Chapter VII: , together with such facts as the occurrence of a considerable (1)

number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and South America is comparatively a recent occurrance, and that during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the sea. The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North {58}American continent, and forming part of the Tertiary "Nearctic region." This is clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass south of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (_Meleagris_) are a striking example, and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups. During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate between North and South America that now prevails; for when a luxuriant vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the country south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical. At an early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South America being a huge island, or group of islands--a kind of Australia of the New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata; while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed a part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of the two continents, admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidæ; while the isthmus south of Nicaragua was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the two continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south; while some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotropical, forms which are perhaps comparatively recent immigrants; and it would perhaps be a more accurate representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently formed a part.

The long-continued separation of North and South America {59}by one or more arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America, which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into late Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as certain as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof of these successive subsidences.

_Islands of the Mexican Sub-region._--The only islands of interest belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History societies.

Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Blas. The largest is about 15 miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizontally stratified deposits, of moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings. Fifty-two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picariæ (7 being humming-birds); 10 Accipitres; 2 parrots, and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican species except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands, and one tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following genera;--_Parula_ and _Granatellus_ (Mniotiltidæ); _Icterus_ (Icteridæ); and _Amazilia_ (Trochilidæ). A small _Psittacula_ differs somewhat from the same species on the mainland.

There are a few mammalia on the islands; a rabbit (_Lepus_) supposed to be new; a very small opossum (_Didelphys_), and a racoon (_Procyon_). There are also several tree-snakes, a _Boa_, and many lizards. The occurrence of so many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once joined to the mainland; but the fact that some of the species of both birds and {60}mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very recent one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may be sure that the subsidence which isolated them is not geologically remote.

Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S. Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about 2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia were observed, and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus (_Uta_) characteristic of the deserts of N.-Western Mexico. The only observed land-shell (_Orthalicus undatus_) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only 14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds; but of these 4 were new species, one a peculiar variety, and another (_Parula insularis_) a species first found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of this bird and a _Buteo_, all the land-birds belonged to different _genera_ from any found on the Tres Marias, though all were Mexican forms. The peculiar species belonged to the genera _Harporhynchus_ (Turdidæ); _Troglodytes_ (Troglodytidæ); _Pipilo_ (Fringillidæ); _Zenaidura_ (Columbidæ); and a variety of _Conurus holochrous_ (Psittacidæ).

The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation in deep water 300 miles from land,--all indicate that they have not formed part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico, renders it probable that their antiquity is not geologically great.

The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the _Coccyzus_ type, which is considered by some ornithologists to constitute a peculiar genus, _Nesococcyx_.

_IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region._

The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting of zoological sub-regions. In position they {61}form an unbroken chain uniting North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central American isthmus; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the productions of Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be found elsewhere in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of two very large islands, Cuba and Hayti;[3] two of moderate size, Jamaica and Portorico; and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, and Curaçao, are situated in shallow water near the coast of South America, of which they form part zoologically. To the north of Cuba and Hayti are the Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and islands, 700 miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of the smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very mountainous and rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to nearly the same height in Cuba. All, except where they have been cleared by man, are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation; the temperature is high and uniform; the rains ample; the soil, derived from granitic and limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile; and as the four larger islands together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an ample and luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case; and there are probably no land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature in all the essentials for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor in all the more highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon our sketch of the main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be well to note a few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands, which have an important bearing on their past {62}history, and will enable us to account for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural productions.

If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception, volcanic; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St. Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the north and west are none of them volcanic; many are very large, and these have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note, that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and that their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges, point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico; while the south-western peninsula extends in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them being 600 fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms; while close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep, from more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The importance of the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state, that indigenous mammalia of peculiar genera are found on the western group of islands only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of Antillian zoology are developed.

_Mammalia._--The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few, but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata. Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented; rodents, by peculiar forms of a South American family; and insectivora (an order entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely developed in Madagascar and found nowhere else. The early voyagers mention "Coatis" and "Agoutis" as being {63}found in Hayti and the other large islands, and it is not improbable that species allied to _Nasua_ and _Dasyprocta_ did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the invaders; though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two forms.

