Chapter IV: Part 4

The whole face towards the gun; 11 unchains the limber; 12 and 13 lift the trail off the pin tail, and set it on the ground, in which they are assisted, as in limbering up, by 7, 8, 9, and 10; 11 ships the traversing handspike, and the whole assume the position for action. The limber is led by 15, and the driver, 25 yards to the rear, and there turned to the left about. The leading horse is unhooked by the driver, and tied to the rear of the limber.

_Heavy Field Guns, and Howitzers._—The same as the light ones, except that 9 and 10 assist 12 and 13 to raise the trail, and 14 and 15 stand to the gun wheels. The heavy guns have generally mounted riders, in which case the leading horses are not unhooked.

It must be understood, that simply to _limber up_, or to _unlimber_, means that the gun is to be placed upon its limber, or lifted off, without changing its direction; but guns may be limbered up to the _front_, to the _right_, or to the _left_, according as it is intended to advance in any one of those directions; and unlimbered to the _rear_ to prepare for action to the _front_, to the _left_ for action to the _right_, and to the _right_ for action to the _left_. To limber up, or to unlimber, in any of these situations, is exactly the same as those already given, except that in the first, previous to limbering up, the trail is thrown round by No. 11, assisted by 12, if necessary, into the direction specified by the word of command, and the limber is brought up to that side to meet it; and in the second, the trail, after being taken off the limber, is carried round to the _rear_, _right_, or _left_, according as the word of command expresses, before it is put to the ground, and the limber goes round to the rear of the gun.

It must be here remarked, that the _front_ of a gun, or line of guns, or column of guns, is that to which the men at the gun front, without any respect to the situation of the gun or carriage. The trail of the carriage, when moved round to the rear or the contrary, whether in limbering up or unlimbering, must always be carried round to the _right_, and the limber, or a horse, when brought up to advance or retire a gun, must always be brought up on the _right_ side, and go off on the _left_; and whenever the limber is turned about, it must be to the _left_ about. By attending to these precautions the greatest confusion is avoided.

_Other Methods of advancing Guns._

5. The gun being in the position for action, _prepares to advance slow_; 7 and 8 step outwards, 3 yards; 9 and 10 place themselves in line with the axletree, leaving room for 12 and 13, (who each bring a drag rope from 14) to pass between them and the wheels; 12 and 15 as they pass give the chain ends of the drag ropes to 9 and 10, who hook them to the washers; 12 and 13 man the Front pins, 7 and 8 the center, and 9 and 10 the rear.

This is only practised with light guns.

_Prepare for Action._—7, 8, 9, and 10 quit their pins; 12 and 13 go to the rear; 9 and 10, as soon as 12 and 13 have passed them, unhook the drag ropes; 12 and 13 carry them to 14; 13 gets his ammunition.

6. _Prepare to advance with a Horse._

_Light Pieces._—7 gives his spunge to 9; 7 and 8 unhook the chain traces from the breast of the carriage, and lay them over the spokes of the wheels; the driver brings up a horse to the front, by the right; 7 and 8 unhook the horses traces from the back band, and hook them to the short gun traces, and then take post outside the wheels; 7 takes his spunge.

_Heavy Pieces._—This is done with two horses, one before the other; 7 and 8 hook the horse, the driver rides to the rear horse, and 9 and 10 hook the rear horse to the short gun traces.

_Prepare for Action._—The different numbers exactly undo what they have just done.

7. _Prepare to advance with a Limber._

The only difference between this, and advancing with a horse, is that the limber is brought up to the front; and 15 brings up a drag rope, the center of which he lays over the pin tail, and 7 and 8 hook the ends to the short drag chains of the carriage.

_Methods of retreating Guns._

8. _Prepare to retreat slow._—7 and 8 place themselves in a line, with the axletree of the carriage on each side; 9 and 10 in a line with the trail; 12 and 13 get each a drag rope from 14, and give the chain ends to 7 and 8, who hook them to the drag washers; 7 and 8 man the rear pins: 9 and 10 the center-pins; 12 and 13 the front; 10 carries the linstock; 15 turns the limber. This is only done with light pieces.

_Prepare for Action._—7 and 8 unhook; 9 and 10 quit their pins; 12 and 13 carry back the drag ropes to 14; 14 gets his ammunition; 15 turns the limber to the front; the whole resume their places in action.

9. _Prepare to retreat with a Horse._

_Light Pieces._—7, 8, 9, and 10 place themselves as in retreating slow; 13 gets a drag rope from 14, and gives it to 9 and 10, who lay the center of it across the top of the traversing handspike, and then under the trail hooks; 12 and 13 hook the traces of the horse brought up by the driver to the ends of the drag rope; 15 turns the limber.

_Heavy Guns._—This is done in the same manner, but with two horses; 9 and 10 hook on the rear horse, and 12 and 13 the leader.

_Prepare for Action._—The same numbers undo what they have just done.

10. _Prepare to retreat with a Limber._

The limber is brought up to the trail of the carriage; 12 and 13 bring up each a drag rope, and hook the chain ends to the limber; while 9 and 10 hook the other ends to the trail hooks.

11. _Prepare to fire retreating with a Horse._

This is done exactly as in the article _Retreating with a Horse_, except that _two_ drag ropes are brought by 12 and 13, who hook the chain ends to the horses traces, while 9 and 10 hook the other ends to the trail hooks.

