Chapter IV: Literature in the Fifteenth Century

The revival of literature in Europe, commencing with the latter part of the fourteenth century, its steady growth, and its wonderful development in the succeeding age, have been dwelt upon by many writers. Nowhere was this revival more strongly marked than in France and the Low Countries.

The French kings and the princes of the royal blood had been for many generations the constant patrons of authors and of all engaged in the production of books. In 1350, John II, who has the credit of having founded the library of the Louvre, ascended the throne of France. No particulars concerning the library of this monarch have been preserved, and it was probably of no great extent; but his literary tastes descended to each of his four sons, and from the inventories which have come down to us of the libraries of these princes, we obtain very interesting information as to the number, the description, the illuminations, the bindings, and the market value of the books which they contained. Charles, the eldest son, who succeeded his father in 1364, had a highly-developed taste for everything connected with the fine arts. He greatly increased the number of volumes in the Louvre library, so that in the ninth year of his reign, when Gilles Mallet drew up a catalogue, they amounted to 910, the greater number of which were written on fine vellum, and were magnificently bound, and enriched with gold clasps and precious stones. This library, the Duke of Bedford, when Regent of France, is supposed to have transported to England in 1429. In after years, a few of the volumes returned to France, but the famous library of the Louvre never recovered its ancient splendour. Louis, Duke of Anjou, second son of King John, shared to a great degree the love of books and works of art displayed by his elder brother. The third son, John, Duke of Berry, formed an extensive library at his château at Bicêtre, near Paris, inferior only to that of the king himself. But of all the king’s sons, Philip, who soon equalled his eldest brother in power, far surpassed him in the number and splendour of his literary treasures. King John’s second wife was Jane, widow of the Duke of Burgundy, and in her right he succeeded to that duchy on the death of her only son. When dividing his kingdom among his four sons, King John apportioned Burgundy to the youngest, Philip the Hardy, who, by his marriage with Margaret, only daughter and heiress of Louis, Count of Flanders, inherited, on the death of his father-in-law in 1384, a large extent of territory. Philip, who has the character of having been a generous prince, was well read in the literary lore of his age. He was passionately addicted to music and to the collection of fine books, and he spared no expense in the employment of artists, and in the purchase of their most choice productions. Nor did he rest satisfied with the encouragement of artists alone, but gathered round him some of the most learned and able authors of his time, who enriched his library with new works. This prince died in 1404, and was succeeded by his son, John the Fearless, who, although distracted by continual wars, maintained and even added somewhat to his father’s library. Christine de Pisan received one hundred crowns for two books which she presented to him. But all previous patronage is eclipsed by the encouragement given to literature by Philip the Good, who succeeded to the dukedom of Burgundy upon the decease of John in 1419. At Bruges, where he kept his court, he gave continual employment to a crowd of authors, translators, copyists, and illuminators, who enriched his library with their best productions, and did not forget to sing the praises of their generous patron. David Aubert, a celebrated scribe, thus describes the duke in 1457:--“This renowned and virtuous prince has been accustomed, for many years past, to have ancient histories read to him daily. His library surpasses all others, for from his youth he has had in his service numerous translators, scholars, historians, and scribes in various countries, all diligently working, so that now there is not a prince in all Christendom who has so varied and so rich a library.” In the account which M. Barrois gives of the library of this sovereign, he enumerates nearly two thousand works, the greater part being magnificent folios on vellum beautifully illuminated, and bound in velvet, satin, or damask, studded with gems, and closed by gold clasps, jewelled and chased. Many of these are still preserved in the Royal Library at Brussels.

The taste of successive rulers spread its influence among their subjects, and fashion lent its aid in multiplying libraries. No present was more acceptable than a beautifully-executed manuscript, and the opulent nobles of the French and Burgundian courts offered costly books to their sovereigns and their friends. The records and inventories of this period contain numerous entries of such gifts, often with their estimated value.

