Chapter XVII: Types of Animal Sacrament (5)

M35 The horse so sacrificed seems to have embodied the corn-spirit.

154 The Huzuls of the Carpathians attribute a special virtue to a
horse’s head. They think that fastened on a pole and set up in a
garden it protects the cabbages from caterpillars. See R. F. Kaindl,
_Die Huzulen_ (Wienna, 1894), p. 102. At the close of the
rice-harvest the Garos of Assam celebrate a festival in which the
effigy of a horse plays an important part. When the festival is
over, the body of the horse is thrown into a stream, but the head is
preserved for another year. See Note at the end of the volume.

155 Above, pp. 9 _sq._

156 Above, vol. i. pp. 268, 272.

157 Above, vol. i. pp. 141, 155, 156, 158, 160 _sq._, 301.

M36 Archaic character of the sacrifice and its analogies in the harvest
customs of Northern Europe.

158 Livy, ii. 5.

159 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 130, 131.

M37 Other examples of the exclusion of horses from sanctuaries.
Uncertainty as to the reason for excluding horses from the Arician
grove.

160 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 560 (vol. ii.
pp. 259-261); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_
(Brussels, 1900), No. 434, pp. 323 _sq._; P. Cauer, _Delectus
Inscriptionum Graecarum propter dialectum memorabilium_2 (Leipsic,
1883), No. 177, pp. 117 _sq._ As to Alectrona or Alectryona,
daughter of the Sun, see Diodorus Siculus, v. 65. 5.

161 Festus, _s.v._ “October equus,” p. 181 ed. C. O. Müller. See _The
Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 315.

162 G. Zündel, “Land und Volk der Eweer auf der Sclavenküste in
West-afrika,” _Zeitschrift für Erdkunde zu Berlin_, xii. (1877) pp.
415 _sq._

163 Rev. W. Ellis, _History of Madagascar_ (London, preface dated 1838),
i. 402 _sq._

164 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 939 (vol. ii.
p. 803).

165 Pausanias, viii. 37. 7.

M38 Custom of eating the new corn sacramentally as the body of the
corn-spirit. Loaves baked of the new corn in human shape and eaten.

166 W. Mannhardt, _Mythologische Forschungen_ (Strasburg, 1884), p. 179.

167 W. Mannhardt, _Der Baumkultus der Germanen und ihrer Nachbarstämme_
(Berlin, 1875), p. 205. It is not said that the dough-man is made of
the new corn; but probably this is, or once was, the case.

M39 Old Lithuanian ritual at eating the new corn.

168 M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae oder Preussische Schaubuhne, im
wörtlichen Auszüge aus dem Manuscript herausgegeben_ von Dr. William
Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 60-64; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und
Feldkulte_ (Berlin, 1877), pp. 249 _sqq._ Mathaeus Praetorius, the
author to whom we owe the account in the text, compiled a detailed
description of old Lithuanian manners and customs in the latter part
of the seventeenth century at the village of Niebudzen, of which he
was Protestant pastor. The work, which seems to have occupied him
for many years and to have been finished about 1698, exists in
manuscript but has never been published in full. Only excerpts from
it have been printed by Dr. W. Pierson. Praetorius was born at Memel
about 1635 and died in 1707. In the later years of his life he
incurred a good deal of odium by joining the Catholic Church.

M40 Modern European ceremonies at eating the new corn or new potatoes.

169 A. Bezzenberger, _Litauische Forschungen_ (Göttingen, 1882), p. 89.

170 Simon Grunau, _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M.
Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 91.

171 J. B. Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen
Gesellschaft zu Dorpat_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 108.

172 On iron as a charm against spirits, see _Taboo and the Perils of the
Soul_, pp. 232 _sqq._

_ 173 Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 54.

174 Communicated by the Rev. J. J. C. Yarborough, of Chislehurst, Kent.
See _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) p. 50.

M41 Ceremony of the heathen Cheremiss at eating the new corn.

175 Von Haxthausen, _Studien über die innern Zustände, das Volksleben
und insbesondere die ländliche Einrichtungen Russlands_, i. 448
_sq._

176 J. G. Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des Russischen Reichs_
(St. Petersburg, 1776), p. 37.

M42 Ceremony of the Aino at eating the new millet.

177 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
pp. 204, 206.

M43 Ceremonies of the Melanesians of Reef Island at eating the new
bread-fruits and yams.

178 “Native Stories from Santa Cruz and Reef Islands,” translated by the
Rev. W. O’Ferrall, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xxxiv. (1904) p. 230.

M44 Ceremony of the New Caledonians at eating the first yams.

179 Glaumont, “La culture de l’igname et du taro en Nouvelle-Calédonie,”
_L’Anthropologie_, viii. (1897) pp. 43-45.

M45 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Buru and Celebes.

180 G. A. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis der Alfoeren van het eiland
Boeroe,” p. 26 (_Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van
Kunsten en Wetenschappen_ vol. xxxviii., Batavia, 1875).

181 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der
Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, vii. (1863) p. 127.

182 N. P. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Allerlei over het land en volk van
Bolaang Mongondou,” _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, xi. (1867) pp. 369 _sq._

M46 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in Ceram and Borneo.

183 J. Boot, “Korte schets der noordkust van Ceram,” _Tiidschrift van
het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, x.
(1893) pp. 671 _sq._

184 See above, vol. i. pp. 184 _sqq._

185 A. W. Nieuwenhuis, _In Centraal Borneo_ (Leyden, 1900), i. 156;
_id._, _Quer durch Borneo_ (Leyden, 1904-1907), i. 117 _sq._ In the
latter passage “_ist jeder_” is a misprint for “_isst jeder_”; the
Dutch original is “_eet ieder_.”

M47 Ceremonies observed at eating the new rice in India.

186 H. Harkness, _Description of a Singular Aboriginal Race inhabiting
the Summit of the Neilgherry Hills_ (London, 1832), pp. 56 _sq._

187 Ch. E. Gover, _The Folk-songs of Southern India_ (London, 1872), pp.
105 _sqq._; “Coorg Folklore,” _Folk-lore Journal_, vii. (1889) pp.
302 _sqq._

188 Gover, “The Pongol Festival in Southern India,” _Journal of the
Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1871) pp. 91 _sqq._

189 From notes sent to me by my friend Mr. W. Crooke.

190 Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880), p.
103.

M48 Ceremonies observed by the Chams at ploughing, sowing, reaping, and
eating the new rice.

191 E. Aymonier, “Les Tchames et leurs religions,” _Revue de l’histoire
des Religions_, xxiv. (1891) pp. 272-274.

M49 Ceremony at eating the new yams at Onitsha on the Niger.