12. _Prepare to fire retreating with a Limber._

The limber in this case is fixed exactly as in retreating with a limber; but at the distance of two drag ropes length: this therefore employs two _pair_ of drag ropes. In firing and retreating, if the gun retreat loaded, 10 is not to light his port fire, nor 11 to point till ordered. Upon the word _Halt_, Nᵒ 7 must ram home the cartridge, and the whole face about. In preparing for action from any of these positions, the same numbers undo exactly what they have just done, and immediately fall into their places for action; and the duties are the same with the heavy field pieces as with the light ones.

_Exercise of a Field Gun with 15 Men._

When a light gun has 6 drag rope men attached to it, the duties of the standing numbers, that is, the numbers from 7 to 15 continue the same in all the exercises just mentioned; but they assist also in the movements of the gun by drag ropes.

In the _line of march_, 1, 2, and 3, are on the left of the gun in the rear of 7; and 4, 5, and 6 on the right, in the rear of 8.

In the _position for action_, 1, 2, and 3, hold the right drag rope, and 4, 5, and 6 the left, and dress in a line with the axletree. On the word _Load_, 3 and 4 unhook the drag ropes from the drag washers, 3 holds the hook in his left hand, and 4 in his right; and they hook on again at the word _Cease firing_.

On the word _Prepare to advance quick_, 2, 3, 4, and 5, slip under the drag ropes; 2 and 5 man the loop ends on the inside; 3. and 4 the first pins on the inside; 7 and 8 move to the second pins on the inside; 1 and 6 remain at their pins: 9 and 10 move to the second pins on the outside; and 12 and 13 to the rear pins on the outside; 14 assists 11 at the traversing handspike; 13 lifts up the trail for 11 to put in the truck; and 12 gives his match to 10.—Then the word,

_Prepare for Action._

2, 3, 4, and 5, slip back again under the drag ropes, and the whole resume their places for action.

_Word—With two pair of Drag Ropes, prepare to retreat quick._

3 and 4 unhook from the drag washers, and march to the rear; 2 and 5 follow, and 1 and 6 hook the loop ends of the drag ropes to the trail hooks. 12 sticks his linstock in the ground, and with 13 brings the spare drag ropes from 14, and gives the chain ends to 7 and 8 to hook to the drag washers; 7, 9, and 12, man the right drag rope, and 8, 10, and 13, the left. To resume the position for action, on the

_Word—Prepare for Action._

7 and 8 unhook the spare drag ropes, and 12 and 13 carry them back to 14; 1 and 6 unhook from the trail, and 3 and 4 hook the other ends to the drag washers.

_Word—Prepare for Action retreating._

The drag rope men change as in retreating. Upon the word _Load_, 1 and 6 unhook from the trail, and hook on again at the word _Cease firing_.

It must be here remarked, that in the exercise with 15 men, only the additional duties have been detailed; the duties of the standing numbers in action, advancing or retreating, being still the same as without drag rope men. In limbering and unlimbering, the drag rope men have no duties, but are ready to assist with the drag ropes. The truck is always put on in all movements with the drag ropes, and thrown off at the word _Load_.

_Exercise with Heavy Ordnance in a Battery._

_32, or 42 Pounder._

_10 Men._
1 spunges; 2 loads.
3 and 5 run the gun up.
4 and 6 run up and elevate.
7 serves the vent, traverses, primes and runs up.
8 runs up, traverses, and fires.
9 brings cartridges.
10 points and commands.

_9 Men._
1 spunges, 2 loads.
3 and 5 run up.
4 runs up and elevates.
6 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates.
7 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
8 runs up, traverses, and fires.
9 points and commands.

_8 Men._
1 spunges; 2 loads and runs up.
3 runs up.
4 and 5 run up and elevate.
6 brings cartridges, runs up, and traverses.
7 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
8 points, fires, and commands.

_7 Men._
1 spunges and runs up.
2 loads and runs up.
3 runs up and elevates.
4 brings cartridges, runs up and elevates.
5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
7 points and commands.

_6 Men._
1 spunges and runs up,
2 loads, runs up, and elevates.
3 runs up and elevates.
4 brings cartridges, runs up and traverses.
5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses and primes.
6 runs up, points, fires, and commands.

_24 Pounder_, &c.

_8 Men._
1 spunges, 2 loads.
3 and 4 run up and elevate.
5 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
7 brings cartridges.
8 points and commands.

_7 Men._
1 spunges, 2 loads.
3 runs up and elevates.
4 brings cartridges, runs up, and elevates.
5 serves vent, traverses, and primes.
6 runs up, traverses, and fires.
7 points and commands.

_6 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, elevates.
2 loads, runs up, and elevates.
3 serves the vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
4 runs up, traverses, fires.
5 brings cartridges.
6 points and commands.

_5 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, elevates.
2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, and elevates.
3 serves vent, runs up, traverses, and primes.
4 runs up, traverses, fires.
5 points and commands.

_4 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, points.
2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up and elevates.
3 serves vent, runs up, traverses, elevates, and primes.
4 runs up, traverses, fires.

_3 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, points, and fires.
2 brings cartridges, loads, runs up, elevates, traverses.
3 serves vent, runs up, elevates, traverses, and primes.