The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and by several peculiar genera. The American family of Phyllostomidæ or vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, _Lonchorina_, _Brachyphylla_, and _Phyllonycteris_, are peculiar, the latter being found only in Cuba. The Vespertilionidæ have four genera, of which one, _Nycticellus_, is confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidæ, of which one, _Phyllodia_, is confined to Jamaica.

The Insectivora are represented by the genus _Solenodon_, of which two species are known, one inhabiting Cuba the other Hayti. These are small animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like tail, and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their anatomy shows that they belong to the family Centetidæ, of which five different genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied to them in any other part of the world but in these two islands.

Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they are very imperfectly known.

The rodents belong to the family Octodontidæ, or, according to some authors, to the Echimyidæ, both characteristic South American groups. They consist of two genera, _Capromys_, containing three or four species inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while _Plagiodontia_ (very closely allied) is confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus _Hesperomys_, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other islands. A _Dasyprocta_ or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is cultivated are, however, overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not improbable that these may have {64}starved out and exterminated some of the smaller native rodents.

_Birds._--The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and variety to those of the mainland, are yet sufficiently abundant and remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of the country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical geography can afford.

The total number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials, 203. There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88 migrants from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the islands or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55 genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera have no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as showing that this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial phenomenon, and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on the fauna. The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost always representative species, in the islands, are in most cases characteristic rather of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the following list will show; _Turdus_, _Dendroeca_, _Vireo_, _Polioptila_, _Agelæus_, _Icterus_, _Contopus_, _Myiarchus_, _Tyrannus_, _Antrostomus_, _Chordeiles_, _Coccyzus_, _Columba_. By far the larger part of these birds visit Cuba only; 81 species being recorded as occurring in that island, while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in Porto Rico and St. Croix, and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these migratory birds, as having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will discuss the residents somewhat in detail.

The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26 families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so--Turdidæ, Sylviidæ, Corvidæ, Hirundinidæ, Fringillidæ, Picidæ, Cuculidæ, Caprimulgidæ, Cypselidæ, Trogonidæ, Psittacidæ, Columbidæ, Tetraonidæ, Falconidæ, and Strigidæ; 5 are American only--Vireonidæ, Mniotiltidæ, Icteridæ, Tyrannidæ, Trochilidæ; 4 are Netropical only or almost {65}exclusively--Coerebidæ, Tanagridæ, Cotingidæ, Conuridæ; 1 is Antillean only--Todidæ; while 1--Ampelidæ--is confined (in the western hemisphere) to North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95 genera, no less than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar; while of the 203 resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants of South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach the continent in several places--Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela--this amount of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably unexampled in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these peculiar genera are the following: 4 of Turdidæ, or thrushes--1 confined to the large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the Lesser Antilles; 2 genera of Tanagridæ, confined to the larger islands; 2 of Trogonidæ, also confined to the larger islands; 5 of hummingbirds, 3 confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles; 2 of cuckoos, one represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only; 2 of owls, one peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas, Portorico, and Cuba; and lastly, _Todus_, constituting a peculiar family, and having representative species in each of the larger islands, is especially interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are wholly Neotropical--the Momotidæ, Galbulidæ, and Todidæ. The presence of this peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera; a genus of Cotingidæ; 10 peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera; 9 Coerebidæ of 3 genera; together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as _Coereba_, _Certhiola_, _Sycalis_, _Phonipara_, _Elainea_, _Pitangus_, _Campephilus_, _Chloronerpes_, _Nyctibius_, _Stenopsis_, _Lampornis_, _Calypte_, _Ara_, _Chrysotis_, _Zenaida_, _Leptoptila_, and _Geotrygon_, sufficiently demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna; although there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the ancestors of the peculiar genera or species may not have been derived from the Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region.