192 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 287 _sq._ Mr. Taylor’s information is repeated
in _West African Countries and Peoples_, by J. Africanus B. Horton
(London, 1868), pp. 180 _sq._

M50 Ceremonies at eating the new yams among the Ewe negroes of Togoland.

193 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 304-310, 340;
compare _id._ pp. 435, 480, 768. The “slaves of the Earth-gods” are
children whom women have obtained through prayers offered to
Agbasia, the greatest of the Earth-gods. When such a child is born,
it is regarded as the slave of Agbasia; and the mother dedicates it
to the service of the god, as in similar circumstances Hannah
dedicated Samuel to the Lord (1 Samuel i.). If the child is a girl,
she is married to the priest’s son; if it is a boy, he serves the
priest until his mother has given birth to a girl whom she exchanges
for the boy. See J. Spieth, _op. cit._ pp. 448-450. In all such
cases the original idea probably was that the child has been
begotten in the woman by the god and therefore belongs to him as to
his father, in the literal sense of the word.

M51 Festival of the new yams among the Ashantees in September.

194 T. E. Bowdich, _Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee_, New
Edition (London, 1873), pp. 226-229.

195 A. B. Ellis, _The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast_ (London,
1887), pp. 229 _sq._

196 J. C. Reichenbach, “Etude sur le royaume d’Assinie,” _Bulletin de la
Société de Géographie_ (Paris), vii.ème Série, xi. (1890) p. 349.

M52 Festival of the new yams at Coomassie and Benin.

197 Ramseyer and Kühne, _Four Years in Ashantee_ (London, 1875), pp.
147-151; E. Perregaux, _Chez les Achanti_ (Neuchatel, 1906), pp.
158-160.

198 H. Ling Roth, _Great Benin_ (Halifax, England, 1903), pp. 76 _sq._

M53 Ceremonies observed by the Nandi at eating the new eleusine grain.

199 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 46 _sq._

200 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.

M54 Festival of the new fruits among the Caffres of Natal and Zululand.

201 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Afrika_ (Hermannsburg,
1876), pp. 150 _sq._

202 L. Grout, _Zulu-land_ (Philadelphia, N.D.), p. 161.

_ 203 (South African) Folk-lore Journal_, i. (1879) p. 135; Rev. H.
Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, Part iii. p. 389 note.

204 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
pp. 216 _sq._ On the conception of the two fire-sticks as husband
and wife, see _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 208
_sqq._

M55 Dance of the Zulu king at the festival. Licentious character of the
festival. The festival as celebrated by the Pondos. Bull-fights and
games. License accorded to chiefs and others at this festival among
the Zulus. Traces of an annual abdication of Zulu kings, perhaps of
a custom of burning them and scattering their ashes.

205 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 27; N. Isaacs,
_Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London, 1836), ii. 293;
Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270, 271.

206 J. Macdonald, _op. cit._ p. 189.

207 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 136-138,
from manuscript notes furnished by J. Sutton. Mr. Macdonald has
described the custom more briefly in his _Light in Africa_, Second
Edition (London, 1890), p. 189.

208 N. Isaacs, _Travels and Adventures in Eastern Africa_ (London,
1836), ii. 292.

209 A. Delegorgue, _Voyage dans l’Afrique Australe_ (Paris, 1847), ii.
237.

210 Above, vol. i. p. 240.

211 See _The Dying God_, pp. 36 _sq._ On the Zulu festival of
first-fruits see also T. Arbousset et F. Daumas, _Voyage
d’Exploration au Nord-Est de la Colonie du Cap de Bonne Espérance_
(Paris, 1843), pp. 308 _sq._; G. Fritsch, _Die Eingeborenen
Süd-Afrikas_ (Breslau, 1872), p. 143. Fritsch mentions that after
executing a grotesque dance in the presence of the assembled
multitude the king gives formal permission to eat of the new fruits
by dashing a gourd or calabash to the ground. This ceremony of
breaking the calabash is mentioned also by J. Shooter (_Kafirs of
Natal_, p. 27), L. Grout (_Zulu-land_, p. 162), and Mr. Dudley Kidd
(_The Essential Kafir_, p. 271). According to this last writer the
calabash is filled with boiled specimens of the new fruits, and the
king sprinkles the people with the cooked food, frequently spitting
it out on them. Mr. Grout tells us (_l.c._) that at the ceremony a
bull is killed and its gall drunk by the king and the people. In
killing it the warriors must use nothing but their naked hands. The
flesh of the bull is given to the boys to eat what they like and
burn the rest; the men may not taste it. See L. Grout, _op. cit._ p.
161. According to Shooter, two bulls are killed; the first is black,
the second of another colour. The boys who eat the beef of the black
bull may not drink till the next morning, else the king would be
defeated in war or visited with some personal misfortune. See
Shooter, _op. cit._ pp. 26 _sq._ According to another account the
sacrifice of the bull, performed by the warriors of a particular
regiment with their bare hands, takes place several weeks before the
festival of first-fruits, and “the strength of the bull is supposed
to enter into the king, thereby prolonging his health and strength.”
See D. Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_2 (Edinburgh, 1875),
p. 91. For a general account of the Caffre festival of first-fruits,
see Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), pp. 270-272.

M56 Ceremonies observed by the Bechuanas before eating the new fruits.

212 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, “Notes on the Totemism of the Becwana,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) pp.
311-313. It is very remarkable that among several Bantu tribes the
cohabitation of husband and wife is enjoined as a religious or
magical rite on a variety of solemn occasions, such as after the
death of a son or daughter, the circumcision of a child, the first
menstruation of a daughter, the occupation of a new house or of a
new village, etc. For examples see C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of
A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_ (Cambridge, 1910), pp. 58,
59, 60, 65, 67, 69, 74; H. A. Junod, “Les Conceptions physiologiques
des Bantou Sud-Africains et leurs tabous,” _Revue d’Ethnographie et
de Sociologie_, i. (1910) p. 148; Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_
(London, 1911), pp. 48, 144, 357, 363, 378, 428, etc.; _id._,
“Further Notes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 59, 61. Among
the Baganda the act of stepping or leaping over a woman is regarded
as equivalent to cohabitation with her, and is accepted as a ritual
substitute for it (J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_, p. 357 note). The ideas
on which this custom of ceremonial cohabitation is based are by no
means clear.

M57 Ceremonies observed by the Matabele at eating the new fruits.

213 Ch. Croonenberghs, S.J., “La fête de la Grande Danse dans le haut
Zambeze,” _Les Missions Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) pp. 230-234; L.
Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), pp. 157 _sq._
The two accounts supplement each other. I have combined features
from both in the text.

M58 Ceremony observed by the Ovambo at eating the new fruits.

214 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), pp.
200 _sq._

M59 Ceremony observed by the Bororo Indians before eating the new maize.

