Chapter X: Colonization in America: Asiatic Nations; Culture and

LITERATURE (1517-1648).

COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.

The European nations kept up their religious and political rivalship in exploring and colonizing the New World.

FRENCH EXPLORERS.--The French and English sent their fishermen to the coasts of _Newfoundland_ and _Nova Scotia_. French fishermen from _Breton_ gave its name to _Cape Breton_. _Francis I._ sent out _Verrazano_, an Italian sailor, who is thought to have cruised along the coast of North America from Cape Fear northward (1524). Later, _Jacques Cartier_ explored the _St. Lawrence_ as far as the site of _Montreal_ (1535); other expeditions followed, and thus was founded the claim of the French to that region.

SPANISH EXPLORERS.--The Spaniards brought negroes from the coast of Africa to the West Indies, to take the place of the Indians; and thus the _slave-trade_ and _negro slavery_ were established. They gave the name of _Florida_ to a vast region stretching from the Atlantic to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to an undefined limit in the North. From _Tampa Bay_, in what we now call _Florida_, they sent into this unexplored region an expedition under _Narvaez_ (1528); and afterwards, on the same track, another party led by _Hernando de Soto_ (1539), which made its way to the _Mississippi_ near the present site of _Vicksburg_. Tempted by tales of rich cities, _Coronado_ led an army to the conquest of the pueblos of the south-west. He penetrated as far as the boundary of the present Nebraska.

CONTEST IN FLORIDA.--The great Huguenot leader, _Coligny_, made three attempts to found Huguenot settlements in America. He wanted to provide for them an asylum, and to extend the power of France. One company went to _Brazil_, and failed; a second perished at _Port Royal_ in _Florida_; a third (1564) built _Fort Caroline_ on the shores of the _St. John_. This last company was mercilessly slaughtered by _Menendez_, the leader of a Spanish expedition which founded _St. Augustine_ (1565), the oldest town in the United States. The act was avenged by the massacre of the Spanish settlers at _Fort Caroline_, by _Dominique de Gourgues_ and the French company that came over with him.

ENGLISH VOYAGES.--The English, full of zeal for maritime discovery, tried to find a north-west passage to Asia. This was attempted by _Martin Frobisher_, a sea-captain, from whom _Frobisher's Strait_ takes its name. After him followed _John Davis_, who gave his name also to a strait. As the English grew stronger and bolder on the water, they ceased to avoid a contest with Spain. In 1577 _Sir Francis Drake_ set out from the harbor of _Plymouth_ on his voyage around the globe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada occurred in 1588; and after that the English felt themselves to be stronger than their old adversary.

GILBERT AND RALEIGH.--_Sir Humphrey Gilbert_, in 1583, took possession of _Newfoundland_ in the name of the queen of England. _Walter Raleigh_, his half-brother, on his voyage in 1584, visited _Roanoke Island_, and named the whole country between the French and the Spanish possessions, _Virginia_, in honor of "the Virgin Queen," _Elizabeth_. A colony which he sent out to _Roanoke_ (1585) failed, and a second settlement had no better result. _Bartholomew Gosnold_ landed on _Cape Cod_, and cruised along the neighboring coast (1602).

THE FRENCH IN CANADA.--In 1603 _Champlain_, a French gentleman, sailed to _Canada_, whither the fur-trade enticed explorers. A few years later he founded _Quebec_ (1608), and explored the country as far as _Lake Huron_. The Jesuit missionaries commenced their efforts to convert the Indian tribes, in which they evinced an almost unparalleled fortitude and perseverance. The _Huron_ and _Algonquin_ Indians helped _Champlain_ gain a victory over the hostile and warlike _Iroquois_, who afterwards hated the French. The French occupants of the country of the _St. Lawrence_ devoted themselves too exclusively to trading, and too little to the tilling of the ground and to the forming of a community.