_4⅖, or 5½ Inch Mortar._

_2 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, brings shells, puts them in,
traverses, and primes.
2 serves the vent, runs up, brings cartridges,
puts them in, points, and fires.

_3 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, traverses, brings shells, and puts them in.
2 brings cartridges, puts in, serves the vent, runs up, primes,
and fires.
3 points, elevates, and commands.

_8 Inch Mortar, or Howitzer._

_5 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, dredges.
2 runs up, brings cartridges and puts them in.
3 runs up, brings shells, puts them in, traverses, primes.
4 runs up, traverses, fires.
5 serves vent, points, and commands.

_4 men._
1 spunges, runs up, dredges.
2 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in.
3 serves the vent, brings shells, and puts them in,
runs up, traverses, and fires.
4 runs up, points, commands.

_10, or 13 Inch Mortar._

_10 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, and dredges.
2 runs up, brings cartridges, puts them in, and puts in the shells.
3 brings cartridges.
4 and 5 bring shells.
6, 7, 8, and 9, run up, and traverse.
8 serves vent and primes.
9 fires, 10 points, and commands.

_6 Men._
1 spunges, runs up, puts in shells, dredges, and traverses.
2 runs up, brings cartridges, and puts them in, puts in shells,
and traverses.
3 and 4 run up, bring, shells, and traverse.
5 runs up, serves vent, and primes.
6 runs up, points, fires, and commands.

_Exercise of the Gin._

The complement of men for a gin is usually 1 noncommissioned officer and 10 men; they are numbered from 1 to 10, the noncommissioned officer being 11.

_To carry a Gin._

1 and 2 carry the prypole, 3 and 5 the right cheek, 4 and 6 the left, 7 the windlass and fids, 8 and 9 the blocks and tackles, 10 the handspikes, &c.

_To Set up a Gin._

1 and 2 put a common handspike through the ring, near the foot of the prypole, at which they lift; 3 and 4 steady the cheeks, by placing each a handspike against the lower cross bar; 5, 7, and 9 lift the right cheek; 6, 8, and 10 the left cheek; 11 gives directions. The tackles must be hooked on before the gin is raised.

_To work a Gin._

1 and 3 man the right handspikes of the gin; 2 and 4 the left; 5, 6, 7, and 8 hold on the fall, and pull in the slack; 9 and 10 steady the gun, 9 at the muzzle, 10 at the breach. The tackle hook must be fixed directly over the dolphins, if any, or a little behind the trunnions.

In heaving, when the ends of 1 and 4 handspikes come as low as their knees, 2 and 3 put theirs into the upper holes of the windlass, and 3 gives the word _Fetch_, upon which 1 and 4 clear their handspikes from the windlass, and 1 gives the word _Heave_; 2 and 3 then bear down their handspikes, and remain fast till 1 and 4 having taken their fresh purchase, 1 gives the word _Fetch_, when 2 and 3 clear their handspikes, and 3 gives the word _Heave_; and so on alternately, till the gun is at its proper height, when the handspikes in the upper holes are made to rest against the upper cross bar, and 5 makes fast the fall to the lower cross bar; and if required to lower the gun, eases the fall off from the windlass; 5, 6, 7, and 8 move the carriage, as required, under the gun.

_Exercise of the Sling Cart._

The men for the service of the sling cart are numbered from 1 to 7; the noncommissioned officer being No. 7; No. 1 and 2 sling the gun. The gun must be laid with 1 trunnion touching the ground, and the sling passes diagonally round the gun; being before one trunnion, and behind the other; and that end of the sling which goes round the lower side of the gun must be the end to be acted on by the windlass; as by that means the trunnions become horizontal when the gun is raised; No. 1, 3, and 5 man the right lever; 2, 4, and 6 the left lever; and upon the word from the noncommissioned officer they heave together: the noncommissioned officer then directs _left hand lever hold on, right lever fetch_; the right lever takes a fresh purchase: then, _right lever hold on, left lever fetch_; the left lever takes a fresh purchase; they then heave together again. When the gun is high enough, 7 puts in the pall; 1 and 2 take out the levers, and put in the prypole; 3 and 4 raise the breech of the gun with two common handspikes, and 5 and 6 lash it to the prypole: 1 and 2 then lay their levers along side the prypole, and 3 and 4 their handspikes on the top of them, which 5 and 6 lash all fast together.

_FASCINES_—have different names, according to their size and use.

1. _Saucissons_ are usually made 18 feet long, and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter; and are used for the revetement of embrazures, or for the corners of the parapet.

2. _Battery Fascines_—are made from 8 to 12 feet long, and from 10 to 12 inches thick; used for the revetement of the parapet, &c.

3. _Trench Fascines_—from 4 to 6 feet long, and from 4 to 9 inches thick; used at sieges.

4. _Water Fascines_—6 feet long, from 1 to 2 feet thick; used to cover marshy and wet situations; they must be loaded with stone to make them sink.

5. _Covering Fascines_—are used to form the tops of magazines or saps. They ought therefore to be composed of the strongest branches, with the addition of a few poles, that they may bear a considerable weight.

6. _Sap Faggots_—3 feet long, 8 inches thick.

_Attentions in making Fascines_—The bands must be from 10 to 12 inches asunder, of birch, hazle, or other pliant wood, well twisted. The fascines must be drawn close with a choke rope, previous to being tied.

