Chapter VII: Part 7

At 13 feet distance for firing at 30 degrees.
21 feet ” ” ” at 20
30 feet ” ” ” at 15
40 feet ” ” ” at 10
over an epaulment of 8 feet high.

See also the word _Battery_.

_POINT BLANK._—For the point blank ranges of different pieces of ordnance, see the different natures.

The French _point blank_ or _but en blanc_, is what the English artillery call the _line of metal elevation_; in most guns between one and two degrees.

_PONTOONS._—Length at { top 21 ft. 6 in.
{ bottom, 17 2

Width, 4 feet 9 inches. Depth, 2 feet 3 inches.

_Equipage of One Pontoon._

Ft. In. Ft. In. In.
4 Baulks 22 8 long 1 0 wide 4 thick.
1 Gang-board. 22 0 ” 1 0 ” 2½ ”
6 Chesses, 11 6 ” 2 4 ” 1½ ”
2 Oars.
1 Anchor.
1 Graplin.
1 Setter.
4 Iron bolts, with keys.
2 Mounting bars.
4 Binding sticks.
4 Spring lines.
4 Faukes.
1 Cable
1 Sheer-line.
1 Boat hook.
1 Maul.
4 Pickets.
1 Small pump.
1 Windlass.
1 Pontoon carriage, complete.

_Dimensions of Colonel Congreve’s Wooden Pontoons._

feet. inches.
Length at top 26
” at bottom 23
Depth 2 8
Width 2 3

The common pontoons will support a weight of 4 or 5000 pounds. They are generally placed, in forming a bridge, about their own width asunder. See the word _Bridge_.

_PORTFIRES._

Composition. Saltpetre, 60 parts; sulphur, 40 parts; mealed powder, 20 parts. Length of each, 16½ inches.

One will burn from 12 to 15 minutes.

Weight of one dozen, 3 lbs. 12 oz.

Portfires were made at Gibraltar in the following manner; two ounces of nitre was dissolved in a gallon of water, and sheets of soft brown paper dipped in the solution: these when dry were rolled up to about the size of common portfires.

_PROVISIONS._—See the word _Ration_.

_PROOF_—of ordnance.

All natures of ordnance undergo several kinds of proof before they are received into his Majesty’s service; _viz._ 1st, They are guaged as to their several dimensions, internal and external, as to the justness of the position of the bore, the chamber, the vent, the trunnions, _&c._

2d, They are fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, and afterwards searched to discover irregularities or holes produced by the firing.

3d, By means, of engines an endeavour is made to force water through them; and,

4th, They are examined internally, by means of light reflected from a mirror.

_Iron Guns._—The guns are first examined as to their proper dimensions, in which, in no case more than ³/₁₀ of an inch variation is allowed; and in the diameter of the bore only ¹/₃₀ from 42 to 18 pounders, and ¹/₄₀ from 12 to 4 pounders; but in the position of the bore ½ an inch out of the axis of a piece from a 42 to an 18 Pr. and ⅓ of an inch from a 12 to a 4 Pr. is allowed. They are then fired twice with the charge in the following table, with one shot and two high junk wads; and examined with a searcher after each round. In this examination they must not have any hole or cavity in the bore of ²/₁₀ of an inch in depth, behind the first reinforce ring, or ¼ of an inch in depth before this ring.

+---------+--------------+
| Nature. |Proof Charge. |
+---------+--------------+
| Prs. | lbs. oz. |
| 42 | 25 — |
| 32 | 21 8 |
| 24 | 18 — |
| 18 | 15 — |
| 12 | 12 — |
| 9 | 9 — |
| 6 | 6 — |
| 4 | 4 — |
| 3 | 3 — |
| 2 | 2 — |
| 1½ | 1 8 |
| 1 | 1 — |
+---------+--------------+

Iron guns are scaled with ¹/₁₂ the weight of the shot.

_Brass Guns._—From 1 pounders to 12 pounders the diameter of the bore must not vary more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch, and in no dimensions more than ²/₁₀. The following are the established charges for their proof. The heavy and medium guns with a charge equal to the weight of the shot, except the medium 12 pounder, which is proved with only 9 lbs. The light guns with half the weight of the shot. The brass ordnance have not however been proved of late with such heavy charges, but with the following:

3 Prs. light, 3 times, with 1 lb. each round.
6 Prs. light, 3 times, with 2 lbs. each.
12 Prs. light, 2 times, with 4 lbs. each.
12 Prs. Med. 2 times, with 5 lbs. each.

Any hole .15 of an inch deep upwards or sideways in the bore, or .1 in the bottom, between the breach and first reinforce; or .2 of an inch upwards or side ways, or .15 in the bottom of the bore, before the first reinforce ring, will be sufficient to condemn them.

_Brass Mortars and Howitzers._—The exterior dimensions are in no respect to deviate more than ¹/₁₀ of an inch in an 8 inch howitzer, and ¹/₂₀ in the royals and Coehorn mortars and howitzers. Their bores and chambers not to deviate from their true diameters or positions more than ¹/₄₀ of an inch.

The brass mortars and howitzers are fired twice with their chambers full of powder, and an iron shell. The mortars on their own beds, at about 75° elevation; and the howitzers on their carriages, at about 12°. Iron mortars are proved on their iron beds; with a charge equal to the full chamber, and an iron shot equal in diameter to the shell.

Royals, or Coehorn mortars, having a hole .1 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or .15 in the chase, are rejected: royal howitzers the same. 8 inch howitzers having a hole .15 of an inch in depth in the chamber, or .2 in the chase, will be rejected.

_Carronades._—The diameter and position of their bore and chamber must not deviate ¹/₂₀ of an inch. They are proved with two rounds, with their chambers full of powder, and 1 shot and 1 wad. A hole of ²/₁₀ of an inch in depth in the bore, or ¹/₁₀ in the chamber condemns the piece.