215 V. Frič and P. Radin, “Contributions to the Study of the Bororo
Indians,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906)
p. 392.

M60 The _busk_ or festival of first-fruits among the Creek Indians of
North America. Fast and purgation. New fire made by friction.

216 The ceremony is described independently by James Adair, _History of
the American Indians_ (London, 1775), pp. 96-111; W. Bartram,
_Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West
Florida_ (London, 1792), pp. 507 _sq._; A. Hodgson, _Letters from
North America_ (London, 1824), i. 131 _sq._; B. Hawkins, “Sketch of
the Creek Country,” in _Collections of the Georgia Historical
Society_, iii. (Savannah, 1848) pp. 75-78; A. A. M’Gillivray, in H.
R. Schoolcraft’s _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia,
1853-1856), v. 267 _sq._; F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi
Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909), pp. 112-131. The fullest descriptions
are those of Adair and Speck. In the text I have chiefly followed
Adair, our oldest authority. A similar ceremony was observed by the
Cherokees. See the description (from an unpublished MS. of J. H.
Payne, author of _Home, Sweet Home_) in “Observations on the Creek
and Cherokee Indians, by William Bartram, 1789, with prefatory and
supplementary notes by E. G. Squier,” _Transactions of the American
Ethnological Society_, vol. iii. Part i. (1853) p. 75. The Indians
of Alabama also held a great festival at their harvest in July. They
passed the day fasting, lit a new fire, purged themselves, and
offered the first-fruits to their _Manitoo_: the ceremony ended with
a religious dance. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes
occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), ii. 54. These Indians of Alabama were
probably either the Creeks or the Cherokees.

217 W. Bartram, _Travels_, p. 507.

218 So amongst the Cherokees, according to J. H. Payne, an arbour of
green boughs was made in the sacred square; then “a beautiful
bushy-topped shade-tree was cut down close to the roots, and planted
in the very centre of the sacred square. Every man then provided
himself with a green bough.”

219 So Adair. Bartram, on the other hand, as we have seen, says that the
people provided themselves with new household utensils.

220 B. Hawkins, “Sketch,” etc., p. 76.

M61 Festival of the new fruits among the Yuchi Indians. Game of ball.

221 F. G. Speck, _Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians_ (Philadelphia, 1909),
pp. 86-89, 105-107, 112-131.

M62 Green Corn Dance among the Seminole Indians. Festival of the new
corn among the Natchez Indians.

222 Th. Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iii. (Leipsic, 1862) p.
42; A. S. Gatschet, _A Migration Legend of the Creek Indians_, i.
(Philadelphia, 1884) pp. 66 _sqq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii.
167.

223 C. MacCauley, “Seminole Indians of Florida,” _Fifth Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 522 _sq._

224 That is, the grand chief of the nation. All the chiefs of the
Natchez were called Suns and were connected with the head chief or
Great Sun, who bore on his breast an image of the sun and claimed to
be descended from the luminary. See Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux
Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i. 42.

M63 New fire made by friction.
M64 Torchlight dance.
M65 Game of ball.

225 Le Page Du Pratz, _History of Louisiana, or of the western parts of
Virginia and Carolina_, translated from the French, New Edition
(London, 1774), pp. 338-341. See also J. R. Swanton, _Indian Tribes
of the Lower Mississippi Valley_ (Washington, 1911), pp. 110 _sqq._,
where the passage of Du Pratz is translated in full from the
original French. From Mr. Swanton’s translation it appears that the
English version of Du Pratz, which I have quoted in the text, is a
good deal abridged. On the festival of first-fruits among the
Natchez see also _Lettres édifiantes et curieuses_, Nouvelle
Édition, vii. (Paris, 1781) p. 19; Charlevoix, _Histoire de la
Nouvelle France_ (Paris, 1744), vi. 183; De Tonti, “Relation de la
Louisiane et du Mississippi,” _Recueil de Voyages au Nord_, v.
(Amsterdam, 1734) p. 122; Le Petit, “Relation des Natchez,” _ibid._
ix. 13 _sq._ (reprint of the account in the _Lettres édifiantes_
cited above); Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_
(Paris, 1768), i. 43. According to Charlevoix, Le Petit, and Bossu
the festival fell in July. For Chateaubriand’s description of the
custom, see below, pp. 135 _sqq._

M66 Ceremonies observed by the Salish and Tinneh Indians before they eat
the first wild berries or roots of the season.

226 C. Hill-Tout, _The Far West, the Home of the Salish and Déné_
(London, 1907), pp. 168-170.

M67 Ceremonies observed by the Thompson Indians before they eat the
first wild berries or roots of the season.

227 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 349 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, April, 1900).

M68 The ceremonies observed by savages at eating the first fruits of any
crop seem to be based on the idea that the plant or tree is animated
by a spirit, who must be propitiated before it is safe to partake of
the fruit.

228 See above, p. 52.

M69 The sanctity of the new fruits indicated in various ways. Care taken
to prevent the contact of sacred and profane food in the stomach of
the eater. Contact between certain foods in the stomach of the eater
forbidden.

229 See above, pp. 50, 53, 65, 66, 72, 81.

230 See above, pp. 59, 60, 63, 69 _sq._, 71, 73, 75 _sq._, 82.

231 Joseph Thomson, _Through Masai Land_ (London, 1885), p. 430; P.
Reichard, _Deutsch-Ostafrika_ (Leipsic, 1892), p. 288; O. Baumann,
_Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 162; M. Merker,
_Die Masai_ (Berlin, 1904), p. 33; M. Weiss, _Die Völkerstämme im
Norden Deutsch-Ostafrikas_ (Berlin, 1910), p. 380. However, the
motive which underlies the taboo appears to be a fear of injuring by
sympathetic magic the cows from which the milk is drawn. See my
essay “Folk-lore in the Old Testament,” in _Anthropological Essays
presented to E. B. Tylor_ (Oxford, 1907), pp. 164 _sq._ According to
Reichard the warriors may partake of honey both with meat and with
milk. Thomson does not mention honey and speaks of a purgative only.
The periods during which meat and milk are alternately consumed
vary, according to Reichard, from twelve to fifteen days. We may
conjecture, therefore, that two of them, making up a complete cycle,
correspond to a lunar month, with reference to which the diet is
perhaps determined.

232 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford,
1911), p. 9. In both cases the motive, as with the Masai, is
probably a fear of injuring the cattle, and especially of causing
the cows to loose their milk. This is confirmed by other taboos of
the same sort observed by the Suk. Thus they think that to eat the
flesh of a certain forest pig would cause the cattle of the eater to
run dry, and that if a rich man ate fish his cows would give no
milk. See M. W. H. Beech, _op. cit._ p. 10.