THE DUTCH SETTLEMENTS.--The Dutch were as eager as the other maritime powers to find a passage to India. In 1609 an English captain in their service, _Henry Hudson_, balked in this endeavor, sailed up the river now called by his name. The next year, being in the service of an English company, he discovered _Hudson's Bay_. _Amsterdam_ traders established themselves on the island of _Manhattan_ (an Indian name); which led to the formation of the New Netherlands Company, by whom a fort (_Orange_) was built at the place afterwards called _Albany_ (1615). The West India Company followed (1621), with authority over _New Netherlands_, as the country was called. The powerful land-owners were styled _patroons_. Their territory reached to Delaware Bay; and they had a trading-post on the Connecticut, on the site of the present city of Hartford.

In 1637 the Swedes made a settlement at the mouth of the Delaware River, but in 1655 they were subdued by the Dutch.

SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.--The _Virginia Company_, divided into two branches,--the _London Company_, having control in the South, and the _Plymouth Company_, having control in the North,--received its patent of privileges from _James I_. (1606). A settlement by the _Plymouth Company_ on the _Kennebec River_ (1607)--the _Popham Colony_--was given up. In 1607 _Jamestown_ in Virginia, as the name _Virginia_ is now applied, was settled. A majority of the first colonists were gentlemen not wonted to labor. The military leader was Capt. _John Smith_, whose life, according to his own account, was spared by _Powhatan_, an Indian chief. Powhatan's daughter _Pocahontas_ married _Rolfe_, an Englishman. The Jamestown colony seemed likely to become extinct, when, in 1610, _Lord Delaware_ arrived with fresh supplies and colonists. He was the first of a series of governors who ruled with almost unlimited authority. But the colony grew to be more independent, and in sympathy with the popular party in England. In 1619 the _House of Burgesses_ first met, which brought in government by the people. At this time _negroes_ began to be imported from Africa, and sold as slaves.

THE PILGRIM SETTLEMENT.--The first permanent settlement in _New England_ was made at _Plymouth_ in 1620, by a company of English Christians, who landed from the "Mayflower." They were Puritans of that class called "Independents," who had separated from the English Church, and did not believe in any national church organization. The emigrants left _Leyden_, in Holland, where they had lived for some time in exile, and where the remainder of their congregation remained under the guidance of a learned and able pastor, _John Robinson_. In the harbor of _Provincetown_, they agreed to a compact of government. Their civil polity was republican; their church polity was _Congregational_. They endured with heroic and pious fortitude the severities of the first winter, when half of their number died. Their military leader was Capt. _Miles Standish_. In their dealings with the Indians, they were equally just and brave.

SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS.--Somewhat different in its origin and character from the "Pilgrim" settlement at _Plymouth_, was the other Puritan settlement of _Massachusetts_. The emigrants to Massachusetts were not separatists from the Church of England, but more conservative Puritans who desired, however, many ecclesiastical changes which they could not obtain at home. Both classes of settlers, transferred to _New England_, found no difficulty in agreeing in religious matters; for when left free, they desired about the same things. But at _Plymouth_ there was more toleration for religious dissent than in the later colony. In 1629 certain London merchants formed a corporation called "the Governor and Company of the Massachusetts Bay in New England," and received a charter directly from _Charles I_. They sent out _John Endicott_ to be governor of a settlement already formed at _Salem_. _Charles_ had dissolved Parliament, and was beginning the experiment of absolutism. The new company was strengthened by the accession of a large number of Puritan gentlemen who were anxious to emigrate. They resolved to transfer the company and its government to the shores of America. _John Winthrop_ was chosen governor, and in 1630 landed at _Charlestown_ with a large body of settlers. _Winthrop_ and his associates soon removed to the peninsula of _Boston_. The new colony was well provided with artisans. Soon ships began to be built. In 1636 a college, named in 1639, in honor of a benefactor, _Harvard_, was founded at _Cambridge_. At first all the voters met together to choose their rulers and frame their laws. As the towns increased in number, a _General Court_, or legislative assembly, was established by the colony, in which each town was represented. Each town had its church, and only church-members voted. The _General Court_ superintended the affairs of both town and church. The political troubles in England stimulated emigration. Within ten years, about twenty thousand Englishmen, mainly Puritans, crossed the Atlantic, and took up their abode in New England. In the ecclesiastical system each church was self-governing, except as the _General Court_ was over all. There were no bishops, and the liturgy was dispensed with in worship.

SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT.--After the Dutch had built a trading-post on the site of _Hartford_, people from _Plymouth_ formed a settlement at _Windsor_, on the Connecticut, six miles above. From _Boston_ and its neighborhood, there was a migration which settled _Hartford_. In 1637 the three towns of _Windsor_, _Wethersfield_, and _Hartford_ became the distinct colony of _Connecticut_. A colony led by the younger _John Winthrop_, under a patent given to _Lord Say and Sele_ and _Lord Brook_, drove away the Dutch from the mouth of the Connecticut, and settled _Saybrook_ (1635). This colony was afterwards united with the Connecticut colony. A third colony was established at _New Haven_ (1638), which had an independent existence until 1662.

SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND, OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, AND OF MAINE.--_Roger Williams_, a minister who was not allowed to live in _Massachusetts_, on account of his differences with the magistrates, was the founder of _Rhode Island_ (1636). He held that the State should leave matters of religious opinion and worship to the conscience of the individual, and confine government to secular concerns. This was not the view of the Puritans generally; and the incoming of dissenters from their religious and political system made them afraid that the colony would be broken up, or fall into disorder. _Williams_, in most of his qualities a noble man, obtained a patent for his government, which was framed in accordance with his liberal ideas. On lands granted by the Plymouth Company to _Sir Ferdinando Gorges_, settlements were made in _New Hampshire_ and in _Maine_ (1623). A line between the two was drawn in 1631; _Gorges_ taking the territory on the east of the _Piscataqua River_, and Capt. _John Mason_ taking the remainder.

VIRGINIA.--After 1624 the king appointed the governor in Virginia, which, however, had its own assembly. The colony grew rapidly, its chief export being tobacco. The people lived on their estates or plantations, employing indented servants and negro slaves.

MARYLAND.--Maryland was founded by George Calvert, _Lord Baltimore_, a Roman Catholic, to whom _Charles I._ granted a charter (1632). The first settlement was made by Calvert's sons, after his death. They planted a colony near the mouth of the Potomac. The _Calverts_ sent out both Puritans and Roman Catholics, and secured the safety of the adherents of their own faith by the grant of toleration to the Protestants. Under _Cromwell_, a Puritan governor was appointed by _Lord Baltimore_ (1649). There were boundary disputes with Virginia; and _Clayborne_, a Puritan and a Virginian, at one time got control of the government, which the _Calverts_ regained under _Charles II._ (1660).

NEW ENGLAND: NEW YORK.--During the war between king and Parliament in England, the Puritan colonies were in sympathy with the popular party, but were cautious in their avowals. They took great pains to prevent the king, and later the Parliament under the Commonwealth, from taking away their self-government. The English navigation acts, which forbade them to use foreign ships for their trade and forced them to send nearly all their products to English ports, were a grievance to them. The rivalries of _the English_ and _the Dutch_ gave the colonists a chance to expel _the Dutch_ from _Connecticut_. _Charles II._ at length conquered _New Netherland_, and ceded this territory to his brother, the Duke of York, afterwards James II. _New Amsterdam_ became _New York_, and _Fort Orange_ became _Albany_. In 1674 the country was formally ceded to England by Holland.

THE INDIANS.--When America was discovered, _Mexico_, _Central America_, and _Peru_ were empires, to a considerable degree civilized. Relics taken from the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys indicate, also, that races somewhat advanced in culture had once dwelt in those regions. The most of both continents was inhabited by very numerous tribes of _Indians_, who were savages, with the ordinary virtues and vices of savage life. They were brave and patient, but indolent, treacherous, and implacable. There was an immense variety of dialects among them, yet there are traces of a common original unity of language. The tribes had no fixed boundaries, but roamed over extensive hunting-grounds. The _Iroquois_, or the Six Nations, occupied central New York from the Hudson to the Genesee. The _Algonquins_ were spread over nearly all the rest of the country on the east of the _Mississippi River_, and north of _North Carolina_. The _Creeks_, _Choctaws_, and _Chickasaws_ were in the South.

