Chapter XII: W. T. Harris and G. Stanley Hall

_William Torrey Harris_

(1835- )

In a country like America, where people have flocked from all corners of the world, each with his own ideas, beliefs, and ambitions, it is natural that the main concern of the leaders hitherto should have been the unity and solidarity of the social structure. How to produce self-governing yet law-abiding citizens in a free republic that has had no choice of the materials, seems to have been _the_ educational problem from the legislative standpoint. There has probably been more necessity for counteracting new “isms” and reforms than encouraging them. Just here the Hegelian pedagogy has an application, and it has, in fact, well-nigh penetrated, through Dr. Harris, into the great machinery of the public school.

That Dr. Harris is a most faithful disciple of Hegel no one, including himself, will deny. If we are justified in calling Spencer the English interpreter of Rousseauean pedagogy, we may call Dr. Harris the American apostle of Hegelian pedagogy.

With the Hegelian philosophy of history on his banner Dr. Harris stands, amidst all skeptics and reactionaries against the present civilization, as its bold and even conventional advocate. This civilization is the highest actual manifestation of the world-spirit or Logos; so every individual must be educated for and through it. Social institutions in which civilization is incorporated are to be the chief agents of education. These social institutions are family, school, church, and state. But the education of the family is essentially physical and very limited; and, on the other hand, the educational influence of the state is exerted mainly through the school. So the school and the church are the main educational agencies, the former ministering to the secular and the latter to the religious needs.

According to Dr. Harris, the function of the school is “to correlate the child with the civilization into which he is born.” “The branches to be studied, and the extent to which they are studied, will be determined mainly by the demands of one’s civilization. These will prescribe what is most useful to make the individual acquainted with physical nature and with human nature so as to fit him as an individual to perform his duties in the several institutions--family, civil society, the state, and the church” (1: pp. 232-233). These also will determine what interests in the child should be cultivated and what interests be checked. To make the child’s nature or its own spontaneous interest our guidance and standard is the suicide of education. For “man reveals his true nature not as a child, but as a mature man and woman in the process of making world history. In the world history human nature is revealed in its height and depth” (14: p. 492). Naturally it follows that psychology should hold only a subordinate place for the art or science of education, and “no philosophy of education is fundamental until it is based on sociology.” Prescription is thus the great word in Dr. Harris’s pedagogy, which he never tires of repeating. “The problem of prescription,” he says, “is the profoundest and most important one in education, and without its solution we continually drift in the eddies of fruitless experiments and waste the energies and possibilities of the rising generation” (5: p. 131).

Of course Dr. Harris would not, in the face of the modern consciousness of individual freedom, advocate the tyranny of autocratic prescription. Here he met an antimony of civilization and consequently of education.

“When we reflect that prescription comes in from the side of realized reason, and consists in regulations found to be rational by the experience of mankind and embodied in the institutions of civilization, we must be convinced of the utter hopelessness of eliminating this element from life.... On the other hand, that self-activity or spontaneity, freedom of thought, the realization of directive intelligence in each and every individual--that this shall prevail more and more, is our deepest national conviction” (5: pp. 141-142).

The antinomy is solved by Dr. Harris in the Hegelian way. At first these two “are opposed, and mutually limit each other; where one begins the other ends.” However, “a mandate prescribed loses its external, mechanical side just as soon as its necessary ground is seen and comprehended” (5: p. 142).

To speak of the child’s instincts and natural powers as if they were divine and all-sufficient in themselves is allowed only in poetry. “The child begins life a savage, ignorant of civilization.” His impulses and caprices have to be subjected to the reason of the matured spirit, and his mind, empty of experience, has to be filled with the wisdom of the race. “He must be taught everything: how to take care of his person, how to behave in the presence of others, how to do his work in the world and earn an honest living, how to observe and how to think. He has to learn the view of the world which civilization has attained.” The good mother is she who is “always alert to see to it that her child learns to inhibit--learns self-control or self-restraint.” “Her chief work is inhibiting this or that, and educating the child into the practice of inhibiting constantly.” For “out of one thousand things he may do, nine hundred and ninety-nine are improper to be done, and he must refuse to adopt them. Passing by all these, he must do only the one thing proper” (6: pp. 2-3).