233 O. Baumann, _Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 171.

234 Fr. Boas, “The Central Eskimo,” _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau
of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 595; _id._, “The Eskimo of
Baffin Land and Hudson Bay,” _Bulletin of the American Museum of
Natural History_, vol. xv. part i. (New York, 1901) pp. 122-124. For
more details see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 208 _sqq._

235 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 134.

236 Pausanias, v. 13. 3. We may assume, though Pausanias does not
expressly say so, that persons who sacrificed to Telephus partook of
the sacrifice.

237 Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_,2 No. 576 (vol. ii.
p. 267); Ch. Michel, _Recueil d’Inscriptions Grecques_, No. 723, p.
622. Further, no one who had suffered a domestic bereavement might
enter the sanctuary for forty days. Hence the pollution of death was
clearly deemed more virulent, or at all events more lasting, than
the pollution of food.

238 Diodorus Siculus, v. 62. 5.

M70 The sacrament of first-fruits sometimes combined with a sacrifice of
them to gods or spirits.

239 See above, pp. 51 _sq._, 54, 58, 60 _sq._, 64, 74.

240 See below, pp. 109 _sqq._

M71 Aztec custom of eating sacramentally a dough image of the god
Huitzilopochtli or Vitzilipuztli as a mode of communion with the
deity.
M72 Eating the flesh and bones of the god Vitzilipuztli sacramentally.

241 J. de Acosta, _Natural and Moral History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch.
24, vol. ii. pp. 356-360 (Hakluyt Society, London, 1880). I have
modernised the old translator’s spelling. Acosta’s authority, which
he followed without acknowledgment, was an anonymous writer of about
the middle of the sixteenth century, whose manuscript, written in
Spanish, was found in the library of the Franciscan monastery at
Mexico in 1856. A French translation of it has been published. See
_Manuscrit Ramirez, Histoire de l’Origine des Indiens qui habitent
la Nouvelle-Espagne selon leurs traditions_, publié par D. Charnay
(Paris, 1903), pp. 149-154. Acosta’s description is followed by A.
de Herrera (_General History of the vast Continent and Islands of
America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London, 1725-1726), iii.
213-215).

M73 The doctrine of transubstantiation or the magical conversion of
bread into flesh recognised by the ancient Aztecs and Brahmans.

_ 242 The Satapatha-Brâhmana_, translated by J. Eggeling, Part i.
(Oxford, 1882) p. 51 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

_ 243 Op. cit._ pp. 51 _sq._, with the translator’s note.

M74 The sacred food not to be defiled by contact with common food.

244 See above, pp. 73 _sqq._

245 Above, p. 68, note 3.

M75 Aztec custom of killing the god Huitzilopochtli in effigy and eating
him afterwards.

246 H. H. Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_ (London,
1875-1876), iii. 297-300 (after Torquemada); F. S. Clavigero,
_History of Mexico_, translated by Ch. Cullen (London, 1807), i. 309
_sqq._; B. de Sahagun, _Histoire générale des choses de la
Nouvelle-Espagne_, traduite et annotée par D. Jourdanet et R. Siméon
(Paris, 1880), pp. 203 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _Geschichte der
amerikanischen Urreligionen_ (Bâle, 1867), p. 605; Brasseur de
Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique et de
l’Amérique Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), iii. 531-534.

M76 Mexican custom of eating images of dough.

247 F. S. Clavigero, _op. cit._ i. 311; B. de Sahagun, _op. cit._ pp.
74, 156 _sq._; J. G. Müller, _op. cit._ p. 606; H. H. Bancroft, _op.
cit._ iii. 316; Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 535. This
festival took place on the last day of 16th month (which extended
from 23rd December to 11th January). At another festival the
Mexicans made the semblance of a bone out of paste and ate it
sacramentally as the bone of the god. See Sahagun, _op. cit._ p. 33.

248 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii. 539.

249 G. F. de Oviedo, _Histoire du Nicaragua_ (Paris, 1840), p. 219.
Oviedo’s account is borrowed by A. de Herrera (_General History of
the vast Continent and Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John
Stevens, iii. 301).

M77 Mexican custom of eating a man as a human embodiment of the god
Tetzcatlipoca.

250 J. de Torquemada, _Monarquia Indiana_, lib. x. cap. 14, vol. ii. pp.
259 _sqq._ (Madrid, 1723); Brasseur de Bourbourg, _op. cit._ iii.
510-512.

M78 Communion with a god by eating of his effigy among the Huichol
Indians of Mexico and the Malas of Southern India. Catholic custom
of eating effigies of the Madonna.

251 C. Lumholtz, _Unknown Mexico_ (London, 1903), ii. 166-171. When Mr.
Lumholtz revisited the temple in 1898, the idol had disappeared. It
has probably been since replaced by another. The custom of
abstaining both from salt and from women as a mode of ceremonial
purification is common among savage and barbarous peoples. See
above, p. 75 (as to the Yuchi Indians), and _Totemism and Exogamy_,
iv. 224 _sqq._

252 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),
iv. 357 _sq._

253 Graf Paul von Hoensbroech, _14 Jahre Jesuit_ (Leipsic, 1909-1910),
i. 25 _sq._ The practice was officially sanctioned by a decree of
the Inquisition, 29th July 1903.

M79 Loaves called _Maniae_ baked at Aricia. Woollen effigies dedicated
at Rome to Mania, the Mother or Grandmother of Ghosts, at the
Compitalia. The loaves at Aricia perhaps sacramental bread made in
the likeness of the King of the Wood. Practice of putting up dummies
to divert the attention of ghosts or demons from living people.

254 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 22.

255 Festus, ed. C. O. Müller, pp. 128, 129, 145. The reading of the last
passage is, however, uncertain (“_et Ariciae genus panni fieri; quod
manici † appelletur_”).

256 Varro, _De lingua latina_, ix. 61; Arnobius, _Adversus nationes_,
iii. 41; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 7. 35; Festus, p. 128, ed. C. O.
Müller. Festus speaks of the mother or grandmother of the _larvae_;
the other writers speak of the mother of the _lares_.

257 Macrobius, _l.c._; Festus, pp. 121, 239, ed. C. O. Müller. The
effigies hung up for the slaves were called _pilae_, not _maniae_.
_Pilae_ was also the name given to the straw-men which were thrown
to the bulls to gore in the arena. See Martial, _Epigr._ ii. 43. 5
_sq._; Asconius,_ In Cornel._ p. 55, ed. Kiessling and Schoell.

