus of Aracan, every man who crosses a hill, on reaching the
crest, plucks a fresh young shoot of grass and lays it on a pile of
the withered deposits of former travellers (T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races
of South-Eastern India_, London, 1870, pp. 232 _sq._).

M11 Fatigue let out with the blood.

36 A. d’Orbigny, _Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. (Paris and
Strasburg, 1839-1843) pp. 92 _sq._

M12 Piles of stones or sticks on the scene of crimes. The Liar’s Heap.

37 (Sir) F. E. Younghusband, “A Journey across Central Asia,”
_Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, x. (1888) p. 494.

38 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_ (Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 274 _sq._

39 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,”
_Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_,
vii. (1872) p. 73.

40 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
1863), i. 88.

41 E. H. Gomes, _Seventeen Years among the Sea Dyaks of Borneo_
(London, 1911), pp. 66 _sq._

42 Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_ (London,
1912), i. 123.

M13 Heaps of stones, sticks, or leaves on scenes of murder. Heaps of
stones or sticks on graves.

43 A. C. Haddon, “A Batch of Irish Folk-lore,” _Folk-lore_, iv. (1893)
pp. 357, 360; Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et Légendes du Centre
de la France_ (Paris, 1875), ii. 75, 77; J. Brand, _Popular
Antiquities_, ii. 309; Hylten-Cavallius, quoted by F. Liebrecht,
_Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_
(Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 65; K. Müllenhoff, _Sagen, Märchen und
Lieder der Herzogthümer Schleswig, Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel,
1845), p. 125; A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_ (Berlin,
1843), p. 113; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen
und Gebräuche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 85; A. Treichel, “Reisighäufung
und Steinhäufung an Mordstellen,” _Am Ur-Quelle_, vi. (1896) p. 220;
Georgeakis et Pineau, _Folk-lore de Lesbos_, p. 323; A. Leared,
_Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), pp. 105 _sq._; E. Doutté,
“Figuig,” _La Géographie, Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_
(Paris), vii. (1903) p. 197; _id._, _Magie et Religion dans
l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 424 _sq._; A. von
Haxthausen, _Transkaukasia_ (Leipsic, 1856), i. 222; C. T. Wilson,
_Peasant Life in the Holy Land_ (London, 1906), p. 285; W. Crooke,
_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster,
1896), i. 267 _sq._; J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North
Carolina_ (Dublin, 1737), p. 380; J. Adair, _History of the American
Indians_ (London, 1775), p. 184; K. Martin, _Bericht über eine Reise
nach Nederlandsch West-Indien_, Erster Theil (Leyden, 1887), p. 166;
G. C. Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal
Geographical Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; B. F. Matthes, _Einige
Eigenthümlichkeiten in den Festen und Gewohnheiten der Makassaren
und Büginesen_, p. 25 (separate reprint from _Travaux de la 6e
Session du Congrès International des Orientalistes à Leide_, vol.
ii.); R. A. Cruise, _Journal of a Ten Months’ Residence in New
Zealand_ (London, 1823), p. 186.

44 Ch. Wilkes, _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
New Edition (New York, 1851), iii. 50.

45 Captain James Cook, _Voyages_ (London, 1809), vi. 479.

46 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_ (Edinburgh and London,
1888), i. 311, 318.

47 H. Lichtenstein, _Reisen im Südlichen Africa_ (Berlin, 1811-1812),
i. 349 _sq._; Sir James E. Alexander, _Expedition of Discovery into
the Interior of Africa_ (London, 1838), i. 166; C. J. Andersson,
_Lake Ngami_, Second Edition (London, 1856), p. 327; W. H. I. Bleek,
_Reynard the Fox in South Africa_ (London, 1864), p. 76; Th. Hahn,
_Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_ (London, 1881), p.
56. Compare _The Dying God_, p. 3.

48 Th. Hahn, “Die Buschmänner,” _Globus_, xviii. 141.

49 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, ii. (Leipsic, 1860) p.
195, referring to Raffenel, _Nouveau Voyage dans le pays des nègres_
(Paris, 1856), i. 93 _sq._

50 Eijūb Abēla, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss abergläubischer Gebräuche in
Syrien,” _Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palaestina-Vereins_, vii. (1884)
p. 102.