The child who, under this maternal discipline, has acquired “a bundle of personal habits and the use of language to communicate ideas and receive them,” is taken next to the hand of the school-teacher. His work is the continuation of that of the mother, and still preëminently is in “the domain of prescription.” “The special work of the school in the great process of education is that of giving the youth letters and civil manners” (6: p. 4). By “civil manners,” “the habits of acting according to the broad forms and conventionalities of rational existence” are meant. These habits are not born with the child, they are no innate inheritance that he brings with him into the world, but have to be acquired by him. So the educator is not to minister to the nature of the child, but to repress it. With all his vigilance and self-control the teacher “applies a firm, steady pressure to the material under his charge and molds it into form” (5: p. 128).

Family life can teach many good habits to the child, but it cannot initiate him into social life quite as well as the school can. In order to become a social man he must be educated out of the “clan feeling” into civil relation. The school furnishes the best training for this: for its order “presupposes independent interests combined with a common interest,” and “the school pupil must learn how to behave towards independent equals and towards those established in authority over him, not by nature, like his father and mother, but by civic ordinances appointed by his teachers” (6: p. 4). Then the implicit observance of order, without which no function of school can be performed, inculcates such virtues as regularity, punctuality, and silence, the last mentioned of which Dr. Harris thinks to be the basis for the culture of internality or reflection--the soil in which thought grows. Moreover, the systematic work required in the school cultivates many valuable virtues. He says: “Is there any better training yet devised to educate youth into industry and its concomitants of sincerity, earnestness, simplicity, perseverance, patience, faithfulness, and reliability, than the school method of requiring work in definite amounts and at definite times and of an approved quality?” (7: pp. 36-37). These mechanical or semimechanical duties which school life imposes upon the pupils “constitute an elementary training in morals without which it is exceedingly difficult to build up any superstructure of moral character whatever,” and “are just what is required to adapt the man to combine with his fellow man” (6: p. 5). Moral education, therefore, must begin with these and “develop gradually out of this stage toward that of individual responsibility.”

In regard to the intellectual side of education, too, Dr. Harris gives his defense to its traditional form. In his view, learning proper is nothing else but the learning of books. The printed page is “an instrumentality of intercommunication,” the storehouse of race experience, the immortalized form of civilization. Thus training in letters naturally should form the center of instruction in the elementary school. Reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, history, and grammar are the first studies of the school, which have the sanction of tradition and have stood the test of time. Natural science, vocal music, drawing, gymnastics, and the like may be introduced only as subordinate subjects. As to the disciplinary value of manual training Dr. Harris is skeptical. Its possible use he recognizes only as a preparation for productive industry. However, for this purpose he does not see the wisdom or need of teaching it in the school. For, “if youth can be taught to bring their powers to bear on such subjects as arithmetic, grammar, history, and literature, they certainly can with ease give their mind to any form of manual training or the work of external observation, because the greater includes the less, and the studies of pure science are far more difficult to carry on than studies in applied science” (6: p. 16). Thus he disposes of the question of pure “cultural” training _versus_ “practical” training by saying: “Cultivate the humanities first, and afterwards the industrial faculties” (6: p. 20). Dr. Harris does not see the inherent worth of elementary education nor glorify its function, as Pestalozzi or Froebel did. For him it is confessedly a “defective sort of education.” Not only the knowledge it conveys is superficial and scanty, but the method of instruction and training is “necessarily crude and inadequate.” To speak of the spontaneous learning of the child is nonsense. In the language of Dr. Harris, everything must be “served up” to him, and this in a “fragmentary manner.” This, however, is “not an objectionable feature”; “or if it is to be regarded as an evil, it is at least a necessary evil” (5: pp. 144-145). It is in the second stage of intellectual culture that larger facts are given in a systematic form and mutual correlation; that the pupil’s own observation, reflection, and “organic thinking” are encouraged and required. In a still higher stage--i. e., in the university--original investigation and independent thinking will have become its characteristic features. Dr. Harris fears that these higher forms of education, which he terms “the system of education by insight,” would foster an excessive conceit of self unless it is built on the safe foundations of what he calls “the education of authority,” or “the education by means of memory.” “There is this danger,” he thinks, “in the system of education by insight, if begun too early, that the individual tends to become so self-conceited with what he considers knowledge gotten by his own personal thought and research, that he drifts toward empty agnosticism with the casting overboard of all authority” (4: p. 271).