In laying the wood to form the fascines, the shortest and smallest pieces should be laid inside. Three men are usually employed at each trestle, with two to collect the stuff.

In general a saucisson of 18 feet may be finished at each trestle in half an hour.

Birch and fir are the bell woods for this work.

Fascines are sometimes bent so as to coincide with the angles of the battery. The Prussians double some of the fascine stuff, so as to make a loop at the end of the fascine, which being laid over one another at the corners, and a stake driven through the loops, are very strong.

_FIRE SHIP._—_Proportion of combustible Stores for a Fire Ship of 150 Tons._

Nᵒ.
Fire barrels, filled with composition 8
Iron chambers, to blow open the ports 12
Composition for priming, barrels 3½
Quick, match, ” 1
Curtains, dipped 48
Reeds, long, single dipped 150
” short, { double dipped 75
{ single dipped 75
Bavins, single dipped 250

The fire barrels are about 2 feet 4 inches high, and 1 foot 6 inches diameter. Each barrel must have four holes of about 6 inches square cut in its sides; and these holes must have a square piece of canvass nailed over them quite close. They are then filled with the same composition as for carcasses, and 4 plugs of about 1 inch diameter and 3 inches long, and well greased, are thrust into the top, and then left to dry. When dry, these plugs are taken out, and the holes driven with fuze composition, and quick match at the top; which goes from one hole to the other: after this the top is smeared over with mealed powder mixt up with spirits of wine. When dry again, a sheet or two of brown paper is laid over the top, and then one of the canvass covers, which is made secure by the upper hoop of the barrel.

_Composition for dipping Reeds, Bavins, and Curtains._

lbs.
Rosin 120
Coarse sulphur 90
Swedish pitch 60
Tallow 6
Mealed powder 12

This proportion will dip about 100 reeds and 25 bavins.

Each curtain contains 1 square yard of barras.

Each cover for fire barrels 1 do. of sacking.

Immediately that the curtains, covers, &c. are dipped, they are to be strewed over with fine brimstone, before the composition grows cold.

The iron chambers, for blowing open the ports, hold from 9 to 11 ounces of powder. They are fixed in such a manner as to prevent their recoil, and to ensure the ports being blown open. The vents are generally corked up, and covered with a piece of barras, till required to be primed.

_To fit out a Fire Ship._—The whole breadth of the fire room is to be divided into 9 parts, and troughs laid the whole length of the room. Cross troughs, of communication are laid between them, about 20 in each row, perpendicular to the long troughs. These troughs are usually 4 inches wide, and 4 deep. There are two fire trunks and two fire scuttles on each side, under which the eight fire barrels are to be placed.

The reeds and bavins are to be tied down in the troughs. The curtains are to be nailed up to the beams, equally through the fire room. The ship is not to be primed when fitted out, but only when intended to be fired.

_To Prime._

_Composition for Priming._

Saltpetre pulverized 22 lbs. 8 oz.
Rosin 2 11
Sulphur 18 —
Mealed powder 45 —
Linseed oil 1 pint.

All the reeds and bavins are to be taken up, and a little of the above composition sprinkled in the bottom of the troughs; the reeds, &c. to be then gently tied down again. Quick match of 6 or 8 threads doubled must be laid along on the tops of all the reeds &c. and the priming composition strewed over it, and over all the fire room. The covers of all the fire barrels must be cut open, and made to hang down on the sides of the barrels. Leaders of strong quick match must be laid from the reeds to the barrels and to the chambers; and must be tied down to the vents to insure its not falling off. Strong leaders of quick match; 4 or 5 times doubled, must be laid from the reeds to the sally ports; and the sally ports must be connected by quick match, that the whole may take fire at once.

The following method is now adopted of producing an external fire, in addition to the internal fire, before gained by the fire room.

Fire boxes filled with the carcass composition, are distributed in the following manner, in a ship of three masts:

1 Suspended from each of the catheads and davits,
on each side the bow 4
8 Slung across the bowsprit 8
4 Across each of the outriggers abaft 8
2 From the graplins of each of the lower yardarms 12
1 From the deadeyes on each side of the three round tops 6
1 From the middle of the inside of the main, fore,
and mizen shrouds 6
——
44

The boxes are suspended by chains and hooks, and those slung across the bowsprit and outriggers, are fixed by staples. The two inner ones are laid with leaders of quick match, which fire instantly, or with portfires, which burn a given time; they communicate with the outer ones by reeds, which are tied down on the bowsprit and outriggers. The boxes hanging from the deadeyes and shrouds, are fired by curtains suspended from the shrouds, the lower one of which hangs immediately over one of the large fire barrels. The two boxes on each yardarm are hung one over the other; the upper one having a leader of quick match carried along the yard from the shrouds; and in burning will no doubt fire the lower one. Besides the boxes, there are fire barrels arranged as follows; 2 half barrels on the forecastle; 2 abaft the main deck, and 4 on the main deck; 2 in each roundtop, placed against the masts; and 4 large fire barrels under fire trunks, to convey fire to the curtains on the shrouds. All these fire barrels and boxes are to be fired by separate leaders of quick match or portfire, in order that any part of the ship may be fired to cover its approach by the smoke; and the remaining part instantaneously upon quitting the ship. It has been found by experiment, that two men with lighted portfires can set fire to the whole of the leaders on the deck, bowsprit, catheads, outriggers, &c. in less than a minute; therefore the risk of trusting to one main leader to the whole, may be avoided.