258 The ancients were at least familiar with the practice of sacrificing
images made of dough or other materials as substitutes for the
animals themselves. It was a recognised principle that when an
animal could not be easily obtained for sacrifice, it was lawful to
offer an image of it made of bread or wax. See Servius on Virgil,
_Aen._ ii. 116; compare Pausanias, x. 18. 5. Poor people who could
not afford to sacrifice real animals offered dough images of them
(Suidas, _s.v._ βοῦς ἕβδομος; compare Hesychius, _s.vv._ βοῦς,
ἕβδομος βοῦς). Hence bakers made a regular business of baking cakes
in the likeness of all the animals which were sacrificed to the gods
(Proculus, quoted and emended by Chr. A. Lobeck, _Aglaophamus_, p.
1079). When Cyzicus was besieged by Mithridates and the people could
not procure a black cow to sacrifice at the rites of Persephone,
they made a cow of dough and placed it at the altar (Plutarch,
_Lucullus_, 10). In a Boeotian sacrifice to Hercules, in place of
the ram which was the proper victim, an apple was regularly
substituted, four chips being stuck in it to represent legs and two
to represent horns (Julius Pollux, i. 30 _sq._). The Athenians are
said to have once offered to Hercules a similar substitute for an ox
(Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 22). And the Locrians, being at a loss for an
ox to sacrifice, made one out of figs and sticks, and offered it
instead of the animal (Zenobius, _Cent._ v. 5). At the Athenian
festival of the Diasia cakes shaped like animals were sacrificed
(Schol. on Thucydides, i. 126, p. 36, ed. Didot). We have seen above
(p. 25) that the poorer Egyptians offered cakes of dough instead of
pigs. The Cheremiss of Russia sometimes offer cakes in the shape of
horses instead of the real animals. See P. v. Stenin, “Ein neuer
Beitrag zur Ethnographie der Tscheremissen,” _Globus_, lviii. (1890)
pp. 203 _sq._ Similarly a North-American Indian dreamed that a
sacrifice of twenty elans was necessary for the recovery of a sick
girl; but the elans could not be procured, and the girl’s parents
were allowed to sacrifice twenty loaves instead. See _Relations des
Jésuites_, 1636, p. 11 (Canadian reprint, Quebec, 1858).

259 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 55 _sqq._

M80 Tibetan custom of putting effigies at the doors of houses to deceive
demons.

260 L. A. Waddell, _The Buddhism of Tibet_ (London, 1895), pp. 484-486.

M81 Effigies buried with the dead in order to deceive their ghosts.

261 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 402.

262 M. J. van Baarda, “Fabelen, Verhalen en Overleveringen der
Galelareezen,” _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van
Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlv. (1895) p. 539.

263 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), p. 275.

264 J. Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in A. Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i. 9.

265 W. M. Donselaar, “Aanteekeningen over het eiland Saleijer,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, i.
(1857) p. 290.

266 Le Comte C. N. de Cardi, “Ju-ju laws and customs in the Niger
Delta,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxix. (1899) p.
58.

267 A. B. Ellis, _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_
(London, 1894), p. 80.

268 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), p.
473.

M82 Fictitious burials to divert the attention of demons from the real
burials.

269 S. Crowther and J. C. Taylor, _The Gospel on the Banks of the Niger_
(London, 1859), pp. 250 _sq._

270 J. Macdonald, “East Central African Customs,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxii. (1893) pp. 114 _sq._; _id._, _Myth
and Religion_ (London, 1893), pp. 155 _sq._ (from MS. notes of Dr.
Elmslie).

271 B. Schwarz, _Kamerun_ (Leipsic, 1886), pp. 256 _sq._; E. Reclus,
_Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, xiii. 68 _sq._

272 J. Fraser, “The Aborigines of New South Wales,” _Journal and
Proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales_, xvi. (1882) p.
229; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,
1904), p. 467.

273 This I learned from Dr. Burton Brown (formerly of 3 Via Venti
Setembri, Rome), who lived for some time among the Nagas.

274 Strabo, xvii. 1. 23, p. 803; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 18.

_ 275 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. p. 39, § 240 (December 1884).

M83 Effigies used to cure or prevent sickness by deluding the demons of
disease or inducing them to accept the effigies instead of the
persons.

276 Some examples of this vicarious use of images as substitutes for the
sick have been given in an earlier part of this work. See _Taboo and
the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 62 _sq._

277 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 326.

278 P. J. Veth, _Borneo’s Wester-Afdeeling_ (Zaltbommel, 1854-56), ii.
309.

279 F. Grabowsky, “Ueber verschiedene weniger bekannte Opfer bei den
Oloh Ngadju in Borneo,” _Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_,
i. (1888) pp. 132 _sq._

280 E. L. M. Kühr, “Schetsen uit Borneo’s Westerafdeeling,” _Bijdragen
tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, xlvii.
(1897) pp. 60 _sq._ For another mode in which these same Dyaks seek
to heal sickness by means of an image, see _Taboo and the Perils of
the Soul_, pp. 55 _sq._

281 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 465.

282 H. Ling Roth, “Low’s Natives of Borneo,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117.

283 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” _Tijdschrift
voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 531.

284 M. Joustra, “Het leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,”
_Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,
xlvi. (1902) pp. 413 _sq._

285 N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson, “Some Preliminary Results of an
Expedition to the Malay Peninsula,” _Journal of the Anthropological
Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 416.

M84 Effigies used to divert the attention of demons in Nias and various
parts of Asia.

286 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 489.

287 A. Bastian, _Die Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 73.

288 Sarat Chandra Das, _Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet_ (London,
1902), p. 134.

289 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_ (London, 1882), ii. 138.

290 Pallegoix, _Description du Royaume Thai ou Siam_ (Paris, 1854), ii.
48 _sq._ Compare A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_
(Leipsic and Jena, 1866-1871), iii. 293, 486; E. Young, _The Kingdom
of the Yellow Robe_ (Westminster, 1898), p. 121.

291 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 176.

292 A. Woldt, “Die Kultus-Gegenstände der Golden und Giljaken,”
_Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie_, i. (1888) pp. 102 _sq._

M85 Effigies used to divert ghostly and other evil influence from people
in China.

293 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,
1910) pp. 1103 _sq._; for a description of the effigies or
“substitutes for a person” see _id._, vol. v. (Leyden, 1907) p. 920.
Can the monkish and clerical tonsure have been originally designed
in like manner to let out the evil influence through the top of the
head?

294 T. Watters, “Some Corean Customs and Notions,” _Folk-lore_, vi.
(1895) pp. 82 _sq._

M86 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the
Abchases of the Caucasus and the Ewe negroes of West Africa.

295 N. v. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 54.

296 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 502-506, 512, 513,
838, 848, 910. It is a disputed point in Ewe theology whether there
are many spiritual mothers in heaven or only one. Some say that
there are as many spiritual mothers as there are individual men and
women; others doubt this and say that there is only one spiritual
mother, and that she is the wife of God (_Mawu_) and gave birth to
all spirits that live in heaven, both men and women.

