Chapter III: Europe, From the Revolutions of 1848 to the

AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866).

DISTURBANCES IN GERMANY.--The effect of the revolution which dethroned _Louis Philippe_ was felt like an electric shock through all Europe. It was experienced immediately in the smaller states of Germany. New ministries were installed, which were pledged to a liberal policy. _Louis of Bavaria_ resigned the crown to his son _Maximilian_. The _Grand Duke of Baden_ agreed to the demands of a popular convention at _Mannheim_, and he placed a liberal ministry in control of the government. _Prussia_ and _Austria_ were thoroughly disturbed by the movement for freedom and national unity. A rising in _Vienna_ (March 13-15), headed by the students, compelled _Metternich_ to depart for safety to England, the asylum of political exiles of every creed. The emperor summoned a Diet to be chosen by popular suffrage, and went for safety to _Innsbruck_ among his faithful Tyrolese. In _Berlin_, at the same time, there were excited meetings, and conflicts in the streets between the people and the soldiers. The Prussian king yielded to the demand of the crowd which gathered before his palace on the 18th of March, that the troops should be sent out of Berlin; but he did not send them away until the next day, and after an attack had been made on them from behind barricades. The ministry was dismissed, and a call was issued for a National Assembly to be chosen by ballot.

THE FRANKFORT CONVENTION.--There was a gathering at _Frankfort_, of about five hundred Germans, who organized themselves as a provisional parliament under the presidency of _Mittermaier_ (March 31). They resolved to call a National Assembly, to be elected by the German people. The Confederate Diet recognized the authority of the provisional parliament.

THE FRANKFORT PARLIAMENT.--The National Assembly met on May 18, and created a new provisional central government, with the Archduke _John of Austria_ as its head. The Confederate Diet ceased to exist. But the division of parties in the assembly, with respect to the system of government for united Germany, gave rise to long and profitless discussions. Differences of opinion as to the steps to be taken in a war which had sprung up with Denmark, respecting the duchies of _Schleswig_ and _Holstein_, made the strife of factions in the parliament still more bitter.

NEW PRUSSIAN CONSTITUTION.--The Prussian National Assembly met on May 22. A hot contention arose between the moderate and the radical parties. At length the king adjourned the assembly to meet in _Brandenburg_; but the party of the "Left" (the radical party) protested, and was soon dispersed by force. In Brandenburg a quorum failed to meet. The government framed a constitution with two chambers,--the second to be chosen by universal suffrage,--and called a new parliament to consider it. The new parliament failed to agree with the government, but another parliament met (Aug. 7, 1849). Mutual concessions were made, and the king swore to maintain the new constitution (Feb. 6, 1850).

AUSTRIA: END OF THE FRANKFORT ASSEMBLY.--The Diet of the Austrian Empire was a confused assembly representing different nationalities. _Kossuth_, an eloquent Hungarian deputy in the lower house, demanded independence for his country. The _Slavonic tribes_ resisted the supremacy of the _Magyars_. When the emperor took active measures against these (Oct. 6), there was an uprising in _Vienna_. The city was held by the revolutionists until the 30th, when it was captured by the emperor after much bloodshed. _Ferdinand I_ abdicated in favor of his young nephew, _Francis Joseph_. The Frankfort Assembly debated the question, what relation Austria should have to united Germany. A majority decided (March 27, 1849) that a president should be appointed, whose office should descend in his family, and that he should be styled "Emperor of the Germans." The station was offered to _Frederick William of Prussia_, but he declined it. The new constitution was not accepted by the more important states. The assembly dwindled away through the withdrawal or resignation of members, and, having adjourned to _Stuttgart_, was finally dispersed by the Würtemberg government (June 18). Its history was a grievous disappointment of ardent hopes. The Prussians helped the _Saxon_, _Bavarian_, and _Baden_ governments, to put down formidable and partially successful popular insurrections in their states.