The leaders are laid in painted canvass hose made for the purpose.

_FLINTS_—are usually packed in half barrels.

Weight.
Qrs. lbs.
{Musquet, 2000 2 14
One half barrel contains {Carbine, 3000 2 10
{Pistol, 4000 2 15

The most transparent and free from veins are esteemed the best flints.

cwts. qrs.
28 kegs of musquet flints take 18 0 in tonnage
10 kegs of pistol ” ” 3 2 ”

_FORTIFICATION.—Practical Maxims in building Field Works._

1st. The spot on which works are to be constructed should determine their figure; nor should any attention be paid to preserve a regular form which does not occupy the ground to advantage.

2d. Every line must be so disposed, that the slope of hills all around even to the very bottom, be open to the small arms of the garrison; and every part should be discoverable to the distance of at least 500 paces.

3d. Works thrown up for the defence of a defile, should always be within musquet shot of it, which must not be more than 200 yards.

4th. The best defence in works that are flanked, or where one side is defended by the fire of another, is that formed by right angles.

5th. A salient angle should never be less than 60, and a re-entering angle than 90 degrees; nor greater than 120 degrees.

6th. The entrance to the work should always be made in the part least exposed to attack, and if possible in a re-entering angle.

7th Endeavor to present, if possible, a larger front to the enemy than he can occupy in making the attack.

8th. Avoid all ground commanded by an eminence, either in front, flank, or rear.

9th. Never leave the rear of a work so exposed that the enemy may turn it.

10th. Always make the angles of a work in the directions least exposed to attacks, and consequently always present a front to the most exposed.

11th. The garrison should never be drawn up more than two deep; and an ordinary pace of two feet is usually allowed for each file, and from 6 to 8 paces from each piece of ordnance.

12th. If a work is so large as to be defended by a battalion or two, a reserve should be allowed of about one sixth of the number.

13th. The space within a work should always be sufficient for the men to move and lie down. Every soldier will require at least 18 square feet, and every field gun at least 216 square feet.

14th. Provided the line is not made too extensive, the more inward space there is the better.

15th. A parapet to resist cannon shot should never be less than 12 feet thick; and for musquet shot not less than 6 feet.

16th. The height of the parapet must be regulated by the situation of the work, and of the adjoining ground; with this consideration, that its height above the banquette does not exceed 4½ feet.

17th. The depth and breadth of the ditch must be regulated by the quantity of earth required, for the parapet and banquette.

18th. A tete de pont, or work to cover the embarkation of troops, or the passage of a river, should, if possible, be made where the line of the river or coast forms a kind of re-entering angle; that the flanks of the corps, as well as those of the works, may be covered.

_To carry on the Work._—The number of workmen must be proportioned to the time allotted for carrying on the work, the quantity of labour, and the number of hands capable of being employed at the same time. When the ditches are broad, the workmen may be posted in two rows; but if narrow, only in one. In the first case, the earth will be thrown by those who are on the outward edge of the ditch to the second row, and by them upon the parapet; for which reason the second row, to keep pace with the first, ought to be twice as numerous. The workmen should never be placed nearer than 2 paces, or 4 feet, from each other; and two men with shovels should be preceded by one with a pickaxe. If more than usual expedition be required, one man with a wheel barrow, or basket, may be added to six or eight with shovels. Another row of workmen should also be placed upon the parapet, to spread the earth and beat it down, as it is thrown up.

In fixing the fascines, three men will be sufficient for every 24 feet of the work, who should be provided with two mallets, a saw, and a handbill, or hatchet.

In order to form some idea of the time in which a field work may be completed, compute the number of cubic feet of earth to be excavated, thus; multiply half the sum of the breadth of the ditch at top and at bottom, by the depth, for the number of square feet in the profile; and this multiplied by the distance between the workmen in feet, will give the number of cubic feet each man has to dig: or being multiplied by the length of the ditch, gives the cubic contents of the ditch. Now, one man is supposed to be able to move 216 cubic feet of earth in a day, during the summer; but this is not always the case. If a field work be completed in 24 hours, it will be as much as the most diligent workmen are capable of. This time is generally allowed for the formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a stronger, with a revetement of fascines; and 72 for the strongest.

The different slopes for the works must depend upon the nature of the soil, and the materials of which the work is composed. The interior slope of the parapet, though it be fascined, should be ⅙ of its height; exterior about ⅔ its height. The slope of the banquette equal to its height. The slope of the scarpe or counterscarpe of the ditch, should be from half its height to its full height, according to the soil. The superior slope of the parapet must entirely depend upon the situation of the work, and that of the surrounding country. The interior slope of the parapet is generally lined with fascines, to keep up the earth; but it is not absolutely necessary to fascine the exterior slope, if the soil be pretty stiff. The embrazures are generally made 20 inches wide on the inside, and 9 feet on the outside; they must always be lined with something to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred, as fascines are so apt to take fire.

The manner of making the materials for field works, may be seen under the heads _Fascines_, _Gabions_, _Hurdles_, &c. and the manner of estimating the quantity of materials for works of this kind, may be seen under the word _Battery_.

_Fortification—Permanent._

A _parapet_, to resist cannon, should never be less than 18 feet thick in earth, and 8 or 9 in masonry. A wall need only be two feet thick in masonry, to resist musquetry. The parapet should always be 4½ feet above the banquette, and 7½ or 8 feet above the rampart, or terre plein.