_Proof Charges._

+--------+----+----+----+----+----+
|68 Prs. | 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 |
+--------+----+----+----+----+----+
|13 lbs. | 9 | 8 | 6 | 4 | 3 |
+--------+----+----+----+----+----+

All ordnance, after having undergone this proof, and the subsequent searching, are subject to the water proof: this is done by means of a forcing pump, having a pipe or hose fixed to the mouth of the piece: after two or three efforts to force the water through any honeycombs or flaws which may be in the bore, they are left to dry; and generally the next day examined by the reflected light from a mirror. If the bore contains any small holes or flaws which have not been discovered by the former proofs, they are very readily found by this; the water will continue to weep, or run from the holes, when the solid parts of the bore are perfectly dry. Ordnance suspected of being bad are often subject to a more severe proof: that of firing 30 rounds quick, with the service charge and 2 shot; and in doubtful cases, where the purity of the metal is suspected, recourse has been had to chemical trials and analysis. A quantity of clean filings taken from a part of an iron gun free from rust, are dissolved in the dilute sulphuric acid, and the quantity of gas disengaged during the solution accurately ascertained. The plumbago which remains after solution is also separated by filtration, and carefully weighed. Now it is well known that the purer the iron, the greater the quantify of inflammable gas obtained, and the less the proportion of plumbago which remains after the solution; from these two parts therefore a tolerable judgment may be formed of the quality of the metal. When the plumbago exceeds 4½ _per_ cent. the iron will always be found deficient in strength; and there has been no instance of a gun bursting where the plumbago did not exceed 3 _per_ cent; that is, where 100 grains of the metal did not leave more than 3 grains of plumbago. The colour of the plumbago is also to be attended to; when it is brown or reddish, it is an indication of hard metal, and when in quantities and mixed with coals, there can be no doubt but that the iron is too soft for cannon.

For the proof of _Gunpowder_, see that word.

_Proof of Iron Shells._—After the shells are guaged and examined as to their dimensions and weight, they must be well scraped out, and the iron pin at the bottom of the inside must be driven down or broken off. They are then to be hammered all over, to knock off the scales, and discover flaws, and no hole, in the large shells is allowed, of more than ¾ of an inch deep. An empty fuze is then driven into the fuze hole, and the shell is suspended in a tub of water, in such manner that the shell be covered by the water, but that it does not run into the fuze: in this situation the nose of a pair of bellows is put in at the fuze hole, and several strong puffs given with the bellows; and if no bubbles rise in the water, the shell is concluded to be serviceable.

Ordnance condemned as unserviceable for any of the foregoing reasons, are marked as follows: =X D=, or =X S=, or =X W=. The first signifies that they are found to be faulty in their dimensions, by Desagulier’s instrument; the second, by the searcher; and the third, by the water proof.

_RATION._—For an officer or soldier.

_Complete Ration of the Small Species._

Flour, or bread 1½ lbs.
Beef 1
Or Pork ½
Peas ¼ pint.
Butter, or cheese 1 oz.
Rice 1 oz.

When the small species are not issued, 1½ lbs. of flour or bread, with 1½ lbs. of beef, or 10 oz. of pork, forms a complete ration: or 3 lbs. of beef; or 2 lbs. of cheese; or half a pound of rice, forms a complete ration.

At sea the ration is different. The following table contains the allowance for six soldiers, or four seamen on board of ship, for each day in the week. Women are provisioned at ½, and children at ¼ of a soldier’s allowance, but receive no rum.

(A) = Beer, Gallons, or half Pints of Spirits, or Pints of Wine.
(B) = Pint of Oatmeal.
(C) = lbs. of Butter.
(D) = lbs. of Butter.
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
| | | | Beef, |Pork, |Pint| | | | |
| Days of | | | Pieces |Pieces| of | | | | |
| the Week.|Bread.|(A)| of | of |Peas|(B)|(C)|(D)|Vinegar.|
| | lb. | | 8 lbs. |4 lb. | | | | | |
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+
|Sunday, | 4 | 4 | | 1 | 2 | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Monday, | 4 | 4 | | — | | 4 | ½ | 1 | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Tuesday, | 4 | 4 | 1 | — | | | | | |
| | | |or 6 lbs. | | | | | | |
|Wednesday,| 4 | 4 | of flour,| — | 2 | 4 | ½ | 1 |1 quart |
| | | |or ½ lb | | | | | |a week. |
|Thursday, | 4 | 4 |of suet, | 1 | 2 | | | | |
| | | |& 1 lb of | | | | | | |
|Friday, | 4 | 4 |raisins | — | 2 | 4 | ½ | 1 | |
| | | | | | | | | | |
|Saturday, | 4 | 4 | 1 | — | | | | | |
| | | | or as | | | | | | |
| | | | above. | | | | | | |
+----------+------+---+----------+------+----+---+---+---+--------+

The above are served out by full weights and measures.

When flour, suet and raisins are put on board, they are to be served out in equal proportions with beef, viz. half in beef; the other half in flour, suet, and raisins, on each beef day.

4 lbs. of flour, or 3 lbs. of flour with ½ lb. of raisins, (or ¼ lb. of currants) and ¼ lb. of suet, are equal to 4 lbs. of beef, or 2 lbs. of pork with peas, but are not to be issued in lieu of the latter, except unavoidable, and then the quantities must be certified.

½ lb. of rice is equal to a pint of oatmeal; ½ lb. of sugar is equal to ½ lb. of butter; and 1 lb. of rice is equal to 1 lb. of cheese; 1 pint of oil is equal to 1 lb. of butter, or 2 lbs. of cheese, that is, a pint of oil for the proportion of butter and cheese.