The several islands differ considerably in their apparent {66}productiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of Hayti. The species of resident land-birds at present known are as follows:--

Cuba 68 species of which 40 are peculiar to it.
Hayti 40 " " 17 " "
Jamaica 67 " " 41 " "
Portorico 40 " " 15 " "
Lesser Antilles 45 " " 24 " "

If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (½) when a genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows:--Cuba 7½, Hayti 3½, Jamaica 8½, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3½. These figures show us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds,--and although this superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated, it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This fact indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes, and that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries while in the condition we now see them; for in that case the smaller and more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds.

The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very small--probably not more than half a dozen; between 20 and 30 are common to some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a few to three; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is an amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled elsewhere, and which must have required a remarkable series of physical changes to bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a better position to consider when we have completed our survey of the various classes of land animals.

Plate XVII.

A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS.

{67}In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba, as regards the birds they have in common; but they possess some half dozen species not found elsewhere, and even one central American genus of humming-birds (_Doricha_) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses, so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown by our figures.

The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with, perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some species of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called attention to the work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St. Thomas. He mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only being now known, and very scarce; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct.

_Plate XVII. Illustrating the peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the Antilles._--The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are well developed. In the foreground is the agouta (_Solenodon cubanus_), a remarkable insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting Hayti, has no allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world but in Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the family Centetidæ, to which _Solenodon_ is said undoubtedly to belong. Above it are a pair of hutias (_Capromys fournieri_), rat-like animals belonging to the South American family Octodontidæ. They live in the forests, and climb trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of the genus are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above these animals is a white-breasted trogon (_Prionoteles temnurus_), confined to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are a pair of todies (_Todus multicolor_), singular little insectivorous birds allied to the motmots, but forming a very distinct family which is confined to the islands of the {68}Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured birds,--green above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in their movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds (_Sporadinus ricordi_), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but introduced here because they belong to a genus which is confined to the Greater Antilles.

_Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds._--As the birds of the West Indian islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities comparatively little known, we give here a table of the genera of land-birds, compiled from all available sources of information. Owing to the numerous independent observations on which it is founded, the discrepancies of nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the locality of species, it can only be looked upon as an approximative summary of the existing materials on Antillean ornithology.

_TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES._

NOTE.--Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (_a_) after (1) indicates a species common to two islands: but where there are two or more species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication cannot be given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar to the Antilles.

Key to columns:
Column 1 Cuba.
" 2 Bahamas.
" 3 Hayti.
" 4 Jamaica.
" 5 Portorico & St. Croix.
" 6 Lesser Antilles.
" 7 Total resident species.