51 Note by G. P. Badger, on _The Travels of Ludovico di Varthema_,
translated by J. W. Jones (Hakluyt Society, 1863), p. 45. For more
evidence of the custom in Syria see W. M. Thomson, _The Land and the
Book_ (London, 1859), p. 490; F. Sessions, “Some Syrian Folklore
Notes,” _Folk-lore_, ix. (1898) p. 15; A. Jaussen, _Coutumes des
Arabes au pays de Moab_ (Paris, 1908), p. 336.

M14 Stones and sticks hurled as missiles at dangerous ghosts and demons.
Missiles to ward off dangerous ghosts.

52 A. Treichel, “Reisig- und Steinhäufung bei Ermordeten oder
Selbstmördern,” _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft für
Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte, 1888_, p. (569) (bound
up with _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xx. 1888).

53 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 20 _sq._, 46
_sq._, 124 _sq._, 126 _sq._, 289 _sq._ Stones are not mentioned
among the missiles hurled at ghosts, probably because stones are
scarce in Uganda. See J. Roscoe, _op. cit._ p. 5.

54 Father Finaz, S.J., in _Les Missions Catholiques_, vii. (1875) p.
328.

55 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maraves, Chevas,
Muembas, Lundas, und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkunde_, vi. (1856) p. 287.

_ 56 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, lxxii. Part iii.
(Calcutta, 1904) p. 87.

57 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 146.

58 Euripides, _Electra_, 327 _sq._

59 Propertius, v. 5. 77 _sq._

M15 But the stones and sticks thrown on heaps cannot always be explained
as missiles discharged at spiritual foes. Cairns raised in honour of
Moslem saints.

60 M. Merker, _Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 193.

61 A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 305 _sq._

62 E. D. Clarke, _Travels in various Countries of Europe and Asia_, vi.
(London, 1823) p. 165.

63 W. H. D. Rouse, “Notes from Syria,” _Folk-lore_, vi. (1895) p. 173.
Compare F. Sessions, “Some Syrian Folklore Notes, gathered on Mount
Lebanon,” _Folk-lore_, ix. (1898) p. 15.

64 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’ Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 420-422.

M16 Stones as channels of communication with saints, living or dead.

65 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_, p. 440,
quoting De Ségonzac, _Voyage au Maroc_, p. 82.

66 I follow the exposition of E. Doutté, whose account of the sanctity
or magical influence (_baraka_) ascribed to the persons of living
Mohammedan saints (marabouts) is very instructive. See his _Magie et
Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_, pp. 438 _sqq._ Mr. E. S. Hartland
had previously explained the custom of throwing stones and sticks on
cairns as acts of ceremonial union with the spirit who is supposed
to reside in the cairn. See his _Legend of Perseus_, ii. (London,
1895) p. 128. While this theory offers a plausible explanation of
some cases of the custom, I do not think that it will cover them
all. M. René Dussaud argues that the stones deposited at shrines of
holy men are simply material embodiments of the prayers which at the
same time the suppliants address to the saints; and he holds that
the practice of depositing stones at such places rests on a
principle entirely different from that of throwing stones for the
purpose of repelling evil spirits. See René Dussaud, “La
matérialisation de la prière en Orient,” _Bulletins et Mémoires de
la Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris_, V. Série, vii. (1906) pp.
213-220. If I am right, the fundamental idea in these customs is
neither that the stones or sticks are offerings presented to good
spirits nor that they are missiles hurled at bad ones, but that they
embody the evil, whether disease, misfortune, fear, horror, or what
not, of which the person attempts to rid himself by transferring it
to a material vehicle. But I am far from confident that this
explanation applies to all cases. In particular it is difficult to
reconcile it with the custom, described in the text, of throwing a
marked stone at a holy man and then recovering it. Are we to suppose
that the stone carries away the evil to the good man and brings back
his blessing instead? The idea is perhaps too subtle and
far-fetched.