The _Rampart_ should always be sufficiently wide to allow for the platform, and for two carriages passing each other; about 9 fathoms at top. A parapet of earth, though it takes more room, is always preferable to one of masonry, when it can be raised; though the only objection to the masonry is the number of splinters it produces.

Entire _Revetements_ of masonry are not advantageous for the same reason. The masonry of revetements should not be so high as to be seen or battered from a distance: earth parapets are battered in vain, as the earth forms a natural slope.

The best _Escarpe_ is made of masonry, either in wet or dry ditches, be the earthen one ever so well fraized or palissaded. The earthen one may be stormed without making a breach. The escarpe should be 30 or 35 feet high.

The _Counterscarpe_ should also be of masonry, and not less than 12 feet high. The inconveniences of an earth or low counterscarpe, are the impossibility of defending to the last the covert way; as the enemy may descend into the ditch, and again mount the covert way, and so get in the rear of the traverses. The enemy may find his way along the natural slope of an earth counterscarpe, and is not delayed by a tedious operation of getting into the ditch. Besides, the natural slope of the end of an earth traverse prevents its effectually covering the covert way.

_Ditches_ are generally 15 or 18 toises wide. Dry ditches are always preferable to wet ones, on account of the shelter they afford the troops, and the ready communication with the outworks, without the constant trouble and danger of bridges.

The _Covert way_ should be 5 toises wide; less would crowd the troops, and more would allow room for the enemy to erect batteries in it.

The whole of the glacis should be seen, not only from the crest of the parapet, but from the embrazures in the parapet.

The _Tenaile_, must not be so high as to prevent the flank guns in one bastion seeing the breach that may be made in the collateral one.

_Ravelins_ are best without flanks; their faces directed to 10 toises from the shoulders of the bastions.

The crest of the parapet of the body of the place should be 8 feet above the crest of the glacis, to command it across a ditch of 15 or 20 toises.

The crest of the parapet of the ravelin is 3 feet lower than that of the body of the place, in order that it may be more effectually commanded from the place; and therefore to enable the parapet of the ravelin to command its own glacis, the ditch is only made 10 toises, and this glacis is a foot lower than that of the body of the place.

There must be an equilibrium of defence established through every front of a fortified place; for it will be needless to strengthen any particular front, if the others from their weakness be left exposed. The following remarks may enable an observer to appreciate the value of particular works, in the proper application and arrangement of which that equilibrium consists.

_Intrenchments_ within the works add much to their defence. In large bastions with obtuse flanked angles, the best intrenchment is formed of the front of a fortification, or of two demi bastions and a curtain, connecting the angles formed by the flank and curtain. If this intrenchment be advanced to the shoulders of the bastion, so as to include its flanks, as is often the case, it will be subject to be taken in the rear, by the fire from the counter batteries opposed to the flanks. But in bastions with acute flanked angles, which do not afford sufficient space for this kind of intrenchment, Cormontaigne proposes one in the form of a cavalier, whose faces and flanks are parallel to those of the bastion. The first kind of intrenchment does not operate in the defence of the place, till after the passage of the ditch; till which time it remains entire, and then capable of a very great defence. The second kind becomes a support to the bastion from the first commencement of the siege; but it is therefore subject to have its defences destroyed at a distance. Nor is its defence equal to that of the other form.

_Counterguards_ should possess the three following properties: 1st. They must cover effectually the principal work before which they are placed; at least that part of it, which can be battered in breach. 2d. They must be lower than the work which they cover; but not so low as to permit its revetement to be seen. 3d. They must be so narrow as not to afford room for the besiegers to erect batteries in them, against the work which they cover, and therefore not leave the besiegers a choice of positions. The counterguards in Coehorn’s system are only of earth, through which it is necessary to make an opening, before the capital work can be battered.

_Horn_ or _Crown Works_, unless to occupy some important point, to strengthen some weak side, or to afford more room for a confined garrison, are rather a weak than a strong arm to a place. This is particularly the case when they are constructed with smaller, and consequently weaker fronts, than that part of the body of the place which they cover; as they facilitate, when taken, the approaches to the body of the place. This is remedied by constructing their fronts of the same strength as the front or fronts which they cover. They also facilitate the taking of the place, by exposing the revetement of the work on which their branches are directed, to be battered in breach, along the ditches of those branches. This is a great evil, even to an outwork, but is of serious consequence if they rest upon the body of the place. This defect has been remedied by placing these works altogether outside of the covert way, and allowing their ditch no communication with those in the rear. In this case their gorge must be made very secure to prevent its being turned.

An _Advanced Covert_ way, is esteemed amongst the best means of adding to the defence of places. Besides the advantages common to the usual covert way, it has many peculiar to itself. It however seems necessary to ensure to it the many advantages of which it is susceptible, (beside being properly palissaded,) that it should be secured in the rear by a wet ditch, as the only means of giving it an inaccessible counterscarpe, and at the same time keeping it under the fire of the musquetry of the place. This kind of covert way is generally supported by redoubts upon the capitals of the bastions and ravelins; which from their position cannot mask the fire of the place; and being mounted with artillery, oblige the besiegers to commence their attack at a great distance, and very much to extend their operations; and as their establishment upon this covert way must effectually mask the fire of their first batteries, it must greatly increase their labour. The retreat from these redoubts must be secured by an underground passage.