----------------+-----------------------------+----+---------------------
| Number of Species in | |
Family and | each Island. | |
Genus. +----+----+----+----+----+----+ | Remarks.
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------
TURDIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Turdus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Five species migrate
| | | | | | | | to Cuba
_Mimocichla_ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 5 |
_Margarops_ | -- | -- | 1a | -- | 1a | 3 | 4 | Martinique, St.
| | | | | | | | Lucia, Guada.
_Rhamphocinclus_ -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Martinique and St.
| | | | | | | | Lucia
_Cinclocerthia_| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 3 | 3 | Nevis to St. Lucia
Mimus | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | (?)| -- | 3 | Another species
| | | | | | | | migrates to the
| | | | | | | | Antilles
| | | | | | | |
SYLVIIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Myiadestes | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 3 | St. Lucia
Polioptila | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
VIREONIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Vireosylvia | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | One S. American
| | | | | | | | species
Vireo | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 4 | Five species migrate
| | | | | | | | to Cuba
_Laletes_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
_Phoenicomanes_| -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
CORVIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Corvus | 1 | -- | 1a | 1 | 1a | -- | 3 |
Cyanocorax | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
| | | | | | | |
MNIOTILTIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Perissoglossa | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | N. American species
Dendroeca | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 7 | Twelve sp. migrate
| | | | | | | | to W. I.
_Teretristis_ | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 |
| | | | | | | |
COEREBIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Certhiola | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 7 | Dominica and
| | | | | | | | Martinique
_Glossiptila_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Coereba | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
| | | | | | | |
AMPELIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
_Dulus_ | (?)| -- | 1 | (?)| (?)| (?)| 2 | One species locality
| | | | | | | | unknown
| | | | | | | |
HIRUNDINIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Progne | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 |
Pterochelidon | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 |
Hirundo | 1 | -- | 1a | 1a | -- | -- | 2 | One S. American
| | | | | | | | species
| | | | | | | |
TANAGRIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Euphonia | 1a | -- | 1a | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | St. Bartholom. &
| | | | | | | | Martinique
_Spindalis_ | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 5 |
_Phænicophilus_| -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Saltator | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Guadeloupe and St.
| | | | | | | | Lucia
| | | | | | | |
FRINGILLIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
_Loxigilla_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | 1 | 3 | Martinique and
| | | | | | | | Dominica
_Melopyrrha_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Sycalis | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
Phonipara | 3 | -- | 3 | 3 | 2 | -- | 4 | One S. American
| | | | | | | | species
Chrysomitris | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
ICTERIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Icterus | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 |
Agelæus | 2 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 3 |
Sturnella | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species
_Nesopsar_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Scolecophagus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Quiscalus | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | St. Lucia,
| | | | | | | | Martinique and
| | | | | | | | Barbadoes
| | | | | | | |
TYRANNIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Elainea | -- | -- | -- | 2 | -- | 1 | 3 |
Pitangus | 1a | -- | -- | 1a | 1 | -- | 2 |
Contopus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | St. Lucia
Myiarchus | 2 | -- | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1b | 7 | One S. American
| | | | | | | | species (b)
_Blacicus_ | 1a | -- | 1a | 1 | -- | -- | 2 |
Tyrannus | 2 | -- | -- | 1b | 1b | 2b | 3 | One sp. in Cen.
| | | | | | | | America (b)
| | | | | | | |
COTINGIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Hadrostomus | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
PICIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Campephilus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
_Xiphidiopicus_| 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Melanerpes | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 |
Chloronerpes | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Centurus | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 3 |
Colaptes | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 |
_Nesoceleus_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
_Picumnus_ | -- | -- | ?1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
CUCULIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
_Saurothera_ | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | -- | 4 |
_Hyetornis_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 2 |
Coccygus | 1 | -- | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | Dominica, St. Lucia,
| | | | | | | | all Neotropical
| | | | | | | | species
Crotophaga | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | N. & Cen. American
| | | | | | | | species
| | | | | | | |
TODIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
_Todus_ | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | -- | 5 |
| | | | | | | |
TROGONIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
_Prionoteles_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
_Temnotrogon_ | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
CAPRIMULGIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Nyctibius | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Neotropical species
Chordeiles | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Antrostomus | 2 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | One Neotropical
| | | | | | | | species
_Siphonorhis_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Stenopsis | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | Martinique
| | | | | | | | (S. America sp.)
| | | | | | | |
CYPSELIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Cypselus | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Panyptila | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
Hemiprocne | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species
Cypseloides | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
TROCHILIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Lampornis | -- | -- | 1a | 1 | 2a | 1a | 3 |
Doricha | -- | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 |
_Eulampis_ | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 2 | 2 | St. Croix, Dominica,
| | | | | | | | St. Lucia,
| | | | | | | | Martinique
_Aithurus_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
_Mellisuga_ | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Calypte | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
_Orthorhynchus_| -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 2 | 3 | Domin., Martini.,
| | | | | | | | St. Lucia
_Sporadinus_ | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 1 | -- | 3 |
| | | | | | | |
CONURIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Ara | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
Conurus | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | St. Thomas
| | | | | | | |
PSITTACIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Chrysotis | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 8 |
| | | | | | | |
COLUMBIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Columba | 1 | -- | 1 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 3 | One in Honduras
Chamæpelia | -- | -- | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Zenaida | 1 | -- | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 |
Leptoptila | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
Geotrygon | 2 | -- | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 5 | St. Lucia,
| | | | | | | | Martinique, one
| | | | | | | | species Mexican
_Starnoenas_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
TETRAONIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Ortyx | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
| | | | | | | |
FALCONIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Accipiter | 2 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 2 |
Hypotriorchis | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species
Cerchneis | 2 | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 | 2 |
Cymindis | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
Polyborus | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | Mexican species
| | | | | | | |
STRIGIDÆ. | | | | | | | |
Nyctalops | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 | S. American species
_Pseudoscops_ | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | -- | 1 |
_Gymnoglaux_ | 1 | -- | -- | -- | 1 | -- | 2 | St. Croix and St.
| | | | | | | | Thomas
Glaucidium | 1 | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | 1 |
----------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+----+---------------------