The word _baraka_, which in North Africa describes the powerful and
in general beneficent, yet dangerous, influence which emanates from
holy persons and things, is no doubt identical with the Hebrew
_bĕrakhah_ (ברכה) “blessing.” The importance which the ancient
Hebrews ascribed to the blessing or the curse of a holy man is
familiar to us from many passages in the Old Testament. See, for
example, Genesis xxvii., xlviii. 8 _sqq._; Deuteronomy xxvii. 11
_sqq._, xxviii. 1 _sqq._

M17 The rite of throwing sticks or stones is perhaps best explained as a
mode of purification, the evil being thought to be embodied in the
missile which is thrown away.

67 E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), pp. 430 sq.; J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentums_2
(Berlin, 1897), p. 111. The explanation given in the text is
regarded as probable by Professor M. J. de Goeje (_Internationales
Archiv für Ethnographie_, xvi. ,1904, p. 42.)

M18 This interpretation of stone-throwing agrees with ancient Greek and
Indian tradition and custom.

_ 68 Etymologicum Magnum_, _s.v._ Ἑρμαῖον, pp. 375 _sq._; Eustathius on
Homer, _Odyssey_, xvi. 471. As to the heaps of stones see Cornutus,
_Theologiae Graecae Compendium_, 16; Babrius, _Fabulae_, xlviii. 1
_sq._; Suidas, _s.v._ Ἑρμαῖον; Scholiast on Nicander, _Ther._ 150;
M. P. Nilsson, _Griechische Feste_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp. 388 _sqq._
The method of execution by stoning may perhaps have been resorted to
in order to avoid the pollution which would be entailed by contact
with the guilty and dying man.

69 Plato, _Laws_, ix. 12, p. 873 A-C λίθον ἕκαστος φέρων ἐπὶ τὴν
κεφαλὴν τοῦ νεκροῦ βάλλων ἀφοσιούτω τὴν πόλιν ὅλην.

_ 70 Satapatha Brahmana_, ix. 1. 2. 9-12, Part iv. p. 171 of J.
Eggeling’s translation (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliii.,
Oxford, 1897). As to Nirriti, the Goddess of Destruction, see H.
Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 323, 351,
354, 489 note 3.

M19 The throwing of sticks or stones on piles is sometimes explained as
a sacrifice. Certainly the throwing of stones is sometimes
accompanied by sacrifices. Heaps of sticks at the fords of rivers in
Africa.

71 See, for example, O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_
(Berlin, 1894), p. 214; G. M. Dawson, “Notes on the Shuswap People
of British Columbia,” _Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada_,
ix. (1891) section ii. p. 38; F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_
(Heilbronn, 1879), pp. 267 _sq._, 273 _sq._, 276, 278 _sq._; R.
Andree, _Ethnographische Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart,
1878), p. 48; Catat, in _Le Tour du Monde_, lxv. (1893), p. 40. Some
of these writers have made a special study of the practices in
question. See F. Liebrecht, “Die geworfenen Steine,” _Zur
Volkskunde_, pp. 267-284; R. Andree, “Steinhaufen,” _Ethnographische
Parallelen und Vergleiche_, pp. 46-58; E. S. Hartland, _The Legend
of Perseus_, ii. (London, 1895) pp. 204 _sqq._; E. Doutté, _Magie et
Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 419 _sqq._
With the views of the last of these writers I am in general
agreement.

72 However, at the waterfall of Kriml, in the Tyrol, it is customary
for every passer-by to throw a stone into the water; and this
attention is said to put the water-spirits in high good humour; for
they follow the wayfarer who has complied with the custom and guard
him from all the perils of the dangerous path. See F. Panzer,
_Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855), ii. 236
_sq._

73 J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of Thibet_, Second Edition (Calcutta,
1894), pp. 111 _sq._

74 L. A. Waddell, _Among the Himalayas_ (Westminster, 1899), pp. 115,
188.

75 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_, ii. 564.