A pint of wine, or ½ pint of brandy, rum, or arrack, is equal to a gallon of beer; 1 lb. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of salt beef; and 1½ lbs. of fresh beef is equal to 1 lb. of pork.

No wine or spirits are to be issued to the troops while in port, nor at sea, till after all the beer is expended.

The masters of transports are to produce a certificate from the commanding officer of the troops on board, of the quantity expended. If any doubt be entertained of the provisions being full weight, a cask must be weighed in the presence of the commanding officer, the master and the mate, and the master may upon the certificate of the commanding officer, and the oath of the mate, issue as much beef and pork as will make up the deficiency.

The weight of each must be as follows: 14 pieces of beef, cut for 8 pound pieces taken out of the cask as they rise, and the salt shaken off, are to weigh 112 lbs. avoirdupois. 28 pieces of pork cut for 4 lb. pieces, are also to weigh, under like circumstances, 112 lbs.

The deductions to betaken for provisions from the pay of officers, noncommissioned officers, or men, are the same for all ranks, and in all corps, under the like circumstances of service, when serving out of Great Britain, on stations where provisions are supplied by the public: also, when embarked in transports or other vessels, (except when serving as marines) also when prisoners of war, and maintained at the expense of Great Britain; also when in general hospitals, whether at home or abroad, a deduction of _Six-pence per day_.

A deduction of _three-pence half-penny_ from the pay of every noncommissioned officer and private in Jamaica, in New South Wales, or Gibraltar. Noncommissioned officers and soldiers serving as marines shall not be liable to any deduction from their full pay on account of provisions.

Ration for a horse on home service in 1796: 14 lbs. of hay, 10 lbs. of oats, 4 lbs. of straw; for which a stoppage is made of _six-pence_.

_Army Regulations, 1799._

_RANK._—_Between Land and Sea Officers._

_Navy._ | _Army._
1. Admiral, or commander |
of his Majesty’s fleet | Field Marshal.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
2. Admirals with their flags |
at the main-top-mast head | Generals.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
3. Vice Admirals | Lieutenant Generals.
4. Rear Admirals | Major Generals.
5. Commodores, with broad pendants | Brigadiers.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
6. Captains commanding post |
ships, after 3 years | Colonels.
--------------------------------------+--------------------
7. All Captains commanding post ships | Lieutenant Colonels.
8. Captains not taking post | Majors.
9. Lieutenants | Captains.

The rank and precedence of sea officers in the classes abovementioned, are to take place according to the seniority of their respective commissions in the sea service. Post captains commanding ships or vessels that do not give post, rank only as majors during the time they command those vessels.

Nothing in this shall give any pretence to land officers to command any of his Majesty’s squadrons; nor to any sea officer to command on shore; nor shall either have right to demand the military honours due to their respective ranks, unless upon actual service.

_RECOIL_—_Of Field Guns on Travelling Carriages, upon Elm Planks._

+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
| | | 1 Shot, | 2 Shot |Case Shot,|
| Nature. | Charge |at 1° 30′ |at 1° 30′ |at 3° 45′ |
| | |Elevation |Elevation |Elevation |
+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+
| |lbs. oz.| Feet. | Feet. | Feet. |
| | | | | |
|12 Pr. Medi. | 4 — | 12 | 25 | 8½ |
| 6 Pr. Heavy | 2 — | 7 | 11 | 7½ |
| 6 Pr. Light | 1 8 | 12 | 21 | 10 |
| 3 Pr. Heavy | 1 — | 7 | 5 | 3½ |
+-------------+--------+----------+----------+----------+

_Recoil of Sea Service, Iron Guns, on Ship Carriages, upon a Horizontal Platform._

+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
| Charges of Powder |Elevation.|32 Pr. |24 Pr. |18 Pr. |
| and Shot. | | | | |
+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+
| | Deg. |Ft. In.|Ft. In.|Ft. In.|
| | | | | |
| ⅓ of Powder and 1 Shot | 2 |11 — |11 — |10 6 |
| ⅓ of Powder and 2 Shot | 4 |19 6 |18 6 |18 — |
| ¼ of Powder and 2 Shot | 7 |11 6 |12 — |12 — |
+------------------------+----------+-------+-------+-------+

_Recoil of Land Service, Iron Mortars, on Iron Beds._

Ft. In.
13 Inch, with a charge of 6 lbs. 4 2½
10 Inch, ” ” 3 lbs. 2 10
8 Inch, ” ” 1 lb. 9 oz. 3 10

_RECONNOITERING._—The following necessary observations to be made in examining a country in a military point of view, are principally translated from the _Aide Memoire_, but improved by some judicious remarks from Mr. Landman’s introduction to reconnoitering.

Before an officer sets out to reconnoiter a country, he should trace out from the best map he can procure, its principal features, which will serve him as a guide in his progress through the principal parts which are to be the subject of his observations, and enable him to connect the whole into one grand plan.

His observations should be expressed by written remarks, and by sketches. For this purpose he must be provided with a sketch book, on the right hand page of which, he may express the appearance of the country by sketches, and on the left, the remarks made on particular parts, with the names of the towns, their distances asunder, &c. with proper references to the sketches. The scale most proper for this purpose is two inches to a mile; if therefore, the sketch book be made six inches wide, and the leaves divided by lines into three equal parts, each division will be one mile, which will be a sufficient scale for the purpose.

1st. _Roads._—The principal points to be attended to in examining roads for military purposes, are, their direction; the villages, countries, and rivers, which they pass through; the roads which cross them; their names and the seasons in which they are in best condition; and if ever impassable, their breadth, whether variable or constant; their bottoms, of what principally formed; their ascents and descents, whether practicable for all kinds of carriages. The enclosures may be hedges, ditches, walls, or fences. If the roads require repair for the transport of artillery, and other heavy carriages, observe if the necessary materials are at hand. If they pass over rivers, remark whether by bridges or fords; if through marshes, whether by causeways or otherwise. If two or more roads pursuing the same route, and by which different columns may march, at any part join or cross each other, it will be necessary to observe, whether the march of the columns will be thereby impeded. If they only cross each other, it will be sometimes possible in hollow ways, to throw a temporary bridge across the deepest, by which one column may pass over and the other under the bridge, without interrupting each others march.