_Countermines_ are undoubtedly one of the first means of strengthening places. For this article we refer to the word _Mines_.

_Detached Redoubts_, when circumstances of situation favour them, are employed with great success. They are usually detached and totally unconnected with any of the works of the place, by any covert way or other aboveground work; and have for objects, either the opposing an additional obstacle to the besiegers at the point they occupy, or the rendering the adjoining fronts inaccessible, by an enfilade or reverse fire upon the approaches. They also afford at their gorge, a most excellent rendezvous and retreat for sorties; upon the level of the country, and without the difficulty of filing troops through the barrier of a covert way.

But in order to insure to the detached work or works, all these advantages, it is necessary that they should be either totally inaccessible to the besiegers, by reason of the natural difficulties of their situation, as in an inundation, morass, &c. or be made secure by art, from being taken by storm, and only attackable by regular approaches. They should be under cover of the fire of the place; but if their distance be too great for that, an intermediate work must be established to give them support. Their best form is that of a bastion with retired flanks; and a strong system of countermines the most effectual way of prolonging their resistance.

_General Remarks._—The larger the flanked angles of works, the more direct will be their fire, and that of their covert way, upon the approaches; the greater extent will they oblige the besiegers to occupy in their parallels and batteries; and the more will they oblige the besiegers to expose themselves to the fire of the fronts collateral to the one attacked. Faces of works directed to inaccessible situations, such as rivers, lakes, &c. from whence they cannot be enfiladed by ricochet batteries, add greatly to the strength of a front.

If the flanked angle of a ravelin be so advanced as to see in reverse any battery erected upon the crest of the glacis, or in the covert way of the bastions, it will increase the strength of that front; because it will oblige the besiegers to gain possession of the ravelin, before they can make any lodgement, from which they can batter the bastions. This is the case in Cormontaigne’s system: and a place thus fortified, obliges the besiegers to attack and gain two ravelins, to get at the bastion between them. Beside, if this system be applied to a right line, or to a polygon of many sides, the prolongations of the faces of the bastions, will be intercepted by the flanked angle of the ravelins, and consequently make the establishment of enfilading batteries against them very difficult. A work which admits of a breach being made in it (particularly the body of the place) at a distance, very much facilitates its being taken. The ditch of the ravelin affords an opening through which the besiegers may make a breach in the face of the bastion, from the glacis, opposite the flanked angle of the ravelin, and is therefore subject to this defect. A counterguard before the bastion, lessens this evil, by transferring the breach from the body of the place to the ravelin; but it requires a counterguard also before the ravelin, effectually to cure it. A crown or horn work also produces this evil; its remedy was given, in speaking of those works.

The direction of the flanks or faces of a work is not so material as relating to the fire of artillery, as to that of musquetry; for artillery is never fired without being pointed, but musquetry is fired mechanically, and perpendicular to the parapet, without much attention to the object to be struck.

A work in the neighbourhood of a height must be defiladed[7] from that height, that is, instead of being built upon a horizontal plane, it must be erected upon an imaginary inclined plane, passing from somewhere in the interior of that work, over the most commanding points of the height: and every part of the works must bear the same relation to this inclined plane, that they would do, to a horizontal plane in a level country.

A work is not therefore always to be condemned, because it is in the neighbourhood of a height; for if it be properly defiladed from that height, it will receive a great advantage over the approaches of the besiegers, carried on down an inclined plane towards it. But a work to be properly constructed in the neighbourhood of heights, must not uniformly preserve the same distance from those heights, unless their summits be all upon the same level; but must approach them at their lowest parts, and recede from them as they rise; thus will the necessary plane of defilement preserve nearly the same degree of obliquity throughout.

_The Dimensions in the following Table of Vauban, are thus applied_:

The _Fort_ is mostly for squares.

The _Little_ for citadels, commonly pentagons.

The _Mean_ for all fortifications from the hexagon and upwards.

The _Great_ is seldom used but in irregular fortifications, and particularly on rivers.

[7] The compiler must here apologize for coining the word _defiladed_, which he is obliged to do, never having seen this subject treated of in English. But the French use the word _defile_ in a contrary sense to _enfile_; and as we admit the words enfilade and enfiladed from the latter, we cannot refuse the terms defilade and defiladed from the former.

_Principal Dimensions of Fortifications, according to_ VAUBAN.

+-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+
| |Side of| Length of |Faces of|Capital of|
| |Polygon|Perpendicular|Bastions|Ravelins |
+-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+
| Forts. | 80 | 10 | 22 | 25 |
| | 90 | 12 | 25 | 28 |
| | 100 | 12½ | 28 | 30 |
| | 110 | 14 | 30 | 35 |
| | 120 | 15 | 33 | 38 |
| | 130 | 16 | 35 | 40 |
| | | | | |
| Little | 140 | 20 | 40 | 45 |
| Fortification. | 150 | 21 | 42 | 50 |
| | 160 | 23 | 45 | 50 |
| | 170 | 25 | 47 | 52 |
| | | | | |
| Mean. | 180 | 30 | 50 | 55 |
| | 190 | 31 | 53 | 55 |
| | | | | |
| Great. | 200 | 25 | 55 | 60 |
| | 260 | 22 | 60 | 50 |
+-----------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------+