Dr. Harris rests his defense of conservatism on the ground of national psychology, saying that the pedagogy of a people is to be based on the knowledge of their special aptitudes and “the consequent necessity of inhibiting excesses.” According to him, the pedagogy emphasizing the pupil’s self-activity is for the quiet, obedient, and knowledge-loving Germans, and not for those vigorous nationalities which “love adventure and the exercise of the will power far more than they love science.” American children need rather the curbing and directing of self-activity, of which they have enough without encouragement. Consequently, discipline and drill, more than instruction, forms the essential feature of their education. Recitation and the text-book method is more fit for them than the oral method; because the Anglo-Saxon teacher is to devote most of his time and energy to the government and discipline of his class, and, besides, recitation and the text-book method have many advantages peculiar to them. The advantages of the text-book method are enumerated as follows:

“It has the advantage of making one independent of his teacher; you can take your book wherever you please. You cannot do that with the great lecturer, neither can you question him as you can the book, nor can you select the time for hearing the great teacher talk as you can for reading the book. And it is true that nearly all the great teachers have embodied their ideas in books. The greatest danger of text-book education is verbatim, parrot-like recitation; but even here from the poorest text-book a great deal of knowledge can be gleaned. Then there is the alertness which in any large class will necessarily be engendered by an intelligent understanding and criticism of the results arrived at by different pupils in discussing a certain piece of work given in his own words. And then there is the advantage to be found in the fact that with the text-book the child can be busy by itself” (4. p. 272).

As to an estimate of Dr. Harris’s pedagogy little can be said beside what has been said in respect to that of Hegel; only Dr. Harris goes further than his master in outspoken advocacy of conservatism and conventionalism. As a successful administrator he did a great deal for the educational advancement of this country. His pedagogy also has been an influential and acceptable one. But it seems to me that the America for which his pedagogy was formulated is fast passing. For the America of to-day, mere internal unity and solidarity is no longer the chief object of national aspiration. She who now is striving for world supremacy in every direction, with reasonable hope and confidence, needs, and in fact already has, a new pedagogy.

_Granville Stanley Hall_

(1846- )

The new pedagogy which is gaining an increasing predominance is yet a movement rather than a system. Although it is now entering its productive and constructive stage, the light which it has hitherto thrown upon educational work has been largely in the way of prophecy, insight, and suggestions rather than a well-ordered philosophy, with rules and methods. From Comenius down every great renovation in our educational ideas and methods has been either caused or effected by an ever fuller grasp of the nature of childhood and youth, to serve which is the task of education. With Comenius and other pedagogical writers who followed him, however, the study was individual, and knowledge remained at best intuition. Limited observations were too often made the basis of sweeping and one-sided generalizations. The systematizations attempted were mainly in the direction of deductive doctrination, but not of inductive synthesis of facts. These facts cannot be gathered and established from any individual experiences, however true and penetrating they may be, but only from the universal experience and experiments of the race, past and present. For the inductive synthesis of all the facts concerning the nature of childhood and youth, which can possibly be gathered and established from all sources, we are indebted to the so-called child-study movement. It calls to its aid animal psychology, anthropology, and medical science as well as all the branches of human psychology and physiology. It not only avails itself of the anthology of folklore, myths, nursery stories, and even superstitions, but also of the experience and observation of individuals, great and small. The uniqueness of the movement consists not only “in the new direction and focalization of many scientific departments and methods upon one object, some of which have never before had even this bond of union,” but also in the intimate contact, understanding, and mutual helpfulness into which it has brought experts and laymen, academic investigators, and practical workers. As the originator and the foremost leader of this movement stands Dr. Hall. In him America has first produced a pedagogic writer whose originality is peculiarly her own, and whose influence has extended far beyond the borders of the land. The new pedagogic movement which Dr. Hall represents has a philosophic basis in “genetic psychology,” which sees the essence of _psyche_ in its process of becoming. It has been subject to the course of evolution as organic matters have been. The human soul is merely a sort of “a species or a stage of evolution” in the soul kingdom; it is “one of the many types in the world,” and “at best it may be a transition from a lower to a higher race to be evolved later” (1: vol. ii, p. 62). So our soul life extends far back to the beginning of organic life, and inherits in its pedigree the stored results of prehuman and human experience. Education is to unfold all these latencies in the individual and the race to their maximal maturity and strength. As a process considered as internally taking place, it is nothing else than human evolution; as a force or forces tending to growth, it is “almost as broad as what biology calls environment”--a much wider conception than instruction and discipline.