2. _Fords._—A ford for cavalry ought not to be deeper than 4 feet; for infantry not more than 3 feet. Observe the banks of the ford at each side; their form, steepness, and height; their situation as to the turnings of the river. Their bottom, whether passable for carriages. Observe marks by which the ford may be readily found; points from which it may be protected. Notice the rapidity of the water; whether its height be variable; its direction, its breadth, and the means by which the ford may be destroyed or rendered impassable.

3. _Inundations._—Learn the manner of working the sluices; the time in which the inundation may be effected; its extent and depth. Observe how the dam may be protected; its height and solidity; whether it can be easily raised, or easily destroyed; whether it is commanded by distant positions, and whether the inundation can be otherways drained. Notice the adjacent country.

4. _Springs and Wells._—Attend to the quality and quantity of the water; whether it will serve for the cavalry, as well as infantry, and the manner of its being drawn. Observe the situation of the spring, and of its source, whether it can be protected, and the enemy prevented from cutting it off.

5. _Lakes, Marshes, and Swamps._—Learn their cause; if arising from a moist soil, the overflowings of rivers or from springs. Observe their situation, and the appearance of the surrounding country; the best means of crossing them. If they are divided by causeways, notice their breadth and condition; if not, remark if causeways can be easily established, and whether the swamp can be drained, and whether it is passable at any season of the year. Observe the points from which the causeways can be defended against the passage of an enemy’s column. Learn whether or not the swamps are subject to fogs; and at what seasons they are most hurtful.

6. _Of Woods and Forests._—Remark their extent; their situation; their thickness; whether the trees are lofty or low; whether there is much underwood. Observe if the different clumps form openings or passes; and their extent; whether their sides are formed of thick wood or brush; whether their breadth is uniform, or widens at particular parts. Remark whether the ground of the forest be level or hilly, swampy or dry. Observe the nature and condition of the roads (for remarks to be made on these, see the article _Roads_;) observe also the means the forest affords of intrenching; of making fascines, abbatis, &c. Attend to the face of the country round the forest, whether cultivated fields or meadows: whether it affords positions; is intersected by rivulets, swamps or ravines.

Remark the castles, villages, towns, &c. in the neighbourhood; and their distance from the skirts of the wood.

Go round the wood and examine its principal débouchés; observe the ravines, rivulets, roads, &c. issuing from it, and learn their direction.

7. _Heaths._—Notice for what nature of troops they are best calculated. The nature of hedges and brush wood; some form a good breast work. Observe the directions of the rivulets, roads, and ravines. When the ground of a heath is of the common colour, the roads are usually good: but when it is blackish and mixed with white sand, the roads are generally impassable in winter seasons.

8. _Canals._—For this article see also the observations on _Rivers_. Observe their intention; the nature of the soil in which they are dug, their breadth and depth; their locks; the craft found upon them; the best means of protecting or destroying them: learn the countries they pass through.

9. _Rivers._—Learn in what country they arise, and where empty themselves; the nature of the countries they run through, and whether they belong to us or the enemy. Learn the extent to which they are navigable; and if they ever freeze over, whether strong enough to bear troops and carriages. Notice the quality of the water, its course, currents, depths, and breadths. The banks and the beds of the rivers. Observe the nature and number of the craft that navigate them; and the mills upon their banks, whether of wind or water. Visit the bridges and fords; and make the proper remarks on their nature and situation. Learn whether the rivers ever overflow their banks, and at what season; and whether or not this causes inundations. Observe the most favourable points for crossing, and the roads leading to these points. The turnings and windings of the rivers, the form of their peninsulas; and the most favourable situations for throwing over bridges. If there are any wharves on the banks, observe what craft can lay along side of them.

If there are islands in the rivers, note their size; their banks; whether inhabited, cultivated, woody, or barren; and whether they command the channel.

Observe the mountains and high grounds near the rivers; remark their distance from the banks, and the advantages, or disadvantages which they offer. Learn what branches or confluence of other rivers there are either above or below, the best situations for crossing. Examine the positions which the adjoining country affords an army to protect the passage of the river; and whether in a perpendicular or parallel direction; and the routes by which 3 or 4 columns may arrive at the place.

10. _Passes._—Observe their breadth, their length, their situation; the nature of the adjacent country: the best positions to occupy to cover a retreat; or to dispute the pass. How the troops would be best arranged; and the number that would be required for this purpose.

11. _Ravines, Vallies._—Observe the nature of the soil; whether rocky, or of loose flints. If the sides are rugged and steep, whether they can be easily scarped off. The points that command them: whether storms or floods are to be apprehended; and at what seasons most expected.

12. _Cultivated Lands._—Notice their state of cultivation: their productions; their time of harvest. Learn what quantity of wheat, rye, barley, oats, or other grain they produce, over and above the necessary subsistance of the inhabitants. How much hay they yield _per_ acre.

13. _Orchards._—Observe whether they are thick planted and afford a good cover: their enclosures, whether hedge, ditches, walls, &c.

14. _Bridges._—Remark their situation; their length and breadth; the materials of which they are built; their strength, whether sufficient to bear artillery: the roads leading to them: their situation, as to the turnings of the river: their purpose; if to connect towns or villages, the nature, direction, and breadth of the streets leading to them. Observe the country around, whether flat or commanding: study the best means of fortifying the bridge head; and observe the best and most expeditious mode by which the bridge may be destroyed, if necessary.