THE HUNGARIAN REVOLT.--Austria reduced her _German_ provinces to subjection, and early in 1849 the _Italian_ provinces also. But a great contest was to be waged with the _Hungarians_, who gathered an army of one hundred thousand men, and gained decided advantages over incompetent Austrian generals. But in the end Austria brought together overwhelming forces and was aided by the intervention of _Russia,_ which sent an army into Hungary. The Hungarian general, _Gorgey,_ whom _Kossuth_ and the ministers had made dictator, surrendered at _Vilagos_ (Aug. 13, 1849). _Kossuth_ and other Hungarian patriots fled into Turkey. Hungary was dealt with as conquered territory. The Austrian commander, _Haynau,_ treated the vanquished people with brutal severity. The Hungarian constitution was abolished. The general constitution of Austria was abrogated on Dec. 31, 1851.

CONDITION OF ITALY.--_Charles Albert,_ the king of _Piedmont,_ or _Sardinia,_ disliked the preponderance of the Austrians, and desired to give his people good government, but was disinclined to enter into the schemes of "Young Italy," composed of the ardent republicans of whom _Mazzini_ was the chief. On this account they were exasperated with him. On the contrary, a great part of the "moderates" placed their hope for Italy in the Sardinian king and his house. To one of these, _D'Azeglio,_ a nobleman of high character, who reported to him, in 1845, the danger that revolutionary risings against misrule in Italy would occur, and set forth the necessity for a speedy remedy, the king said, "Make known to these gentlemen, that they must be quiet and not move, for at present nothing can be done; but let them be certain, that, if the occasion presents itself, my life, the life of my sons, my arms, my treasure, my army, all shall be devoted to the cause of Italy." In _Tuscany,_ there was much less oppression than elsewhere, but even there the government was despotic.

LIBERAL POLICY OF PIUS IX.--On the death of _Gregory XVI._ (1846), Cardinal _Mastai Feretti_ was made Pope, and took the name of _Pius IX._ He adopted a new and liberal policy. Prisoners for political offenses were set free, an amnesty was proclaimed, and improvements--including railroads--were promised. The "Gregoriani," who were devoted to the old administrative system and to Austrian predominance, were offended. The Roman people generally were full of joy and hope. The extreme republicans were dissatisfied and suspicious. On the occasion of disturbances, the Pope consented to the formation of a National Guard, as the liberal party wished. The consequence was, that Austrian troops were marched into his territory. This movement roused _Charles Albert_ to espouse more actively the Italian cause. In Tuscany the Liberals, with _Ricasoli_ for a leader, drove the Grand Duke to measures of reform. Austrian aggressions were more severely felt in _Parma_ and _Modena._ In _Palermo,_ there was a rising (Jan. 12) against the unbearable tyranny of _Ferdinand II._ This was followed by an insurrection in _Naples_ itself. The king was obliged to grant to his people a constitution. The same boon was granted by _Pius IX._, by the king of _Sardinia_, and by the _Tuscan_ Grand Duke. Italy, it should be observed, was already on fire with these revolutionary movements prior to the overthrow of the government of _Louis Philippe_. The earliest popular demonstrations at Milan were on Sept. 5 and 8, 1847.