76 C. Sapper, “Die Gebräuche und religiösen Anschauungen der
Kekchí-Indianer,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, viii.
(1895) pp. 197 _sq._

77 D. Forbes, “On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru,” _Journal of
the Ethnological Society of London_, ii. (1870) pp. 237 _sq._; G. C.
Musters, “Notes on Bolivia,” _Journal of the Royal Geographical
Society_, xlvii. (1877) p. 211; Baron E. Nordenskiöld, “Travels on
the Boundaries of Bolivia and Argentina,” _The Geographical
Journal_, xxi. (1903) p. 518.

78 P. J. de Arriaga, _Extirpacion de la Idolatria del Piru_ (Lima,
1621), pp. 37, 130.

79 F. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 274; Brett, “Dans la Corée
Septentrionale,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxxi. (1899) p. 237.

80 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 115. “In some parts of Bilaspore there may
be seen heaps of stones, which are known as _kuriyā_, from the word
_kurhonā_, meaning to heap or pile-up. Just how and why the practice
was started the people cannot explain; but to this day every one who
passes a _kuriyā_ will take up a stone and throw it on the pile.
This, they say, has been done as long as they can remember” (E. M.
Gordon, _Indian Folk Tales_, London, 1908, p. 14).

81 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 267 _sq._

82 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 163.

83 P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the Bush_ (London, 1912), p.
242. As to the goddess Nimm, see _id._, pp. 2 _sq._

84 P. Amaury Talbot, _op. cit._ p. 91.

85 A. Karasek, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Waschambaa,”
_Baessler-Archiv_, i. (1911) p. 194.

86 M. Martin, “A Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in
John Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii.
691.

M20 The throwing of stones and sticks is sometimes accompanied by
prayers. Gradual transformation of an old magical ceremony into a
religious rite.

87 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_ (Saigon, 1885), p. 198.

88 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 832.

89 T. T. Cooper, _Travels of a Pioneer of Commerce_ (London, 1871), p.
275. Compare W. W. Rockhill, _The Land of the Lamas_ (London, 1891),
pp. 126 _sq._

90 Rev. J. Macdonald, “Manners, Customs, Superstitions, and Religions
of South African Tribes,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xx. (1891) p. 126.

91 Sir James E. Alexander, _Expedition of Discovery into the Interior
of Africa_ (London, 1838), i. 166.

92 S. Kay, _Travels and Researches in Caffraria_ (London, 1833), pp.
211 _sq._ When the Bishop of Capetown once passed a heap of stones
on the top of a mountain in the Amapondo country he was told that
“it was customary for every traveller to add one to the heap that it
might have a favourable influence on his journey, and enable him to
arrive at some kraal while the pot is yet boiling” (J. Shooter, _The
Kaffirs of Natal_, London, 1857, p. 217). Here there is no mention
of a prayer. Similarly a Basuto on a journey, when he fears that the
friend with whom he is going to stay may have eaten up all the food
before his guest’s arrival, places a stone on a cairn to avert the
danger (E. Casalis, _The Basutos_, London, 1861, p. 272). The reason
alleged for the practice in these cases is perhaps equivalent to the
one assigned by the Melanesians and others; by ridding the traveller
of his fatigue it enables him to journey faster and so to reach his
destination before supper is over. But sometimes a travelling
Mowenda will place a stone, not on a cairn, but in the fork of a
tree, saying, “May the sun not set before I reach my destination.”
See Rev. E. Gottschling, “The Bawenda,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 381. This last custom is
a charm to prevent the sun from setting. See _The Magic Art and the
Evolution of Kings_, i. 318. In Senegal the custom of throwing
stones on cairns by the wayside is said to be observed “in order to
ensure a speedy and prosperous return.” See Dr. Bellamy, “Notes
ethnographiques recueillies dans le Haut-Sénégal,” _Revue d’
Ethnographie_, v. (1886) p. 83. In the Fan country of West Africa
the custom of adding a leafy branch to a heap of such branches in
the forest was explained by a native, who said that it was done to
prevent the trees and branches from falling on the traveller’s head,
and their roots from wounding his feet. See Father Trilles, “Mille
lieues dans l’inconnu,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xxxiv. (1902) p.
142.