15. _Mountains, Hills._—Amongst high mountains, such as the Alps, roads are very rare; it is seldom more than the vallies that are inhabited and accessible for troops: observe their slopes, if steep or rugged. Examine the positions; means of gaining the summits; and note the state of cultivation and general appearance of the vallies; the pasturage, forage, cottages, villages, castles, roads, paths, and passes. Distinguish the principal chains of hills and their direction. Their relative heights; whether they are sufficiently extensive to form a line of defence; their communications; their strong points; positions proper for batteries, &c. Whether practicable for cavalry and artillery.

16. _Coasts._—Their nature; whether bordered by downs; surrounded by rocks, which render their approach dangerous; or by shoals, which make their access impracticable; note the points and headlands proper for forts and batteries to defend the anchorage, ports, harbours, or other accessible parts. If there are any adjacent isles, perhaps they will serve for the erection of advanced batteries, to form a barrier to the efforts of an enemy. Observe the nature of the shores, bays, roads for shipping, &c. with the winds required to go in and out the harbours; and whether they are of easy access: their advantages and disadvantages, their size and depth of water. If a river empties itself on the coast, observe the particular channel for shipping, and whether it can be defended by any of the batteries. If the coast is already fortified, observe all the batteries, forts, or intrenchments, established for its defence, and the protection of the anchorage, _&c._ Examine the camps and other military posts, which cover the principal points, and the interior of the country. Estimate all the dangers to be run, and all the obstacles to be overcome in a descent, and point out the means of augmenting them. Observe the time of the tide most favourable for approaching the coast. Ascertain the number of artillery and other troops constantly on the coast, and the force that can be collected at a short notice; and how soon they can be drawn to any particular point attacked. Examine the system of defence adopted, and endeavour to improve it.

17. _Forts, Redoubts._—Remark their form, whether ancient or modern; whether they are permanent or temporary; elevated or low; revetted or demi-revetted, with stone, brick, or turf. Whether the ditch is wet or dry; fraized or palissaded; natural or artificial. Observe their situation; the face of the adjacent country; whether they effectually command the passes, or protect the country intended. The defence they are capable of making in their present state, and the improvements of which they are susceptible.

18. _Castles, Citadels._—Their situation; their form; their extent; their object; the protection they give the city; their connection and communication with it. The present state of their defence, and the improvements of which they are susceptible. Their _Souterraines_.

19. _Villages._—Observe their situation; ascertain the number of families they contain; the nature of the land; the quality and quantity of their crops; their markets; the suburbs that supply these markets; their beasts of burthen: their flocks, herds, poultry, _&c._ The number of their ovens; quality of the water; stile of houses, barns, stables, and sheep walks. The situation of the church; the nature of the church yard, and its enclosures. The wind and water mills. Observe whether the village is surrounded by hedges, ditches, banks, or walls; whether it can be easily intrenched. Its streets; roads leading to it; and the face of the surrounding country.

20. _Cities not fortified._—Their situation; population; commerce; commodities; manufactures; the succours that may be drawn from them, as to men, horses, _&c._ Their squares and principal buildings. The defence they are susceptible of; whether they are surrounded by walls, old towers, ditches, _&c._ Their gates, and the roads leading to them. The face of the surrounding country.

21. _Fortified Towns._—Their situation with respect to their position, and with respect to other towns in the neighbourhood, whether in the first or second line; the assistance which they can afford each other. The succours that may be drawn from them, or that may be thrown into them in case of a siege. The direction which such relief, whether of men or provisions, ought to take, according to the side attacked; whether they will serve as depots or hospitals. The state of the fortifications (see the word _Fortification_ in the alphabet;) their nature; the strength of each front. The rivers in the neighbourhood; the surrounding country within the range of the guns. The form of investment; what lines will be required considering the nature of the country, and the positions; and the means the country affords of executing them. The advantages which the ground would afford between the glacis and the lines, either to the besiegers or besieged; the means of establishing the most certain communications between the different quarters of the army, and the means of cutting them off.

22. _Positions._—Every military position ought to possess decided advantages of situation, and ought to be commanded in no part of its front, flank, or rear. All commanding grounds ought to be without the range of cannon. There are four principal objects to be attended to in the choice of a position: 1st. The advantages of the ground; 2d. The supplies for the army; 3d. The objects to be attained; and, 4th. The communications with the rear. The front of a position should be intersected by rivers, ravines, or broken ground, or any other obstacles which can prevent the enemy advancing in order of battle, and oblige him to pass through defilés; but a position becomes useless when the front is so covered by obstacles that the army cannot advance or move out of its camp when necessary; but no obstacles can be too great on the flanks. All obstacles which cover a position, or passes which lead to it, must be within the range of the artillery, or the enemy will pass them unmolested. In a flat country, where the ground does not afford commanding situations, a position is only more or less eligible, as being covered or protected by obstacles; these are very thick woods, in which there are very few roads; large rivulets which cannot be forded or passed without bridges; narrow roads; deep and broken ravines; ground much intersected with hedges, ditches, &c. but it is essential that all these obstacles should be under the fire of the artillery. It is always dangerous to occupy a position, which has its rear so covered by swamps, crossed by rivers or ravines, &c. as to render the retreat of the army difficult. The number of passes by which an army can retire must be examined and secured, and should never be less than 5 or 6. The rivers, brooks, &c. in front of a position, should never be depended upon for a supply of water, as the enemy may cut them off. The ground for a camp should not be too much intersected by hedges, ditches, or ravines, which occasion great intervals in the line, and obstruct the communications through the camp.