297 G. Binetsch, “Beantwortung mehrerer Fragen über unser Ewe-Volk und
seine Anschauungen,” _Zeitschrift für Ethnologie_, xxxviii. (1906)
p. 37.

M87 Effigies used as substitutes to save the lives of people among the
Nishga Indians.

_ 298 The Illustrated Missionary News_, April 1st, 1891, pp. 59 _sq._

M88 Hence the woollen effigies hung out at the Compitalia in Rome were
probably offered as substitutes for living persons to the Mother or
Grandmother of Ghosts.

299 As to the custom see Varro, _De lingua latina_, v. 45; Ovid,
_Fasti_, v. 621 _sqq._; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit.
Roman._ i. 38; Plutarch, _Quaestiones Romanae_, 32 and 86. For
various explanations which have been proposed, see L. Preller,
_Römische Mythologie_,3 ii. 134 _sqq._; W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald-
und Feldkulte_, pp. 265 _sqq._; _Journal of Philology_, xiv. (1885)
p. 156 note; R. von Ihering, _Vorgeschichte der Indoeuropäer_, pp.
430-434; W. Warde Fowler, _The Roman Festivals of the Period of the
Republic_ (London, 1899), pp. 111 _sqq._; _id._, _The Religious
Experience of the Roman People_ (London, 1911), pp. 54 _sq._, 321
_sqq._; G. Wissowa, _Gesammelte Abhandlungen zur römischen
Religions- und Stadtgeschichte_ (Munich, 1904), pp. 211-229. The
ceremony was observed on the fifteenth of May.

300 See _The Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 107.

301 Plutarch, _Quaest. Roman._ 86.

M89 The sacrifice of first-fruits to gods is probably later than the
custom of partaking of them sacramentally. First-fruits sometimes
presented to the king and often to the dead.

302 See above, vol. i. pp. 231 _sqq._

M90 Sacrifice of first-fruits among the Ovambo of South-West Africa.

303 H. Tönjes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911), p.
195.

M91 Sacrifices of first-fruits in South Africa.

304 Rev E. Casalis, _The Basutos_ (London, 1861), pp. 251 _sq._

_ 305 Ibid._ p. 252.

_ 306 Ibid._ pp. 252 _sq._ In the southern province of Ceylon “the
threshers behave as if they were in a temple of the gods when they
put the corn into the bags.” See C. J. R. Le Mesurier, “Customs and
Superstitions connected with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern
Province of Ceylon,” _Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S.
xvii. (1885), p. 371.

307 L. Decle, _Three Years in Savage Africa_ (London, 1898), p. 173.

308 G. McCall Theal, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p.
397.

M92 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Central Africa.

309 “Der Muata Cazembe und die Völkerstämme der Maravis, Chevas,
Muembas, Lundas und andere von Süd-Afrika,” _Zeitschrift für
allgemeine Erdkünde_ (Berlin), vi. (1856) pp. 272, 273.

310 Rev. A. Hetherwick, “Some Animistic Beliefs among the Yaos of
British Central Africa,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
xxxii. (1902) pp. 94 _sq._

311 Rev. A. Hetherwick, _op. cit._ pp. 91-94.

312 Dr. J. A. Chisholm, “Notes on the Manners and Customs of the
Winamwanga and Wiwa,” _Journal of the African Society_, vol. ix. No.
36 (July 1910), pp. 366 _sq._ Among the Winamwanga, as among the
Yaos, the human soul or spirit is called _muzimu_ (_op. cit._ p.
363).

313 C. Gouldsbury and H. Sheane, _The Great Plateau of Northern
Rhodesia_ (London, 1911), pp. 294 _sq._

M93 Sacrifices of first-fruits in East Africa.

314 C. W. Hobley, _Ethnology of A-Kamba and other East African Tribes_
(Cambridge, 1910), pp. 66, 85 _sq._

315 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 428.

_ 316 Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lx. (1888) p. 57. The account
is extracted from the letter of a Catholic priest, himself a Dinka.
The name of God, according to him, is _Den-dit_, meaning “Great
Rain.” The form of the name agrees closely, and the interpretation
of it agrees exactly, with the results of Dr. C. G. Seligmann’s
independent enquiries, according to which the name of the Dinka God
is _Dengdit_, “Great Rain,” the word for rain being _deng_. See Dr.
C. G. Seligmann, in Dr. J. Hastings’ _Encyclopaedia of Religion and
Ethics_, _s.v._ “Dinka,” vol. iv. (Edinburgh, 1911) p. 707.

317 “Coutumes étranges des indigènes du Djebel-Nouba (Afrique centrale),
notes communiquées par les missionnaires de Vérone,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xiv. (1882) p. 459. As to the Nubas and their pontiff
see further Stanislas Carceri, “Djebel-Nouba,” _Les Missions
Catholiques_, xv. (1883) pp. 448-452.

M94 Sacrifices of first-fruits in West Africa.

318 A. F. Mockler-Ferryman, _Up the Niger_ (London, 1892), pp. 141 _sq._

319 Ch. Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 266 _sq._

320 J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 795 _sq._

321 J. Spieth, _op. cit._ p. 344. As to the goddess Mawu Sodza, see
_ibid._ pp. 424 _sq._

322 H. Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 504.

323 L. Conradt, “Das Hinterland der deutschen Kolonie Togo,” _Petermanns
Mittheilungen_, xlii. (1896) p. 18.

M95 First-fruits offered to kings in Madagascar and Burma.

324 G. A. Shaw, “The Betsileo,” _Antananarivo Annual and Madagascar
Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_ (Antananarivo, 1885),
p. 346.

325 J. Cameron, “On the Early Inhabitants of Madagascar,” _Antananarivo
Annual and Madagascar Magazine, Reprint of the First Four Numbers_
(Antananarivo, 1885), p. 263.

326 A. Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii. (Leipsic, 1866),
p. 105.

327 A. van Gennep, _Tabou et Totémisme à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1904), p.
97.

M96 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Assam and other parts of India.
Sacrifices of first-fruits among hill tribes of India. Sacrifices of
first-fruits in the Central Provinces of India. Sacrifices of
first-fruits in the Punjaub.

328 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
91.

329 Major A. Playfair, _The Garos_ (London, 1909), p. 94.

330 E. T. Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 198; (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and
Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), ii.
104.

331 Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., _Religion and Customs of the Uraons_ (Calcutta,
1906), p. 137 (_Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i.
No. 9).