{Number of families of resident land-birds in the Antilles 26
TOTALS { " " genera " " " 95
{ " " species " " " 203

{72}_Reptiles and Amphibia._--These classes not having been systematically collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described, will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the birds--a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar types.

Snakes.--_Arrhyton_ (Calamariidæ) from Cuba, _Hypsirhynchus_ from Barbadoes, _Cryptodacus_ from Cuba, _Ialtris_ from Hayti, and _Coloragia_ from Cuba (all Colubridæ), have been described as genera peculiar to the Antilles. _Phylodryas_ and _Dromicus_ (Colubridæ) are Antillean and Neotropical; _Ahætulla_, (Dendrophidæ) has the same distribution but extends to tropical Africa; _Epicrates_ and _Corallus_ (Pythonidæ) are Neotropical and Antillean; while _Chilabothrus_ from Jamaica and _Ungalia_ from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidæ) are found elsewhere only in Central America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidæ except an introduced species of _Craspedocephalus_ in St. Lucia.

Lizards are more numerous. _Ameiva_ (Teidæ) is found all over America, _Gerrhonotus_ (Zonuridæ) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba; _Gymnopthalmus_ is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidæ seven genera are noted. _Celestus_ (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles; _Camilia_ (1 species) to Jamaica, _Panoplus_ (1 species) and _Embryopus_ (1 species) to Hayti; _Diplogossus_ is Antillean and South American; while _Plestiodon_ and _Mabouya_ are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidæ there are four genera; _Phyllodactylus_ and _Hemidactylus_ which are cosmopolite; _Sphærodactylus_ which is wholly American; and _Cubina_ found only in Martinique and Brazil. Of Iguanidæ there are six genera; _Anolis_, which ranges all over America; _Polychrus_, which is Neotropical; _Iguana_ and _Liocephalus_ which are South American; _Tropedurus_ found in Cuba and Brazil; and _Cyclura_ only known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America.

_Amphibia._--The genus _Trachycephalus_, belonging to the {73}Hylidæ or tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles; Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South America. Other genera are, _Peltaphryne_ (Bufonidæ) from Portorico; _Phyllobates_ (Polypedatidæ) from Cuba; _Leiuperus_ (Ranidæ) from Hayti,--all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic region.

_Fresh-water fish._--The same general remarks apply to these as to the reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted--_Lebistes_, a form of Cyprinodontidæ from Barbadoes; other genera of the same family being, _Haplochilus_, _Rivulus_, and _Girardinus_, widely spread in the Neotropical region; while _Gambusia_ is confined to Central America, Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridæ by _Chætostomus_, found in Portorico and South America; Chromidæ by the South American _Acara_; Mugillidæ by the Central American _Agonostoma_; and Percidæ by the North American _Centrarchus_, of which a species is recorded from Cuba.

_Insects._--The various West Indian islands have not been well explored entomologically; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty renders them little attractive to the professional collector, while the abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. We can, therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge. Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera.