In an offensive position it is absolutely necessary that the army should not be too much confined by obstacles, but be at liberty to act in every direction; but in a defensive position, the fewer accessible points there are the better: and if the natural difficulties in front and flank are not sufficient to render an enemy’s attack dangerous, they must be increased by redoubts, intrenchments, abbatis, inundations, &c. The obstacles on the flanks, should also be of such extent that they cannot be easily turned, without the enemy makes a very great circuit; and consequently exposes his own flank, and weakens his line of communication. In case the enemy detaches a body to attack a defensive position in the rear; the front must be sufficiently strong to enable the general to oppose the enemy’s detachment, by a strong body from his own army. In short, the enemy must not be able by any manœuvre to force the army to quit its position. The want of wood or water, or other supplies absolutely necessary for an army, renders every other advantage of a position useless; nor, can a position be long tenable, that is far removed from its depots; and has not its intermediate posts perfectly secure from the attacks of an enemy. For further remarks upon positions, see the word _Artillery in the Field_.

_RICOCHET_—Firing is not confined to any particular charge or elevation; each must vary according to the distance and difference of level of the object to be fired at; and particularly of the spot on which it is intended the shot shall make the first bound. The smaller the angle is under which a shot is made to ricochet, the longer it will preserve its force and have effect, as it will sink so much the less in the ground on which it bounds and its tenacity will of course present so much less resistance to the shot’s progress. In the ricochet of a fortification of any kind, the angle of elevation should seldom be more than 10°, to throw the shot over a parapet a little higher than the level of the battery. If the works should be of an extraordinary height, the piece must be removed to such situation, and have such charge, that it can attain its object at this elevation, or at least under that of 13° or 14°, otherwise the shot will not ricochet, and the carriages will suffer very much. The first gun in a ricochet battery should be so placed as to sweep the whole length of the rampart of the enemy’s work, at 3 or 4 feet from the parapet, and the rest should form as small an angle with the parapet as possible. For this purpose the guns should be pointed about 4 fathoms from the face of the work towards the interior. In the ricochet of ordnance in the field, the objects to be fired at being principally infantry and cavalry, the guns should seldom be elevated above 3 degrees; as with greater angles the ball would be apt to bound too high, and defeat the object intended. For ricochet practice see the different pieces of ordnance, as _Gun_, _Mortar_, and _Howitzer_.

DURTUBIE.

See also the words _Platforms_ and _Battery_.

_ROCKETS._—_Composition._

_Old Proportion._ | _New Proportion._
lbs. oz. | lbs. oz.
Saltpetre 4 0 | — 4 4
Sulphur 1 0 | — 0 12
Charcoal 1 8 | — 2 0
---------------------------------+----------------------
_Composition for the Stars._ |
Mealed powder 0 lb. 8 oz.|
Saltpetre 8 0 | Composition for rains
Sulphur 2 0 | to head sky rockets
Antimony 2 0 | is the same as the
Isinglass dissolved 0 3½ | above for the
Spirits of wine 1 pint. | rockets.
Vinegar 1 quart. |
---------------------------------+----------------------

_General Table of Sky Rockets._

+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
| |2 Pound.|1 Pound. |½ Pound.|¼ Pound.|
+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
| | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. | Inch. |
| Exterior diameter | 2.13 | 1.69 | 1.34 | 1.06 |
|Case Interior diameter | 1.529 | 1.214 | 0.961 | 0.761 |
| Length before driving| 15.97 | 12.67 | 10.05 | 8.25 |
+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
|Length of guage | 1.5 | 1.25 | 1.0 | 0.75 |
| for the choke | | | | |
+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
|Cylinders for Diameter | 2.84 | 2.25 | 1.79 | 1.39 |
| heading Length | 4.26 | 3.38 | 2.68 | 2.12 |
|Cones for Diameter | 2.84 | 2.25 | 1.79 | 1.39 |
| heading Height | 4.26 | 3.38 | 2.68 | 2.18 |
+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+
|Mallet for driving.—Weight | 4 lb. | 3 8 oz.| 2 1 | 1 10 |
|Nᵒ. of Strokes | 31 | 21 | 18 | 13 |
+---------------------------+--------+---------+--------+--------+

_Copper Ladles for filling Sky Rockets._

_Length_, 1½ the exterior diameter of the case.
_Diameter_, equals the interior diameter of case.
_Circumference_, ¾ the interior caliber of the case.

Sky rockets are driven with composition up to 4½ exterior diameters of the case from the choke; and ⅕ of a diameter above the composition with good clay. They are bored and reamed up to 3½ diameters.

_Dimensions of Sticks for Rockets._—General rules.

For rockets from ½ an ounce to one pound, the stick must be 60 diameters of the rocket in length: for rockets from one pound and upwards fifty or fifty two diameters. Their thickness at top about ½ a diameter, and their breadth very little more. Their square at bottom equal to ½ the thickness at top.

+-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+
| Nature of | 6 Pr. | 4 Pr.| 2 Pr.|1 Pr.| ½ Pr. | ¼ Pr. | ⅛ Pr. |
| Rockets. | | | | | | | |
+-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+
| |Ft. In.| F. I.| F. I.|F. I.| F. I. | F. I. | F. I. |
|Distance of | | | | | | | |
| poise from | 4 1½ | 3 9 | 2 9 |2 1 | 1 10½ | 1 8 | 1 3 |
| the point | | | | | | | |
| of the cone | | | | | | | |
+-------------+-------+------+------+-----+-------+-------+-------+

Rockets of between 3 and 4 inches diameter have been observed to ascend as high as 1000 or 1200 yards; but the height of common rockets is between 450 and 600 yards; and their flight usually short of 7 seconds.

JONES, ROBINS, LAB.

_ROPE_—is always distinguished by its circumference: thus a two inch rope means a rope of 2 inches in circumference.

_Rule for finding the Weight of Ropes._

Multiply the square of the circumference in inches, by the length in fathoms, and divide the product by 480 for the weight in cwt. See also _Drag Ropes_.

_SAND BAGS_—are made about 27 inches long, and 15 diameter; 250 of these are required for each fathom of battery, or about 1680 for two guns or mortars.—See _Tonnage_.