Among the nobles at the court of Philip the Good, many emulated the literary taste of their sovereign, but none showed greater judgment and liberality in the formation of his library than Louis de Bruges, Seigneur de la Gruthuyse. This nobleman, who had risen by his talents to the highest position, received, at his château of Oostcamp, near Bruges, in 1470, Edward IV of England, when he sought refuge from the Lancastrians in Flanders, and was afterwards rewarded by that king with the title of Earl of Winchester. His library was scarcely inferior to that of his sovereign, and nearly the whole of the manuscripts were the production of Flemish artists at Bruges or Ghent. The large size of the volumes, the beauty of the vellum, the elegance of the writing, the artistic merit of the illuminations and ornaments, and the luxury displayed in the bindings, are evidences of the deep interest taken by the Seigneur de la Gruthuyse in the formation of his library. On his death it passed to his son, Jean de Bruges, and was soon after added to the collection already existing at the château of Blois, belonging to the kings of France. Great pains were then taken to obliterate the armorial bearings, devices, and monograms which showed the former ownership of the manuscripts, which efforts were but partially successful, as about a hundred volumes, now among the most precious treasures of the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, still attest that they once belonged to this celebrated collection. As the patron of literary men and of artists, Louis de Bruges takes a high place in the annals of his country, whilst the friendly attitude he assumed towards Colard Mansion, in the early career of that unfortunate pioneer of the press, should ever endear his name to bibliographers. This passion for beautiful books was not confined to the dukedom of Burgundy, but existed equally in France, Italy, Germany, England, and other countries. Henry VI of England had a valuable library, and many of the books written and illuminated for him are still among the Royal MSS. in the British Museum. The Duke of Bedford, whose love for literature was no doubt greatly stimulated during the time he held the office of Regent of France, was surpassed by none of his countrymen in his patronage of the fine arts, and the celebrated Missal, written and illuminated for him, still remains as one of the choicest productions of his age. Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, the protector of England during the minority of Henry VI, was also greatly attached to his library, and many manuscripts are extant, over which the antiquary pauses with respect and interest as he reads the boldly-written autograph, “Cest a moy Homfrey.”

Owing to these causes, the various artists connected with bookwriting and bookbinding, as well as the trades necessary to them, received much encouragement, while, to ensure rapidity as well as excellence of workmanship, division of labour was carried out to a great extent. Indeed, so important a branch of commerce had the manufacture of books now become, and so numerous were the different classes of craftsmen thus employed in Bruges, that there sprang up in that city a guild, apparently very similar to the trade companies in London, to which, in 1454, the duke granted a formal charter and special privileges. The company is styled “der ghilde van sinte jan Ewāgz,” or “The Guild of St. John the Evangelist,” who was the patron saint of scribes; and the volume of receipts and expenditure of this guild, beginning with the entrance fees of the original members, exists still in a perfect state of preservation in the city Archives of Bruges. Van Praet gives some interesting extracts from this volume, which show that the guild comprised members of both sexes, to whose names their respective trades are affixed, thus indicating the various branches of industry employed at that time in the manufacture of books.

Librariers et bockverkopers (_Booksellers_).
Prenter-vercoopers (_Printsellers_).
Scilders (_Painters_).
Vinghette makers (_Painters of Vignettes_).
Scrivers et bouc-scrivers (_Scriveners and copyists of books_).
Verlichters (_Illuminators_).
Prenters (_Printers, whether from blocks or types_).
Bouc-binders (_Bookbinders_).
Reimmakers (_Curriers_).
Drooch-scherrers (_Cloth-shearers_).
Parkement makers et fransyn makers (_Parchment and Vellum makers_).
Guispel snyders (_Boss carvers_).
Letter sniders (_Letter engravers_).
Beelde makers (_Figure engravers_).

Similar corporations existed in other cities. Thus, at Antwerp, the Guild of St. Luke was formed before 1450, and included trades like those of the Guild of St. John at Bruges; and at Brussels there was a guild of writers called “Les Frères de la Plume.” These guilds supported their own chapel and chaplain, and sometimes had considerable property. Nearly all the early printers, whose names are now famous in the annals of Flemish typography were enrolled in one or other of these associations.

The object of the foregoing sketch, and its bearings on the subject of this memoir, will be evident to the reader who recalls to mind that it was while the pursuit of literature in Bruges was most ardent--that it was during the reign of the greatest bibliophile of the fifteenth century, when Bruges teemed with authors, translators, scribes, and illuminators, who resorted thither from all parts of Europe to Philip the Good as to a second Mæcenas--that it was during the time when the bibliographical treasures of Philip the Hardy, enriched by the numerous additions of his son and grandson, and the libraries of Louis de Bruges and other nobles of the Flemish court were concentrated in the same city--that William Caxton was, for thirty-three years at least, a resident in Bruges. Access to these libraries would be easy to him, and that he availed himself of the privilege seems all the more probable, since we find, without exception, that the books which he translated for his own press may be traced in the catalogues of these noble libraries. As “Governor of the English Nation,” through whom all the negotiations between the English and the Burgundian governments would be carried on, Caxton would be well acquainted with the nobles and officers of the court, and hence he would naturally become the agent for the literary wants of his countrymen. He would also be brought into close contact with the most clever authors, scribes, and illuminators of the time, among whom were Colard Mansion and Jean Brito, originally artistic bookwriters, but afterwards the first to introduce the art of printing into the city of Bruges.