_ 332 North Indian Notes and Queries_, i. 57, No. 428, quoting Moorcroft
and Trebeck, _Travels in the Himalayan Provinces_, i. 317 _sq._

333 E. T. Atkinson, _The Himalayan Districts of the North-Western
Provinces of India_, ii. (Allahabad, 1884) p. 825. As to Bhumiya see
further W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern
India_ (Westminster, 1896), i. 105-107, who observes (pp. 106
_sq._): “To illustrate the close connection between this worship of
Bhûmiya as the soil godling with that of the sainted dead, it may be
noted that in some places the shrine of Bhûmiya is identified with
the Jathera, which is the ancestral mound, sacred to the common
ancestor of the village or tribe.”

334 Thomas Shaw, “The Inhabitants of the Hills near Rajamahall,”
_Asiatic Researches_, iv. (London, 1807) pp. 56 _sq._

_ 335 Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. p. 60, § 502 (February 1884).

_ 336 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, iii. _Draft Articles on
Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1907) p. 45.

_ 337 Op. cit._ iii. 73.

_ 338 Op. cit._ v. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 66.

_ 339 Op. cit._ vii. (Allahabad, 1911) p. 102.

340 The practice is curiously unlike the custom of ancient Italy, in
most parts of which women were forbidden by law to walk on the
highroads twirling a spindle, because this was supposed to injure
the crops (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 28). The purpose of the
Indian custom may be to ward off evil influences from the field, as
Mr. W. Crooke suggests (_Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern
India_, ii. 305, “This forms a sacred circle which repels evil
influence from the crop”). Compare _The Magic Art and Evolution of
Kings_, i. 113 _sq._

341 D. C. J. Ibbetson, _Outlines of Panjab Ethnography_ (Calcutta,
1883), p. 119.

M97 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the ancient Hindoos.

_ 342 The Satapatha Brâhmana_, translated by Julius Eggeling, Part i.
(Oxford, 1882), pp. 369-373 (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.).

M98 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Burma and Corea.

343 (Sir) J. G. Scott and J. P. Hardiman, _Gazetteer of Upper Burma and
the Shan States_, Part i. vol. i. (Rangoon, 1900), pp. 425 _sq._

344 Rev. G. Whitehead, “Notes on the Chins of Burma,” _Indian
Antiquary_, xxxvi. (1907) p. 207.

345 A. Bourlet, “Les Thay,” _Anthropos_, ii. (1907) pp. 627-629.

346 Ch. Dallet, _Histoire de l’Eglise de Corée_ (Paris, 1874), i. p.
xxiv.

M99 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the East Indies.

347 Fr. Junghuhn, _Die Battaländer auf Sumatra_ (Berlin, 1847), ii. 312.

348 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_2 (London,
1863), i. 191.

349 B. F. Matthes, _Beknopt Verslag mijner reizen in de Binnenlanden van
Celebes, in de jaren 1857 en 1861_, p. 5 (_Verzameling van Berigten
betreffende de Bijbelverspreiding_, Nos. 96-99).

350 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_ (Rotterdam, 1869), i. 165.

351 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 107.

352 Riedel, _op. cit._ pp. 281, 296 _sq._

353 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_ (Dordrecht and Amsterdam,
1724-1726), iii. 10.

354 C. M. Pleyte, “Ethnographische Beschrijving der Kei-Eilanden,”
_Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_,
Tweede Serie, x. (1893) p. 801.

355 Fr. Kramer, “Der Götzendienst der Niasser,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) p. 482.

356 C. Semper, _Die Philippinen und ihre Bewohner_ (Würzburg, 1869), p.
56.

357 F. Blumentritt, “Das Stromgebiet des Rio Grande de Mindano,”
_Petermanns Mittheilungen_, xxxvii. (1891) p. 111.

M100 Sacrifices of first-fruits in New Guinea.

358 Stefan Lehner, “Bukaua,” in R. Neuhauss’s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.
(Berlin, 1911) pp. 434-436.

M101 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Fiji and the New Hebrides.

359 Rev. Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of
Wainimala, Fiji,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv.
(1885) p. 27.

360 J. E. Erskine, _Journal of a Cruise among the Islands of the Western
Pacific_ (London, 1853), p. 252.

361 G. Turner, _Samoa_ (London, 1884), pp. 318 _sq._

M102 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Solomon Islands.

362 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 132
_sq._

363 C. M. Woodford, _A Naturalist among the Head-hunters, being an
Account of Three Visits to the Solomon Islands_ (London, 1890), pp.
26-28.

364 Rev. R. H. Codrington, _The Melanesians_, p. 138.

M103 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Kingsmill Islands.

365 Horatio Hale, _United States Exploring Expedition, Ethnology and
Philology_ (Philadelphia, 1846), p. 97.

M104 Sacrifices of first-fruits in the Tonga Islands. M105 The first-fruits of the yams deposited on the grave of the last Tooitonga (divine chief).

366 The _malái_ is “a piece of ground, generally before a large house,
or chief’s grave, where public ceremonies are principally held” (W.
Mariner, _Tonga Islands, Vocabulary_).

367 The _mataboole_ is “a rank next below chiefs or nobles” (_ibid._).

368 W. Mariner, _Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands_, Second
Edition (London, 1818), ii. 78, 196-203. As to the divine chief
Tooitonga see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 21.

M106 Significance of the presentation of first-fruits to the divine chief at the grave of his predecessor. M107 Sacrifices of first-fruits in Samoa and other parts of Polynesia.

369 Ch. Wilkes,. _Narrative of the United States Exploring Expedition_,
New Edition (New York, 1851), ii. 133.

370 G. Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 70 _sq._

371 W. Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, Second Edition (London,
1832-1836), i. 350.

372 D. Tyerman and G. Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels_ (London,
1831), i. 284.

373 Geiseler, _Die Oster-Insel_ (Berlin, 1883), p. 31.

374 E. Tregear, “The Maoris of New Zealand,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) p. 110; R. Taylor, _Te Ika A
Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_, Second Edition (London,
1870), pp. 165 _sq._; _Old New Zealand_, by a Pakeha Maori (London,
1884), pp. 103 _sq._

M108 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the old Prussians, Greeks, and
Romans.

375 Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic,
1684), p. 161; _id._, _Dissertationes historicae de variis rebus
Prussicis_, p. 163 (appended to his edition of P. de Dusburg’s
_Chronicon Prussiae_, Frankfort and Leipsic, 1679). Compare W.
Mannhardt, _Die Korndämonen_ (Berlin, 1868), p. 27.

376 See above, vol. i. pp. 53 _sqq._

377 Plutarch, _Theseus_, 6.

378 Hyginus, _Fabulae_, 130.

379 Festus, _s.v._ “Sacrima,” p. 319, ed. C. O. Müller; Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ xviii. 8.

380 Varro, _De lingua Latina_, vi. 16, ed. C. O. Müller.

M109 Sacrifices of first-fruits among the Indians of America.
Chateaubriand’s description of the harvest festival among the
Natchez.