_SAP._—The sap generally commences about the second parallel, and sometimes sooner; and if the fire of the besieged is much slackened, may proceed both day and night. The sappers are usually divided into brigades of 8, and subdivided into divisions of 4 each; being the greatest number that can work at the sap at the same time. The leading sapper excavates 18 inches deep, and as much wide; the second, third, and fourth deepen the trench, each in succession 6 inches, and widen it as much; so that the four make a trench of 3 feet wide and 3 feet deep; after which the common workmen follow, and increase it in breadth and depth equal to the other trenches. The sap may proceed at the rate of 80 fathoms in 24 hours. As this work is very hard, the half brigades relieve each other every hour, and each sapper in his turn takes the lead. The whole brigade is relieved at the end of 6 hours. It is always customary in this dangerous work, to give the wages of those that are killed to the survivors. Sappers are generally armed with a helmet and breast plate. See _Trenches_, _Parallels_.

_SECANT._—See table at the end of the word _Gunnery_.

_SHELLS_—_For Mortars and Howitzers.—Their Dimensions, Weight, &c._

+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+--------------+-------+
|Nature.| Weight. | Diam- | Powder | Powder | Diameter of |Thick- |
| | | eter. |contained| for | Fuze Hole. |ness of|
| | | | in |Burning.+-------+------+ Metal.|
| | | | Shells. | |Outside|Inside| |
+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
| |Ct.qr.lbs.oz.|Inches.| lbs. oz.|lbs. oz |Inches.|Inches|Inches.|
|13 Inch| 1 3 2 | 12¾ | 10 4 | 6 12 | 1.837 | 1.696| 2.05 |
|10 ” | 3 9 | 9¾ | 4 5 | 2 10 | 1.57 | 1.45 | 1.575 |
| 8 ” | 1 11½ | 7¾ | 2 12 | 1 14 | 1.219 | 1.127| 1.2 |
| 5½ ” | 15¼ | 5¼ | 1 | 12 | 0.894 | 0.826| 0.822 |
| 4⅖ ” | 8 | 4⅕ | 7 | 5 | 0.832 | 0.769| 0.653 |
+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
| Hand | 3 11| 3.49 | | | | | |
| Gren. | 1 13| 2.77 | | 1½ | | | |
+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
| _French Shells, in French Weights and Measures._ |
+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+
|Inches.| lbs. | | | |Lines |Lines | Lines.|
| | | | | | Po. | Po. | |
|12 Inch| 150 | 12 | 17 | 5 | 15 9 | 15 | 16 |
|10 ” | 100 | 10 | 10 | 3 | 15 9 | 15 | 16 |
| 8 ” | 43 | 8 | 4 1 | 1 | 12 | 11 | 10 |
| 6 ” | 23 | 6 | 2 8 | 12 | 11 | 10 6| 10 |
+-------+-------------+-------+---------+--------+-------+------+-------+

_Dimensions of Shells for Guns and Carronades made with an equal Thickness of Metal._

+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Nature. |42 Pr.| 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 |
+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
| |Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|Inches|
| Exterior| 6.684| 6.105| 5.547| 5.04 | 4.4 |
| Diameter of the shell Interior| 4.404| 4.005| 3.767| 3.4 | 2.8 |
+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Thickness of metal | 1.14 | 1.05 | 0.89 | 0.82 | 0.8 |
|Guns Exterior| 0.894| 0.894| 0.894| 0.832| 0.832|
| Diameter of fuze hole Interior| 0.826| 0.826| 0.826| 0.769| 0.769|
+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Powder for bursting oz. | 14 | 11 | 12 | 9 | 5½ |
+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+
| Exterior| 6.64 | 6.05 | 5.48 | 4.935| 4.295|
| Diameter of shell Interior| 4.36 | 3.95 | 3.48 | 3.235| 2.695|
| +------+------+------+------+------+
|Carron- Thickness of metal | 1.14 | 1.05 | 1. | 0.85 | 0.8 |
| ades Shells Weight lbs. | | 22 | | 12 | |
| Contains powder oz. | | 12½ | | 9 | |
| Powder for bursting oz. | | 10 | | 7 | |
+------------------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+

_The following Shells may also be fired from Guns._

Hand Grenades from 6 Prs.
4⅖ Shells ” 12 Prs.
5½ Shells ” 24 Prs.
8 Inch ” 68 Pr. Carronades.

Shells may likewise be thrown from guns to short distances, in cases of necessity, though the bore be not of a diameter sufficient to admit the shell. For this purpose the gun may be elevated to any degree that will retain the shell upon its muzzle, which may be assisted by a small line going from the lugs of the shell round the neck of the gun. To produce a greater effect, the space between the shell and the charge may be filled with wads or other substance.

LOMBARD.

Shells are likewise sometimes quilted into grape. See the word _Shot_.

For the method of proving shells. See _Proof_.

_To find the Weight of a Shell of Iron._

Take ⁹/₆₄ of the difference of the cubes of the external and internal diameters for the weight of the shell.

_To find how much Powder will fill a Shell._

Divide the cube of the internal diameter of the shell in inches by 57.3, for the pounds of powder.

_To find the size of a Shell to contain a given Weight of Powder._

Multiply the pounds of powder by 57.3, and the cube root of the product will be the diameter in inches.

The Germans do not name their shells from the diameter of the bore which receives them, but from the weight of a stone ball that fits the same bore as the shell. Thus a 7 lbs. howitzer admits a stone ball of that weight; the shell for this weighs 15 lbs. and answers to the English 5½ inch. The 30 lbs. howitzer shell weighs 60 lbs. and is rather more than 8 inches in diameter.

NOTE.—Shells were till lately made thicker at the bottom than at the fuze hole; but are now cast of the same thickness throughout, and are found to burst into a greater number of pieces in consequence.