THE WHITES AND THE RED MEN.--It was fortunate for the settlers of New England, that, before their arrival, the Indians had been much reduced in numbers by pestilence. Sometimes they were treated wisely and humanely, and efforts were made by noble men like _John Eliot_ (1604-1690), who has been called "the Apostle to the Indians," to teach and civilize them. But this spirit was not always shown by the whites, and wrongs done by an individual are avenged by savages upon his race. The first important conflict between the English and the Indians was the _Pequot War_ (1636), when the English, helped by the _Narragansetts_, who were under the influence of _Roger Williams_, crushed the _Pequots_, who were a dangerous tribe. A league between the New-England colonies, for mutual counsel and aid, followed (1643). Into this league, _Massachusetts_ would not allow _Rhode Island_, whose constitution was disliked, to be admitted. There were to be two commissioners to represent each colony in common meetings.

SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.

ASTRONOMY.--In this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy. _Copernicus_, a German or Polish priest (1473-1543), detected the error of the Ptolemaic system, which made not the sun, but the earth, the center of the solar system. Thus a revolution was made in that science. _Tycho Brahe_, a Danish astronomer (1546-1601), was a most accurate and indefatigable observer, although he did not adopt the Copernican theory. His pupil _Kepler_ (1571-1630) discovered those great principles respecting the orbits and motions of the planets, which are called the "Laws of Kepler." _Galileo_ (1564-1642), the Italian scientist, in addition to important discoveries in mechanics, with the telescopes, which his ingenuity had constructed, discerned the moons of Jupiter, and made other striking discoveries in the heavens. In promulgating the Copernican doctrine, he incurred the displeasure of ecclesiastics, and was driven by the Inquisition to renounce his opinion. It was reserved for _Sir Isaac Newton_ (1643-1727) to discover the law of gravitation.

JURISPRUDENCE.--In jurisprudence, the Roman law was more and more studied in universities. In political science, _Bodin_, a learned Frenchman (1530-1596), wrote a work on the State, advocating a strong monarchy. In the Netherlands, _Hugo Grotius_ (1583-1645), a great jurist and scholar, was one of the principal founders of the science of _International Law_. An eminent expounder of natural and international law in Germany was _Pufendorf_ (1632-1694).

HISTORICAL WRITINGS.--In history, _Sleidan_, a German (1506-1556), and later a learned statesman, _Seckendorf_ (1626-1692), wrote histories of the Reformation. _De Thou_, a Frenchman (1553-1617), wrote a valuable history of his own times. _Grotius_ described the war for independence in the Netherlands. Church history, on the Protestant side, was written by a company of authors called the _Magdeburg Centuriators_; and on the Catholic side, in the Annals of _Baronius_ (who died in 1607). In the Tower of London, _Sir Walter Raleigh_ employed himself in writing a History of the World, remarkable, if not for its researches, for passages of noble eloquence. In Italy, historians followed in the path opened by _Machiavelli_, through his _Discourses on Livy_ and his _Florentine History_. _Davila_ (1576-1631) composed a narrative of the Civil Wars in France, and the Cardinal _Bentivoglio_ wrote the history of the Civil War in the Netherlands. _Sarpi_, a keen Venetian, of much independence of thought, related the history of the Council of Trent, which was followed by a history of the same Council by the more orthodox _Pallavicini_. In Spain, there was at least one historian of superior value, _Mariana_, who composed a history of his own country.

MEDICINE.--Medicine felt the benefit of the revival of learning. _Hippocrates_ and _Galen_ were studied, and were translated into Latin. _Paracelsus_, a German physician (1493-1541), besides broaching various theories more or less visionary, advanced the science on the chemical side, introducing certain mineral remedies. _Vesalius_, a native of _Brussels_ (1514-1564), who became chief physician of _Charles V_. and _Philip II_., dissected the human body, and produced the first comprehensive and systematic view of anatomy. In the sixteenth century clinical instruction was introduced into hospitals. _Harvey_, an English physician (1578-1657), discovered the circulation of the blood. In the seventeenth century activity in medical study was shown by the rise of various discordant systems.