_Dimensions of Walls and their Counterforts, from 10 to 50 Feet high, having a Slope of ⅕ their Height._

+--------------------------------++-----------------------------+
| Wall. || Counterforts. |
+--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+
| | | ||Distance| | |
| | Thickness |Thickness ||between | | |
|Height. | at Top. |at Bottom. || them. | Breadth.| Length. |
+--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+
|Feet. |Feet. Inch.|Feet. Inch.|| Feet. |Feet. In.| Feet. In.|
|10 | 4 0 | 6 0 || 8 | 2 8 | 4 — |
|15 | 4 3 | 7 3 || 10 | 3 4 | 5 — |
|20 | 4 6 | 8 6 || 12 | 4 0 | 6 — |
|25 | 4 9 | 9 9 || 14 | 4 8 | 7 — |
|30 | 5 0 | 11 0 || 16 | 5 4 | 8 — |
|35 | 5 3 | 12 3 || 18 | 6 0 | 9 — |
|40 | 5 6 | 13 6 || 20 | 6 8 | 10 — |
|45 | 5 9 | 14 9 || 22 | 7 4 | 11 — |
|50 | 6 0 | 16 0 || 24 | 8 0 | 12 — |
+--------+-----------+-----------++--------+---------+----------+

The heights in the above table are taken only from the bottom of the ditch, and do not include the foundations.

When the rampart is partly walled and partly turfed; then ⅕ of the height of the turfed part must be added to the breadth of the wall at the top given in the table.

The bases of all inward slopes of earth should be equal to their height, if not more.

The bases of all outward slopes of earth ⅔ of their height.

The superior slopes of all parapets ⅙ of their breadth.

The slope of all walls, or revetement ⅕ of their height.

Though the above principles given for the erection of field works may assist an officer’s recollection who may be employed on that duty, the memorandums given respecting _permanent_ fortification pretend to no such object: but may serve to remind an officer, if he should visit a fortification, of its essential requisites; and may assist his observations in passing round the works.

_FUZES.—Composition._

Saltpetre 3 lbs. 4 oz.
Sulphur 1 —
Mealed powder 2 12

+--------+------------------------+-------------------------+------+
|Nature. | Fuze Diameter. | Composition. |Drove |
| +--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+by one|
| | below |at the | at the|Diameter.|Length.|Time it|man in|
| |the cup.|bottom.| cup. | | |burns. |1 day.|
+--------+--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+
|Inches. | Inch. |Inches.|Inches.| Inch. | Inch. | ″ | Nᵒ. |
| 13 | 2.1 | 1.575 | 2.49 | .5 | 8.4 | 35 | 25 |
| 10 | 1.8 | 1.35 | 2.13 | .438 | 7.2 | 33 | 25 |
| 8 | 1.3 | 1.25 | 1.78 | .375 | 6.37 | 29 | 30 |
| 5½ | 1.1 | .825 | 1.3 | .275 | 4.4 | 18 | 50 |
| 4⅖ | 1.0 | .75 | 1.18 | .25 | 3.5 | 15 | 700 |
|Grenades| 0.8 | .6 | .9 | .2 | 2.25 | | 1000 |
+--------+--------+-------+-------+---------+-------+-------+------+

Diameter inside the cup is 3 diameters of the bore.

Depth of the cup 1½ do.

Thickness of wood at bottom of the bore, 2 diameters.

_To find the Length of Fuzes for any Range._

The 13 and 10 inch fuzes of the same length burn so nearly equal, that one common length answers both, as do the 8 inch, 5½ and 4⅖. Therefore, to find the length of fuze for any range, multiply the time of flight by .22 for the 13 and 10 inch, and by .24 for the 8, 5½, and 4⅖; which is the decimal part of an inch a fuze burns in a second. Fuzes are thought to keep better by being painted; and for field service, are often marked off by black lines into seconds and ½ seconds.

_GABIONS._—Small gabions of 3 feet high, and 2 feet diameter, are made with least trouble, and are easiest carried. The pickets for them must be 1½ or 2 inches thick, and 4 feet long. Large gabions are 6 feet high, and 3 feet in diameter; and require two men to carry them. The smallest gabions or baskets are formed of pickets, 1 inch in thickness, and 1 foot long: they are 12 inches in diameter at top, and 10 at bottom. The small gabions have 7 or 8 pickets, the large ones 9 or 10.

_To make them._—The pickets are first to be fixed in the ground in a circle, the size of the bottom of the intended gabion; then a few twigs are to be wove through the upper ends, to keep them from flying out; afterwards the work must be begun at the bottom and continued upwards; and the whole being well driven down with a mallet, the edges must be secured by twigs, wattled up and down. The twigs of willow, birch, hazle, alder, poplar, and beech are proper for this purpose. The top of the gabion must be made very even, because that becomes the bottom when finished. Four men are usually employed on each gabion, with a billhook, a mallet, a spade, and two axes. Two collect the wood, while the other two form the gabion. A 3 foot gabion ought to be made in half an hour.

_GIN Triangle._—Length of arms of the gin 16 feet 4½ inches. Roller, 6 feet long. Tackle fall, 78 feet of 3 inch white rope. Sling, 6 inch white rope.

For the different exercises of the gin, see the word _Exercise_.

_GRAVITY.—Table of the Specific Gravity of several Solid and Fluid Bodies._