_SHOT._—_Rules for finding the Number in any Pile._

_Triangular Pile._

Multiply the base by the base + 1, this product by the base + 2, and divide by 6.

_Square Pile._

Multiply the bottom row by the bottom row + 1, and this product by twice the bottom row + 2, and divide by 6.

_Rectangular Piles._

Multiply the breadth of the base by itself + 1, and this product by 3 times the difference between the length and breadth of the base, added to twice the breadth + 1 and divide by 6.

_Incomplete Piles._

Incomplete piles being only frustrums, wanting a similar small pile on the top, compute first the whole pile as if complete, and also the small pile wanting at top; and then subtract the one number from the other.

_Rules for finding the Dimensions and Weight of Shot._

The weight and dimensions of shot or shells might be found by means of their specific gravities; (see the word _Gravity_;) but they may be found still easier, by means of the experimented weight of a ball of a given size, from the known proportion of similar figures, namely as the cubes of their diameters.

1st. _To find the Weight of an Iron Ball from its Diameter_—An iron ball of 4 inches diameter weighs 9 lbs. and the weights being as the cubes of their diameters, it will be as 64, (the cube of 4,) is to 9, so is the cube of the diameter of any other ball to its weight.

2d, _To find the Weight of a Leaden Ball_.—A leaden ball of 4¼ inches diameter weighs 17 lbs. Therefore, as the cube of 4¼ is to 17, (as 9 to 2 nearly,) so is the cube of the diameter of any leaden ball to its weight.

3d, _To find the Diameter of an Iron Ball_.—Multiply the weight by 7¹/₉ and the cube root of the product will be the diameter.

4th, _To find the Diameter of a Leaden Ball_.—Multiply the weight by 9, and divide the product by 2; and take the cube root of the quotient for the diameter.

_Table of Diameters of English Iron Round Shot._

+-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
|Nature.| 68| 42 | 32 | 24 | 18 | 12 | 9 | 6 | 3 | 1 |
+-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+
|Inches.| 8.|6.684|6.105|5.547|5.040|4.403|4.000|3.498|2.775|1.92|
+-------+---+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----+

_Diameters of French Iron Round Shot in English Inches._

+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|Nature.| 36 | 24 | 16 | 12 | 8 | 4 |
+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+
|Inches.|6.648|5.808|5.074|4.610|4.027|3.196|
+-------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+

_Table of English Case Shot for different Services._

+------+--------------------------++-------------------------------+
| | Sea Service. || Carronades. |
| +-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
|Nature|Weight |Number | Weight ||Nature|Weight |Number | Weight |
| |of each|in each| of each || |of each|in each|of each |
| | Shot. | Case. | Case || | Shot. | Case. | Case |
| | | | filled. || | | | filled.|
+------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
| Prs. | oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz. || Prs. | oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz.|
| 32 | 8 | 70 | 33 8 || 68 | 8 | 90 | 46 2 |
| 24 | 8 | 42 | 22 15 || 42 | 8 | 66 | 32 8 |
| 18 | 6 | 42 | 16 8 || 32 | 8 | 40 | 21 4 |
| 12 | 4 | 42 | 11 5 || 24 | 8 | 32 | 16 1 |
| 9 | 3 | 44 | 8 9 || 18 | 6 | 31 | 12 2 |
| 6 | 2 | 40 | 5 2 || 12 | 4 | 32 | 8 2 |
| 4 | 2 | 28 | 4 — ++------+-------+-------+--------+
| 3 | 2 | 20 | 2 15 || Tier Shot for Field |
| 1 | 1¼ | 12 | 1 2¼ || Service. |
+------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+
| Common Land Service. || | oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz.|
| ||12 Pr.| 18 | 15 | 18 8 |
+------+-------+-------+----------++Med. | 6½ | 42 | 17 11 |
| Prs. | oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz. ||------+-------+-------+--------+
| 24 | 4 | 84 | 21 11 ||6 Pr. | 8½ | 15 | 9 — |
| 12 | 2 | 84 | 12 1 ||Med. | 3½ | 42 | 8 14 |
| 6 | 1½ | 55 | 5 10½ ++------+-------+-------+--------+
| 3 | 1¼ | 52 | 2 14 ||3 Pr. | 4½ | 15 | 4 10 |
| | | | ||Med. | 1½ | 42 | 4 6 |
| | | | ++------+-------+-------+--------+
| | | | ||12 Pr.| 14 | 12 | 14 14 |
| | | | ||Light | 6½ | 34 | 14 11 |
| | | | ++------+-------+-------+--------+
| | | | ||6 Pr. | 8½ | 12 | 7 3 |
| | | | ||Light | 3½ | 34 | 7 7 |
| | | | ++------+-------+-------+--------+
| | | | ||3 Pr. | 4½ | 12 | 3 10 |
| | | | ||Light | 1½ | 34 | 3 11 |
+------+-------+-------+----------++------+-------+-------+--------+

+-----------------------------------++-------------------------+
| For Mortars. || Howitzers. |
+--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+
| Nature.|Weight | Number | Weight ||Weight | Number | Weight |
| |of each|of Shot | of Case ||of each|of Shot |of Case |
| | Shot. |in each.| filled. || Shot. |in each.| filled.|
+--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+
| Inch. | oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz.|| oz. | Nᵒ. |lbs. oz.|
| 10 | 8 | 170 | 91 8 || — | — | — — |
| 8 | 6 | 90 | 38 4 || 6 | 90 | 33 8 |
| 5½ | 3 | 55 | 12 6 || 3 | 55 | 12 8 |
| 4⅖ | 2 | 55 | 8 1¼ || 2 | 55 | 8 2 |
+--------+-------+--------+---------++-------+--------+--------+

_Table of Grape Shot, for Sea and Land Service._