PHILOSOPHY.--In philosophy, _Aristotle_ continued to be the master in the most conservative schools, where the old ways of thinking were cherished. His ethical doctrines were especially attacked by _Luther_. _Giordano Bruno_, an Italian, not without genius, promulgated a theory of pantheism, which identified the Deity with the world. He wandered from land to land, was a vehement assailant of received religious views, and was burned at the stake at _Rome_ (1600). In some gifted minds, the conflict of doctrinal systems, and the influence of the Renaissance, engendered skepticism. _Montaigne_ (1533-1592), the genial essayist on men and manners, the Plutarch of France, is an example of this class. The opposition to _Aristotle_ and to the schoolmen found a great leader in the English philosopher, _Francis Bacon_ (1561-1626). The influence of _Lord Bacon_ was more in stimulating to the use of the inductive method, the method of observation, than in any special value belonging to the rules laid down for it. He pointed out the path of fruitful investigation. _Hobbes_ (1588-1679), an English writer, propounded, in his _Leviathan_ (1651) and in other writings, his theory of the absolute authority of the king, and the related doctrine that right is founded on the necessity of "a common power," if the desires are to be gratified, and if endless destructive contention is to be avoided. From the epoch of Bacon, the natural and physical sciences acquire a new importance. In metaphysical science, the modern epoch dates from _Descartes_ (1596-1650), born in France, who insisted that philosophy must assume nothing, but must start with the proposition, "I think, therefore I am." Before, philosophy had been "the handmaid of theology." It had taken for granted a body of beliefs respecting God, man, and the world. _Descartes_ was a theist. _Spinoza_ (1632-1677), of Jewish extraction, born in _Holland_, is the founder of modern pantheism. He taught that there is but one substance; that God and the world--the totality of things--are the manifestation of one impersonal being.

LITERATURE IN ITALY.--In Italy, among many authors in different departments of poetry, _Tasso_ (1544-1595), the author of the epic _Jerusalem Delivered_, is the most eminent. In it, the classic and the romantic styles are combined; the spirit of the Middle Ages blends with the unity and harmony of Homer and Virgil. In the seventeenth century, under the hard Spanish rule, the literary spirit in Italy was chilled.

LITERATURE IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.--In Spain, it was poetry and the drama that chiefly flourished. Other sorts of literary activity were stifled with the extinction of liberty. _Lope de Vega_ (1562-1635), one of the most facile and marvelous of all poets, the author of twenty-two hundred dramas,--was the precursor of a school. After him came _Calderon_ (1600-1681), who carried the Spanish drama to its perfection. Early in the seventeenth century _Cervantes_ published the classic tale of _Don Quixote_, "to render abhorred of men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry," an end which he accomplished. _Mariana's_ (1536-1623) vivid and interesting _History of Spain_ was continued in a less attractive style by _Sandoval_. _Herrera_ (1549-1625) composed a General History of the Indies. Other works relating to the New World and the Spanish conquests were written. In the production of proverbs, the Spanish mind is without a rival. Not the least of the bad effects of the despotic system of _Philip II_. was the decay of literature.

The most celebrated writer of _Portugal_ is the poet _Camoens_ (1524-1579), who, in his epic the _Lusiad_, has treated of the glorious events in the history of his country, giving special prominence to the discovery by _Vasco da Gama_ of the passage to India.

LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--In France, with the exception of _Montaigne_, it was _Rabelais_ (1495-1553), a physician, philosopher, and humorist, who, notwithstanding his profanity and obscenity, was the most popular author of his day, and who well represents the tone of the Renaissance in that country. _Ronsard_ (1524-1585), an imitator of the Latins and Greeks, was the favorite poet of _Mary, Queen of Scots_. In the first half of the seventeenth century the light literature of the French is ruled by fashion, and is void of serious feeling. In this time the literary societies of France take their rise. _Madame de Rambouillet_ (1588-1665), a lady of Italian birth, set the example in establishing such reunions. She made her hotel a resort for writers and politicians. Being an invalid, she kept her bed, which was placed in an alcove of the _salon_ where she received her visitors.