According to the genetic view of soul, consciousness is a late product in the evolution of the soul kingdom, and thus constitutes only a small and yet unstable upper story of our psychic structure. Thus we must seek “the bearer of mental heredity” in the larger and older basal structure of the soul, namely, in the motor habits, feelings, instincts, impulses, and intuitions--which constitute the unconscious part of our soul. It follows, then, that to secure a full and unhindered unfolding of this unconscious basal part of our soul is the first concern of education. Unless built on this foundation rock, which is coextensive with the history of animal and human evolution, the superstructure will not stand firm and secure. So Dr. Hall stands as a vigorous protestant against the ultra-intellectualistic tendency of prevailing education which neglects the culture of motor habits, of instincts, and of emotions and pleads for the cultivation of the heart as well as the head.

First, he is an ardent apostle of the education of and through muscle, the growing recognition of which has been one of the most conspicuous and hopeful tendencies of educational progress in recent years. “Muscles are the vehicles of habituation, imitation, obedience, character, and even of manners and customs.... Skill, endurance, and perseverance may almost be called muscular virtues, and fatigue, velleity, caprice, _ennui_, restlessness, lack of control, and poise, muscular faults” (1: vol. i, p. 132). Thus the basis of character building must be laid in motor training; will culture is essentially muscle culture. Yet muscles are not only the organs of will, but also of feeling and thought. Throughout animal and human evolution, the development of intelligence went together with that of the structure and function of muscles, and every change in our emotional life is accompanied by change in internal or external muscles of the body.

The first care in muscle culture must be to secure abundance and diversity of kinetic energy. “Here, as everywhere, the rule holds that powers themselves must be unfolded before the ability to check or even use them can develop” (1: vol. i, p. 161). The vigorous spontaneity of sporadic movements in young children should be cherished instead of suppressed. The coördination of these purposeless activities into higher compounds of habits should come only slowly and gradually, or else it will cause either atrophy or disease of motor function. The natural evolutionary course of muscular development has been from the fundamental to the accessory; and early childhood is the period for the development of larger basal muscles. Any fine work requiring accuracy, taxing the tiny accessory muscles, either of the eyes, of the tongue, or of the fingers should not be exacted. Training of the accessory muscles ought to come between the ages of eight and twelve. This is preëminently the period for drill, for mechanization.

Puberty is the stage of ill-balanced transition. The motor coördinations are lost for a moment, all the ways of awkwardness, mannerisms, and semi-imperative acts manifest themselves as a result. “This is again the age of the basal--e. g., hill-climbing muscles of leg and back and shoulder work, and of the yet more fundamental heart, lung, and chest muscles” (1: vol. i, p. 165). As during early childhood, now the danger is overemphasis upon the activities of accessory muscles and overprecision. Now, again, book-studies, class-lessons may become an evil. They constitute “not a liberal, power-generating, but a highly and prematurely specialized, narrowing and weakening education, unless offset by safeguards better than any system of gymnastics, which is at best artificial and exaggerated” (1: vol. i, p. 165).