93 Th. Hahn, “Die Buschmänner,” _Globus_, xviii. 141. As to the cairn
in question, see above, p. 16.

M21 Evils transferred to animals in Africa.

94 J. Smith, _Trade and Travels in the Gulph of Guinea_ (London, 1851),
p. 77.

95 O. Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 117.

96 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_ (London, 1876), p. 301. Compare
E. Doutté, _Magie et Religion dans l’Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers,
1908), p. 454.

97 E. Doutté, _op. cit._ pp. 454 _sq._

98 Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 261.

99 Rev. John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (London, 1822), ii.
207 _sq._

100 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 342 _sq._

101 P. Cayzac, “La religion des Kikuyu,” _Anthropos_, v. (1910) p. 311.

102 Rev. J. Roscoe, “The Bahima, a Cow Tribe of Enkole,” _Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxvii. (1907) p. 111.

M22 Evils transferred to animals in various parts of the world.

103 Dr. R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi.
(1899) p. 254.

104 J. Goldziher, _Muhammedanische Studien_ (Halle a. S., 1888-1890), i.
34.

105 E. Diguet, _Les Annamites_ (Paris, 1906), pp. 283 _sq._

106 W. Müller, “Über die Wildenstämme der Insel Formosa,” _Zeitschrift
für Ethnologie_, xlii. (1910) p. 237. The writer’s use of the
pronoun (_sie_) is ambiguous.

107 Father E. Amat, in _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lxx.
(1898) pp. 266 _sq._

M23 Vehicles for the transference of evils in Madagascar.

108 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, N.D.), i. 422 _sq._;
compare _id._, pp. 232, 435, 436 _sq._; Rev. J. Sibree, _The Great
African Island_ (London, 1880), pp. 303 _sq._ As to divination by
the _sikidy_, see J. Sibree, “Divination among the Malagasy,”
_Folk-lore_, iii. (1892) pp. 193-226.

109 W. Ellis, _op. cit._ i. 374; J. Sibree, _The Great African Island_,
p. 304; J. Cameron, in _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar Magazine,
Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.

M24 Extraction of kleptomania by spiders and crabs. Evils transferred to
birds, which fly away with them.

110 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, _De Bare’e-sprekende Toradja’s van
Midden-Celebes_, i. (Batavia, 1912) p. 399.

111 W. Ködding, “Die Batakschen Götter,” _Allgemeine
Missions-Zeitschrift_, xii. (1885) p. 478; Dr. R. Römer, “Bijdrage
tot de Geneeskunst der Karo-Batak’s,” _Tijdschrift voor Indische
Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, l. (1908) p. 223.

112 W. E. Maxwell, “The Folklore of the Malays,” _Journal of the Straits
Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 7 (June, 1881), p. 27; W.
W. Skeat, _Malay Magic_ (London, 1900), pp. 534 _sq._

113 Dio Chrysostom, _Orat._ liii. vol. ii. pp. 164 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf
(Leipsic, 1857). Compare Plato, _Republic_, iii. 9, p. 398 A, who
ironically proposes to dismiss poets from his ideal state in the
same manner. These passages of Plato and Dio Chrysostom were pointed
out to me by my friend Professor Henry Jackson. There was a Greek
saying, attributed to Pythagoras, that swallows should not be
allowed to enter a house (Plutarch, _Quaest. Conviv._ viii. 7, 1).

114 Dr. R. F. Kaindl, “Zauberglaube bei den Huzulen,” _Globus_, lxxvi.
(1899) pp. 255 _sq._

115 Leviticus xiv. 7, 53.

116 J. Wellhausen, _Reste arabischen Heidentumes_ (Berlin, 1887), p.
156; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, New Edition
(London, 1894), pp. 422, 428.

M25 Evils transferred to animals in India.

117 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and
Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), iii. 434.