LITERATURE IN ENGLAND.--In England, in the age of _Elizabeth_, there is a galaxy of great authors in prose and verse. The events and debates of the Reformation, the voyages and geographical discoveries of the period, gave a powerful quickening to thought and imagination. The Renaissance culture, which made familiar the stories of Greek and Roman mythology, and the romantic tales and poetry of Italy and Spain, was potent in its effect. Some of the numerous theological writers, as Bishop _Hall_ (1574-1656), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1613-1667), and _Richard Hooker_ (1553-1600), have gained a high place in general literature. _Bacon_, apart from his philosophical writings, towers above almost all his contemporaries in the field of letters. The chivalrous _Sir Philip Sidney_ (1554-1586) wrote the pastoral romance of _Arcadia_. _Burton_ (1576-1640), the author of _The Anatomy of Melancholy_, and _Sir Thomas Brown_, who published (1642) the _Religio Medici_ (the religion of a physician) and, at a later date, the _Urn Burial_, are quaint and original authors. The merit of _Shakspeare_ (1564-1616) is so exalted and unique that he almost eclipses even the greatest names. The English drama did not heed what are called the classic unities of time and place, which limit the action of a play to a brief duration and a contracted area. Other celebrated dramatic writers are _Beaumont_ (1586-1615) and _Fletcher_ (1579-1625), who wrote many plays jointly; _Ben Jonson_ (1574-1637), and _Massinger_ (1584-1640). The imaginative poetry which is not dramatic, in this period, begins with _Spenser_ (1553-1599), whose _Faërie Queene_ is a poem of chivalry; and it ends with _Milton_ (1608-1674), the Puritan poet, imbued with the culture of the Renaissance, whose majesty and beauty place him almost on a level, at least in the esteem of readers of the English race, with Dante. Among the religious poets is _George Herbert_ (1593-1635). One of the most famous of the lyric authors was the last of them, _Cowley_ (1618-1667).

LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--In Germany, the great literary product of this period was _Luther's_ translation of the _Bible_. The immediate effect of the controversy in religion was not favorable to the cause of letters. Attention was engrossed by theological inquiries and discussion. But in most of the countries, in the department of theology, preachers and writers of much ability and learning appeared on both sides of the controversy. Biblical study and historical researches were of necessity fostered by the exigencies of religious debate.

ASIATIC NATIONS.

I. CHINA.

THE JESUIT MISSIONS.--The _Ming_ dynasty continued in power in China until 1644. About the middle of the sixteenth century the _Portuguese_ came to the island of Macao, and commercial relations began between China and Europe. They brought opium into China, which had previously been imported overland from India. In 1583 _Matteo Ricci_, a Jesuit missionary, began his labors in China. He and his associates had great success. His knowledge of the book language was most remarkable. The concessions of the Jesuit fathers to the Chinese in matters of ritual excited much opposition in the Church. But for this dissension among the different Catholic orders, the Roman Catholic faith, which had gained very numerous converts, would have spread far more widely.

THE MANCHU CONQUEST.--There were notable literary achievements in this period, one of which was an _encyclopedia_ in more than twenty-two thousand books. Four copies were made: only one, a damaged copy, now remains. The great political event of the time was the seizure of the throne by the _Manchu Tartars_ (1644), who came in as auxiliaries against a rebellion, but have worn the crown until now. The shaved head and the long cue are customs introduced by the Tartar conquerors. Certain privileges, and certain habits to which the natives clung, as the mode of dress for women, and the compression of their feet, were retained by express stipulation.

II. JAPAN.

FEUDAL SYSTEM.--In 1603 _Iyéyasu_, an eminent general, founded the _Tokugawa_ dynasty, which continued until the resignation of the last Shôgun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held their court at _Yedo_, which grew into a flourishing city. The long period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought to an end. Iyéyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson _Iyémitsu_ (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided into fiefs, each under a _daimiô_ for its chief, who enjoyed a large degree of independence. The people consisted of four classes: (1) the military families, who had the right to wear two swords, the clansmen of the great nobles; (2) the farming class; (3) the artisans; (4) the tradesmen.

CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.--Christianity was preached in Japan by _Xavier_, a successful Jesuit missionary, in 1583. Other Jesuit preachers followed. A multitude of converts were made. But on account of immoralities of Europeans, and the dread of foreign political domination, the government engaged in a series of severe persecutions. In 1614 an edict proscribed Christianity. A portion of the peasants who were converts were so oppressed, that they revolted (1637). The result was an act of terrible cruelty,--the massacre of all Christians; so that none remained openly to profess the Christian faith.

III. INDIA.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.--In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries, the most of _India_ was ruled by distinct Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at _Delhi_ was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the _Mughal (Mogul)_ Empire was founded by _Babar_, a descendant of _Tamerlane. Babar_ invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of _Delhi_ in the battle of _Paniput_. The new empire was not permanently established until his grandson _Akbar_ (1556-1605), in a series of conquests, spread his dominion over all India north of the Vindhyar mountains. Not until the reign of _Aurungzeb_ (1658-1707), was the Deccan subdued. After 1600 the Portuguese no longer had the monopoly of the foreign trade: the Dutch and English became their rivals.

LITERATURE.--See lists of works on general history, p. 16; on modern
history, p. 395; on the history of particular countries, p. 359.

General Works on the Period. De Thou's _History of his own
Times_; ROBERTSON'S _History of Charles V_. (Prescott's ed.);
Von Raumer's _Gesch. Europas seit d. Ende d, 15 tu Jahrk_, (8
vols).; Hallam's _Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the
Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries_; RANKE'S series
of works on this period,--the _History of the Popes_, and the
Histories of Germany, France, and England; Histories of the
Reformation by D'Aubigné, Döllinger (Roman Catholic), Spalding (Roman
Catholic), Fisher, HAUSSER, Hardwick, Stebbing; Laurent, _La
Reforme_; Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Genérale_ (iv. and
v.); Seebohm's _Era of Protestant Revolution_; Works of Janssen,
Pastor, Creighton.

On the German and Swiss Reformation: Waddington's _History_,
etc.; Hagenhach, _Vorlesungen_, etc.; Lives of Luther, by
Meurer, Michelet, Beard, KÖSTLIN; Lives of Zwingh, by CHRISTOFFEL,
MORIKOFER; Lives of Calvin, by HENRY, Dyer, Kampschulte (Roman
Catholic).

Reformation in France. Works by Soldan, Von Polenz, Smiles, Browning;
BAIRD'S works on _Huguenots_; Perkins, _France under Richelieu
and Mazarin_ (2 vols.); Hanotaux, _Richelieu_ (2 vols.).

The Revolt of the Netherlands. Blok's _History of the Netherlands
_(3 vols.), etc.; MOTLEY'S _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, and
_History of the United Netherlands_; PRESCOTT'S _History of
Philip II._; TH. JUSTE, _Hist, de la Rèvol. des Pays-Bas_,
etc. (2 vols).

The Reformation in England. The Histories of Macaulay. Lingard,
Froude, Burnet's _History of the Reformation in
England_. S. R. Gardiner's _History of England_ (1603 to
1656); Clarendon's _History of the Great Rebellion_; a series of
works on this period by GUIZOT; Neal's _History of the
Puritans_; Gairdner, _History of the English Church from Henry
VIII. to Mary_; selections of documents by Prothero and by
Gardiner; Lives of Cromwell, by CARLYLE, by Forster, Gardiner,
Harrison, Firth; Strype's Lives of the Leading Reformers--Cranmer,
etc.

On the Reformation in Scotland. BURTON'S _History of Scotland_;
Robertson's _History of Scotland_; McCrie's _Life of John
Knox_; W. M. TAYLOR, _Life of John Knox_.

On the Thirty Years' War. GINDELY'S _History_, etc.; Gardiner,
_The Thirty Years' War; Life of Gustavus Adolphus_.

For more extended lists, see Adams's _Manual_, etc.; and
Fisher's _The Reformation_ (Appendix). For list of works on
colonization in America, see the list at the end of Period III.

PERIOD III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (1648-1789)