_Lepidoptera._--The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented, the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting; yet there are a few peculiar and very characteristic forms which show great isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively or characteristically Antillean,--_Calisto_ belonging to the Satyridæ, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina; _Clothilda_ {74}(Nymphalidæ) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and 2 in Central America; _Lucinia_ (Nymphalidæ) 2 species, confined to Jamaica and Hayti; and _Kricogonia_ belonging to the Pieridæ, which has 2 West Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a special relation to Central America are _Euptoieta_, _Eumæus_, and _Nathalis_. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of Danaidæ; 1 of Heliconiidæ; 2 of Satyridæ; 18 of Nymphalidæ; 1 of Erycinidæ; 4 of Lycænidæ; 6 of Pieridæ; 1 of Papilionidæ, and 10 of Hesperidæ. The genus _Papilio_ is represented by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridæ and the almost total absence of Erycinidæ, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of Danaidæ and Nymphalidæ.

_Coleoptera._--Cicindelidæ and Carabidæ are very poorly represented, by a few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No Lucanidæ are recorded. Of Cetoniidæ, _Gymnetis_ only appears to be represented. Buprestidæ seem to be more numerous; 15 genera being recorded, but almost all of wide distribution. One only is peculiar--_Tetragonoschoma_, found in Hayti; _Halecia_ is the only exclusively South American genus; _Chalcophora_ is widely scattered over the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidæ are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of which are widely distributed in both South and North America, 1 is North American, and 1 South American, while the following are peculiar,--_Stenodontes_ (Hayti and Cuba); _Dendroblaptus_ (Cuba); _Monodesmus_ (Cuba and Jamaica); _Prosternodes_ (Cuba); _Solenoptera_ and _Elateropsis_, the two largest genera found in most of the {75}islands. Of Cerambycidæ there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the islands,--_Merostenus_, _Pentomacrus_, and _Eburiola_ (Jamaica); _Bromiades_ (Cuba); _Trichrous_, _Heterops_, and _Pæciloderma_ (Antilles). One genus, _Smodicum_, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidæ there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2, _Proecha_ and _Phidola_, are confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously distributed;--_Spalacopsis_ is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and Tropical Africa; _Lagocheirus_ is Neotropical, with a species in Australia; while _Leptostilus_ is characteristic of the Antilles and North America, with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like _Callichroma_, _Clytus_, and many others, almost universally distributed.

All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidæ and Lamiidæ are allied to Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidæ, however, are mostly allied to Mexican and North American groups, and one, _Monodesmus_, belongs to a group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa.

_Land-shells._--This subject has already been generally treated under the Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important a part. We must therefore now confine ourselves mainly to the internal distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of the facts.

The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these conditions {76}are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems most probable that the great development of land-shells in islands, is due to the absence or deficiency of the vertebrata, which on continents supply a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania; and we have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species.

The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land-shells are of a physical nature. A great extent of limestone-rock is one; and in the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself. A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems very favourable to the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals. Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface, affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground can hardly be found; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock-bound valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains this rock is worn, fissured, and honeycombed, so as to afford ample shelter and concealment for land-shells.

{77}It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica and Hayti, are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather more species than Jamaica; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus (_Diplopoma_), the latter has 3 (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, and _Jamaicea_), as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connection with it, than with each other; just as we found to be the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer species than Hayti; and, as many of the genera common to the other three islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental character; the genus _Bulimus_, so largely developed on the continent, only reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar; all the genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter island.

In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera; 9 operculate (_Geomelania_, _Chittya_, _Jamaicea_, _Licina_, _Choanopoma_, _Ctenopoma_, _Diplopoma_, _Stoastoma_, _Lucidella_); and 2 inoperculate (_Sagda_ and _Stenopus_), besides _Cyclostomus_, which belongs to the Old World and is not found on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus _Diplommatina_ has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of _Ennea_ occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas; a clear indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less productive islands.

Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, {78}there is good reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests; and as we know that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species have almost certainly been exterminated.

_General Conclusions as to the Past History of the West Indian Islands._--The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that, subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and, by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the position and extent of this ancient land; which not improbably occupied the space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela, while Panama and Costa Pica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the Lesser Antilles had no existence.