EVENTS IN ITALY.--The revolt in _Vienna_ and in _Hungary_ in 1848 furnished the long-coveted occasion for the Italians to attack the hated Austrian rule. _Lombardy_ flew to arms, and expelled the Austrian troops. The _Venetians_ set up a provisional government under _Daniele Manin_, their leader in the insurrection. The king of Sardinia declared war against Austria. A multitude of Italian volunteers rushed to his standard. But there was no national league; his military management lacked skill; and after some successes he was defeated by _Radetzky_, the Austrian general, at _Custozza_ (July 25). _Garibaldi_, who had been a sailor, but was now a gallant and adventurous champion of the Italian movement, kept up the contest in the mountains on the north. The Austrians were once more in power. The refusal of the Pope to take part in hostilities against them alienated the liberals. His best minister _Rossi_, who stood midway between the extreme parties, was assassinated (Nov. 15). From the disorder that reigned at _Rome, Pius IX._ escaped in the dress of a common priest to _Gaeta_. The extreme democrats in _Tuscany_ got the upper hand, and set up a provisional government. In _Piedmont, Gioberti_, the minister, gave way to _Ratazzi_, who was of the democratic school. But the dream of an Italian confederation was dissipated by the great defeat of _Charles Albert_ by _Radetzky_ at _Novara_ (March 23). The broken-hearted king resigned his crown to his son, _Victor Emmanuel_. In _Rome_, the government, after the flight of the Pope, was lodged in an assembly elected by popular suffrage, with triumvirs, of whom _Mazzini_ was the first. The French were not disposed to allow the Austrians to dominate in the peninsula, and sent an army under _Oudinot_, who captured _Rome_ from the republicans, after a stubborn defense by _Garibaldi_. A French garrison now occupied the city. The Pope, who had abandoned the idea of political changes in the direction of Italian freedom and unity, was brought back to the Vatican (April, 1850). By the close of the summer of 1849, the Austrian authority was restored, and was exercised with redoubled severity in _Venice_ and _Milan_. The rulers of _Tuscany, Modena_, and _Parma_ had before returned to their capitals. They were kept in power by means of Austrian garrisons. The will of Austria was law in the greater part of Italy. _Ferdinand II._ (called _Bomba_) maintained his tyranny by the help of Swiss mercenaries and loathsome dungeons. _Piedmont_ was the only spot where constitutional freedom survived. In its youthful monarch and in _Garibaldi_, the hope of Italy rested. The course of events ultimately proved that both the fire of the republicans and the prudence of more moderate statesmen were requisite for its emancipation.

COUP D'ÉTAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON.--The Legislative Assembly in France, consisting of one chamber, had in it many monarchists. As the _first_ Napoleon was sustained by the dread of Jacobin rule, so the _third_ Napoleon profited by the dread of the ultra-republicans. It was felt by the trading-class, that the safety of society depended on him. When the French troops were sent to Rome in 1849, the opposition of _Ledru-Rollin_ and his radical party became more furious. But _Changarnier_ and his troops dispersed their procession (June 13), and broke down their barricades. The Paris insurrection was put down, and _Ledru-Rollin_ fled the country. _Thiers_, _Broglie_, _Molé_, _Montalembert_, and other adherents of the Bourbons, either of the old or of the Orleans branch, now professed to yield to _Louis Napoleon_ their adhesion. His measures for the restraint of the press, the punishment of political offenses, etc., were popular, especially in the provinces. The clergy were favorable to him. The soldiers, in the autumn of 1850, began to shout "_Vive I'Empéreur!_" _Changarnier_ was removed from the command of the troops (Jan., 1851) when it was learned that his regiments did not join in the cry. Movements of this kind, together with petitions for a revision of the constitution, provoked hostility in the Assembly. The struggle between the president and that body culminated in the "_Coup d'État_" of December 2, 1851. _St. Arnaud_ had been appointed minister of war, the fidelity of the troops in Paris rendered sure, and all needful preparations made with profound secrecy. The president gave a great party on the night of the first. During the night, the republican and Orleanist leaders--_Cavaignac_, _Changarnier_, _Lamoricière_, _Thiers_, _Victor Hugo_, and many others--were surprised in their beds, and imprisoned. They were sent away in custody to different places. Placards were posted, dissolving the Assembly, and declaring Paris in a state of siege; also, an address submitting to the people the question whether there should be a responsible chief of state for ten years. The soldiers fired on gatherings of the people in the streets, killing many innocent persons, for the purpose of forestalling any attempt at resistance. The deputies, as they persisted in their purpose to meet, were surrounded, and placed under arrest. Within a few weeks many thousands of persons suspected of disaffection were exiled or imprisoned. Nearly seven and a half million votes were cast for _Napoleon_, and only 647,292 against him. The political prisoners were released. _Thiers_ was allowed to return to Paris.

NEW FRENCH EMPIRE.--A new constitution was promulgated (Jan. 14, 1852), resembling that which existed under the consulate. The Legislative Assembly was virtually stripped of power.

One year later, the restoration of the Empire was decreed, and sanctioned by popular vote. The change was at first viewed with alarm by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. _Francis Joseph_ made a visit to _Berlin_, and was received with great honor. The two principal German sovereigns reviewed the troops of Berlin, in front of the bronze statue of _Blücher_. But _Napoleon_ declared that the Empire meant peace, and the other great powers followed the example of England in recognizing his imperial government.