381 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 345 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, May, 1900).

382 C. Hill Tout, “Report on the Ethnology of the Okanaken of British
Columbia,” _Journal of the R. Anthropological Institute_, xli.
(1911) p. 132.

383 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Histoire des Nations civilisées du Mexique
et de l’Amérique-Centrale_ (Paris, 1857-1859), ii. 566.

_ 384 Annales de l’Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, i. (Paris
and Lyons, 1826) p. 386.

385 Above, pp. 77 _sqq._

386 Chateaubriand, _Voyage en Amérique_, pp. 130-136 (Michel Lévy,
Paris, 1870).

M110 Custom of killing and eating the corn-spirit sacramentally. Belief
of the savage that by eating an animal or man he acquires the
qualities of that animal or man.

387 See _The Dying God_, pp. 9 _sqq._

M111 Beliefs of the American Indians as to the homoeopathic magic of the
flesh of animals.

388 James Adair, _History of the American Indians_ (London, 1775), p.
133.

389 Alfred Simson, _Travels in the Wilds of Ecuador_ (London, 1887), p.
168; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii.
(1878) p. 503.

390 A. Thevet, _Les Singularitez de la France Antarctique, autrement
nommée Amerique_ (Antwerp, 1558), p. 55; _id._, _La Cosmographie
Universelle_ (Paris, 1575), ii. pp. 929, [963], 940 [974]; J.
Lerius, _Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, quae et America
dicitur_ (1586), pp. 126 _sq._

391 Rochefort, _Histoire Naturelle et Morale des Iles Antilles_, Seconde
Edition (Rotterdam, 1665), p. 465.

392 C. Cuny, “De Libreville au Cameroun,” _Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie_ (Paris), vii. Série, xvii. (1896) p. 342.

393 R. Southey, _History of Brazil_, ii. (London, 1817) p. 373; _id._,
iii. (London, 1819) p. 164.

394 P. Lozano, _Descripcion Chorographica del Gran Chaco_ (Cordova,
1733), p. 90.

395 M. Dobrizhoffer, _Historia de Abiponibus_ (Vienna, 1784), i. 289
_sq._

396 J. Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 348 (_The
Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of
Natural History_, April, 1900).

M112 Bushman beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of
animals.

397 W. H. I. Bleek and C. L. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_
(London, 1911), pp. 271-275.

M113 Other African beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of
animals. Ancient beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh
of animals.

398 A. Bertrand, _The Kingdom of the Barotsi, Upper Zambezia_ (London,
1899), p. 277, quoting the description given by the French
missionary M. Coillard.

399 Theophilus Hahn, _Tsuni-Goam, the Supreme Being of the Khoi-Khoi_
(London, 1881), p. 106.

400 W. H. I. Bleek and L. C. Lloyd, _Specimens of Bushman Folklore_
(London, 1911), p. 373.

401 Rev. H. Cole, “Notes on the Wagogo of German East Africa,” _Journal
of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) p. 318.

402 Sir Harry Johnston, _The Uganda Protectorate_, Second Edition
(London, 1904), ii. 787.

403 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Light in Africa_, Second Edition (London, 1890),
p. 174; _id._, in _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xix.
(1890) p. 282.

404 Rev. H. Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 438, note
16.

405 O. Baumann, _Usambara und seine Nachbargebiete_ (Berlin, 1891), p.
128.

406 Sir H. H. Johnston, _British Central Africa_ (London, 1897), p. 438;
J. Buchanan, _The Shire Highlands_, p. 138.

407 M. W. H. Beech, _The Suk, their Language and Folklore_ (Oxford,
1911), p. 11.

408 J. Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,
1857), p. 399.

409 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West
Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 99.

410 M. Merker, _Rechtsverhältnisse und Sitten der Wadschagga_ (Gotha,
1902), p. 38 (_Petermanns Mitteilungen, Ergänzungsheft_, No. 138).

411 Rev. H. Callaway, _Nursery Tales, Traditions, and Histories of the
Zulus_ (Natal and London, 1868), p. 175 note.

412 Ovid, _Metam._ vii. 271 _sqq._ As to the supposed longevity of deer
and crows, see L. Stephani, in _Compte Rendu de la Commission
Archéologique_ (St. Petersburg), 1863, pp. 140 _sq._, and my note on
Pausanias, viii. 10. 10.

413 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ viii. 119.

414 Porphyry, _De Abstinentia_, ii. 48: οἱ γοῦν ζώων μαντικῶν ψυχὰς
δέξασθαι βουλόμενοι εἰς ἑαυτούς, τὰ κυριώτατα μόρια καταπιόντες,
οἷον καρδίας κοράκων ἢ ἀσπαλάκων ἢ ἱεράκων, ἔχουσι παριοῦσαν τὴν
ψυχὴν καὶ χρηματίζουσαν ὡς θεὸν καὶ εἰσιοῦσαν εἰς αὐτοὺς ἄμα τῇ
ἐνθέσει τῇ τοῦ σώματος. Pliny also mentions the custom of eating the
heart of a mole, raw and palpitating, as a means of acquiring skill
in divination (_Nat. Hist._ xxx. 19).

M114 Beliefs of the Dyaks and Aino as to the homoeopathic magic of the
flesh of animals.

415 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, Second
Edition (London, 1863), i. 186, 206.

416 W. H. Furness, _Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia,
1902), p. 71; compare _id._, pp. 166 _sq._

417 Rev. J. Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),
pp. 511-513.

418 Rev. J. Batchelor, _op. cit._ p. 337.

419 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_
(Westminster, 1896), i. 279.

M115 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of dogs, tigers,
etc.

420 Bossu, _Nouveaux Voyages aux Indes occidentales_ (Paris, 1768), i.
112.

421 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_, ii.
(Philadelphia, 1853) pp. 79 _sq._

422 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes
en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 10, 262.

423 James Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London, 1887), p. 166.

_ 424 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) p. 179.

425 E. T. Dalton, _Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_ (Calcutta, 1872), p.
33.

_ 426 Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society_, N.S., viii. (1886)
p. 307.

427 J. Henderson, “The Medicine and Medical Practice of the Chinese,”
_Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_,
New Series, i. (Shanghai, 1865) pp. 35 _sq._ Compare Mrs. Bishop,
_Korea and her Neighbours_ (London, 1898), i. 79.

428 Mrs. S. S. Allison, “Account of the Similkameen Indians of British
Columbia,” _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892)
p. 313.

M116 Beliefs as to the homoeopathic magic of the flesh of wolves, bears,
and serpents.