THE CRIMEAN WAR.--The administration of the French emperor was acceptable to the commercial classes, who prized tranquillity. He erected new edifices in _Paris_, and made many other improvements, which, however, had an eye to defense against popular insurrection, and involved much hardship for the poor. He married (Jan. 30, 1853) a young Spanish countess, _Eugénie Montijo_. What did most to give stability to his power, and to raise his repute in Europe, was the union of _France_ with _England_ in the prosecution of the Crimean war. The Emperor _Nicholas_ thought the time propitious for the aggressive ambition of _Russia_ with regard to _Turkey_. His plan of attack embraced a "provisional" occupation of _Constantinople_ by Russian troops. He had intimated to England that the situation of "the sick man"--meaning the decaying government of _Turkey_--opened the way for a division of the Turkish Empire between the two powers. _Lord Aberdeen_ was then prime minister in England, and _Mr. Gladstone_ was chancellor of the exchequer. The dispute of Russia with Turkey, which was the ostensible occasion of the war, related to the holy places in Jerusalem, the resort of worshipers of different creeds, and to the privileges accorded by the Sultan to the Greek and Latin Christians respectively. The claim of _Nicholas_ resolved itself into a demand to exercise a sole protectorate over the Christians of the Greek faith in the Turkish Empire. Without formally declaring war his forces crossed the _Pruth_. Alarm was awakened in Austria, in consequence of the Russian movements in that region. _Nicholas_ had only been able to secure neutrality from Prussia and Austria. _Louis Napoleon_ was anxious for war. _Lord Aberdeen_ was averse to it; but the pressure of _Lord Palmerston_ and his supporters was too strong, and war was declared (March 27, 1854) by _England_ and _France_ in alliance with _Turkey_. At first the Turks had unexpectedly gained advantages over the Russians, but the Turkish fleet was destroyed at _Sinope_ (Nov. 30, 1853). Approaches of Russia which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the Danube, or of any of the Slavonic districts of European Turkey, can only excite jealousy and apprehension on the side of Austria. Nicholas, on the demand of _Francis Joseph_, which was seconded by _Prussia_, evacuated the Danubian principalities, which were provisionally held by Austrian forces. The English and French fleets that were sent into the Baltic did not produce the effect that was anticipated by the allies. The shores of the Black Sea were the main theater of the conflict. The troops of the English and French landed at _Eupatoria_ in the _Crimea_ in September, 1854, and defeated the Russians in the battle of the _Alma_. There was a second engagement at _Balaklava_ (Oct. 25); and in the battle of _Inkermann_ (Nov. 5) the attempt of the Russians to surprise the British forces met with a defeat. The effort of the allies was directed to the capture of the strong fortress of _Sebastopol. St. Arnaud_, the French general, had died, and been succeeded by _Canrobert_. Later, _Lord Raglan_, the English commander, died. The siege was prolonged. Once the batteries of _Malakoff_ and _Redan_ were attacked by the allies unsuccessfully; but, after a month's bombardment, both were taken by storm (Sept. 8, 1855), and _Malakoff_, which the French took, was held. The Russians blew up their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part of the fortress. Meantime _Nicholas_ had died (March 2, 1855), and been succeeded by _Alexander II.;_ and _Lord Aberdeen_ had been superseded by _Palmerston_ as head of the English ministry.

PEACE OF PARIS (MARCH 30, 1856)--In the _Peace of Paris_, Russia was obliged to cede the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of _Bessarabia_ to _Moldavia_, to limit the number of her ships in the Black Sea, and to engage to establish no arsenals on its coast. The Black Sea was to be open to commerce, but interdicted to vessels of war. Russia gave up the claim to an exclusive protectorate over Christians in Turkey. She surrendered also the fortress of _Kars_ in Turkish Armenia, which she had captured. _Wallachia_ and _Moldavia_ were confirmed in important privileges of self-government, under the Porte. Austria, France, and Great Britain, in a distinct treaty, guaranteed the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire.

NEUTRALITY DECLARATIONS.--The parties to the Treaty of Paris
(including Austria and Prussia) united in four declarations on the
subject of neutrality, by which privateering was abolished, the
neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of
war, these goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture,
and it was ordained that blockades in order to be binding must be
effective. The _United States_ declined to concur in this
agreement unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a
belligerent power (unless it be contraband of war) should be also
exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy. This rule, were
it adopted, would put private property on the _sea_ on a level
with private property on the _land_, in case of war.

WAR OF FRANCE AND SARDINIA WITH AUSTRIA.--After the contests of 1848-49, Victor _Emmanuel II_. was looked on by all except the ardent republicans of the school of _Mazzini_ as the champion of Italian independence. He made _Azeglio_ his chief minister, and _Cavour_ his minister of commerce. Various reforms were adopted, especially for the reduction of the power and wealth of ecclesiastics. The rapid progress of administrative changes led _Azeglio_ to withdraw from office. _Cavour_, his successor, a statesman of broad views and consummate ability, began to plan not only for the Sardinian kingdom, but likewise for all Italy. By his advice, Sardinia joined England and France in the Crimean war. At the Congress of Paris (1856), he spread before the European powers the deplorable misgovernment at Naples and in the other states of Southern Italy. He denounced a plot against the life of _Louis Napoleon_, which _Orsini_, a Roman, and a member of a secret society, tried to carry out, but failed (Jan. 14, 1858). Communications and a personal interview between _Napoleon_ and _Cavour_ followed. An alliance was formed, one of the objects of which was the expulsion of the Austrians from Italy. _Prince Napoleon_, the son of Louis Napoleon's uncle _Jerome_, was married to _Clotilde_, the daughter of _Victor Emmanuel_. Napoleon's ministers were opposed to a war with Austria, and he himself affected to have no intention of that kind. Russia proposed a congress; but Austria refused to admit Sardinia, or to join it herself, unless that power should immediately disarm. Russia was at that moment unfriendly to Austria, which had refused to help the Czar in the Crimean war. Prussia, also, showed a disinclination to interfere. _France_ and _Sardinia_ declared war against _Austria_, and _Napoleon_ proclaimed that he would free Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic (May, 1859). As the war began, a revolt broke out in _Tuscany_. The Tuscan Duke, the Duchess regent of _Parma_, and the Duke of _Modena_, had to fly from their capitals. _Cavour_ accepted help from all Italian patriots except the adherents of _Mazzini_, to whom were imputed schemes of assassination. _Garibaldi_ led the "Riflemen of the Alps." _Louis Napoleon_ commanded the French army in person. The French were victorious at _Magenta_ (June 4), where _MacMahon_ was made a marshal. At the battle of _Solferino_ (June 24), all of the three contending sovereigns were present. The Austrians were vanquished with very heavy losses. At this time _Napoleon_, unexpectedly to his Italian ally, in a personal interview with _Francis Joseph_ at _Villafranca_, arranged preliminaries of peace, which provided, to be sure, for the cession of _Lombardy_ to Sardinia, but left _Venice_ and the "Quadrilateral,"--as the district, with its fortifications, east of the Mincio, was called,--under the Austrian rule. It was proposed that an Italian confederation should be formed, with the Pope for its honorary president,--a plan not destined to be realized. The Grand Duke of _Tuscany_ and the Duke of _Modena_ were to be restored, could it be done without a resort to arms. Napoleon was afraid of a long war. Russia was not disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in Hungary. Prussia might soon intervene; and this, Austria, too, did not anticipate without anxiety, since Prussia would thereby become predominant in Germany. _Cavour_, in disgust and indignation at this premature close of the struggle, laid down his office.

FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE SARDINIAN KINGDOM.--Tuscany, Modena, and Parma, and Romagna which belonged to the Pope, by deputies implored _Victor Emmanuel_ to annex them to his kingdom. _Plus IX_. made the most strenuous opposition. _Napoleon_ refused to use coercion, or to suffer it to be used by others, to carry out the Villafranca arrangements in the duchies. _Cavour_ was recalled to office in 1860; and at his suggestion, made to _Napoleon_, the communities just named were allowed to dispose of themselves by popular vote. The result was their incorporation in the Sardinian kingdom. By way of compensation to _Napoleon_, _Savoy_ and _Nice_ were ceded by the Sardinian government to France. The Pope excommunicated all invaders and usurpers of the Papal States, without the mention of names.

ANNEXING OF NAPLES AND SICILY.--The next great event in Italy was the expulsion of _Francis II_., the tyrant who reigned in _Naples_ and _Sicily_ after the death of Ferdinand II. (1859). _Garibaldi_, without the consent of the Sardinian government, raised the standard of revolt in Sicily (1860), and conquered the island. The king and _Cavour_ feared that his movement would give control to the republicans, and also bring Sardinia into war with other powers. But, despite this opposition, _Garibaldi_ entered _Naples_ as a victor, and was joined by _Mazzini_. The Sardinian troops entered the Papal States, which the king had threatened to do unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical troops in the south were suppressed. The French general, _Lamoricière_, in the service of the pontiff, was defeated at _Castelfidardo_. _Garibaldi_, triumphant in the Neapolitan kingdom, met _Victor Emmanuel_ in the Abruzzi, and hailed him as "King of Italy." _Naples_ and _Sicily_ voted to join the kingdom of Sardinia. With the exception of _Venice_ and the _Roman Campagna_, the whole of Italy was now united under the house of Savoy. On Feb. 18, 1861, the first parliament of united Italy was opened by _Cavour_. Shortly after, there was a public reconciliation between him and _Garibaldi_, between whom there had been an estrangement.

In addition to _Garibaldi's_ general and constant dissent from the moderate policy of _Cavour_, the former was displeased that his soldiers had not been rewarded with higher positions in the Sardinian army than it was practicable or safe to grant to them. _Cavour_ believed that society was on the march towards democracy, but that no republic, at the present, in Italy could be stable. _Cavour_ had his heart set on gaining Rome for the capital of the kingdom, and on establishing "a free church in a free state." He did not live to see the realization of his hopes. His death occurred (May 30, 1861), shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot, to which reference has just been made.

"THE SEPTEMBER CONVENTION."--The hope of the national party in Italy was now directed towards the gaining of _Venice_ and _Rome_. But, as regards Austria, the European powers would not have suffered a breach of the Peace of Villafranca. _Louis Napoleon_ had assumed the part of protector of the Holy See, and a French garrison was stationed at Rome. After Cavour's death, _Ricasoli_, the head of the ministry, led the constitutional party; and _Ratazzi_, who succeeded him and had been more in sympathy with the Garibaldians, did not deviate from his predecessor's cautious policy. The relations of the Italian government to France, even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising, set on foot by _Garibaldi_, for driving the French out of Rome. Garibaldi was defeated by the Sardinian troops at _Aspromonte_ (Aug. 27, 1862), and taken to _Spezzia_. Thence he went to _Caprera_. The liberal party in Europe were incensed with _Louis Napoleon_. This was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement with _Victor Emmanuel_, by which France engaged to withdraw her troops gradually from Rome, leaving the Pope to form an army of his own; while, on the other hand, the king engaged (Sept. 1864) to prevent any attack on the papal territory. The French minister of foreign affairs said to the Italian minister at Paris, "Naturally the result of all this will be that you will end by going to Rome;" but matters were to be so managed that France should not be held responsible. This was the _September Convention_. _Florence_ was made the capital of Italy; but it was acknowledged that this was a temporary arrangement, and that, as soon as the progress of events should open the way, the seat of government would be transferred to Rome. After the withdrawal of the French troops in 1866, _Garibaldi_, with the connivance of the Italian government,--in which _Ratazzi_, who had been obliged to leave his office, was again the ruling spirit,--once more gathered a force for the capture of Rome (1867); but France interfered, and the advance of Garibaldi was checked at _Mentana_ by French troops. Afterwards _Napoleon_ again placed a French garrison in Rome. _Ratazzi_, whose scheme of capturing Rome by non-interference was balked, had to lay down his office. The next step towards Italian unity was to be a result of the _Austro-Prussian_ war.