For Dr. Hall, play presents the ideal type of exercise; he, like Froebel, spares no words of praise for its merits. According to him, in play we unconsciously rehearse the motor experience of the race. The motor habits won by the long history of toil and pain, elaborated in the life-and-death struggle for existence, now reappear in us by impulse, as spontaneity and joy. And “pleasure is always exactly proportional to the directness and force of the current of heredity” (1: vol. i, p. 206). It is, therefore, his opinion that we should direct the exercise of the young to these old basal activities handed down from the distant past, which have built up the intellect and character as well as the physique of the race, rather than insist upon those arbitrary systems and methods invented to form a symmetrical body according to our ideas. He thinks that “education perhaps should really begin with directing childish sports aright” (1: vol. i, p. 231).

Dr. Hall sees in industrial training a motor education of more psychic impulsion and generic ground than pure manual training artificially designed. Adolescence is the golden period for it. “Industry has determined the nature and trend of muscular development and youth who have pets, till the soil, build, manufacture, use tools, and master elementary processes and skills, are most truly repeating the history of the race. This, too, lays the best foundation for intellectual careers. The study of pure science as well as a higher technology follows rather than precedes this” (1: vol. i, p. 174). The danger here that should be guarded against is its tendency to narrow exclusiveness and too early specialization. Health and free development of body as well as of mind are apt to be sacrificed. However, utility is naturally its essential aim, and maximal efficiency of productive power is the standard of success; it ought to fit the pupil for the struggle of life. Such “struggle-for-lifeurs,” sturdy in arms and spirit, not “flabby, undeveloped, anæmic, easy-living city youth,” is the demand of modern America. Real industrial training is a man-making education.

Thus, according to Dr. Hall, character is to be built not upon Herbart’s coherent and compact system of ideas, but upon vigorous, well-developed, and perfectly coördinated muscles. However, this is not, of course, the whole of moral training. Will is to be made moral, not only to be strong and healthy. This moralization of will is the task of discipline.

Not unlike Dr. Harris, but more in the spirit of the father of English pedagogy, he posits that about the only duty of small children is habitual and prompt obedience. Nothing like the reasoning ground of conduct, or the free self-determination of will, for them; the extent of authority felt, revered, and depended upon is the measure of success. He thinks that “if our love is deep, obedience is an instinct if not a religion” for the child: “as the plant grows toward light, so they unfold in the direction of our wishes, felt as by divination” (2: p. 332).

Dr. Hall sees in the present trend of education more danger of becoming oversentimental than of falling into brutality; so he recommends “drastic reconstructions” of will, when habituation does not, as should be expected, run smoothly. He likens the corporal punishment to a sword in its scabbard: “it may be reserved, but should not get so rusted that it cannot be drawn on occasion”; and believes that “will culture for boys is rarely as thorough as it should be without more or less flogging” (2: pp. 338-339).

External authority, however, must find response in the intellectual motivation of the child as it grows, else it can avail but little educationally. “The various stimuli of discipline are to enforce the higher though weaker insights which the child has already unfolded, rather than to engraft entirely unintuited good,” and “we must not forget that even morality is relative, and is one thing for adults and quite often another for children” (2: p. 335).

The transition from the morality of authority and coercion to that of reason and free will may be bridged by simple, practical instructions. These are to be given in the form of a few well-chosen mottoes, proverbs, maxims, always clear cut, copiously illustrated, and well familiarized. Philosophic morality should be deprecated both for children and teachers. Every road of human activity leads to the great Rome of character. For Dr. Hall, “the highest and also immediate practical method of moral training” lies in intellectual work, concentrated, sustained, and inspirited. Mental work, in order to be serviceable to the production of healthy manhood, should be “a series of acts, or living thoughts and not words.” The lack of volitional initiative and reaction in the current form of mental training has caused “the general paralysis of cultured intellect.” Learning should be changed from a mere reception, as it is now, into the putting forth of self-activity. “It is the way and not the goal, the work and not the product, the acquiring and not the acquisition, that educates will and character” (2: p. 346). Then the spirit of thoroughness is the requisite for the intellectual training that at the same time trains the will. “Smattering is dissipation of energy. Only great, concentrated and prolonged efforts in one direction really train the mind, because only _they_ train the will beneath it” (2: p. 349). This is one of the educative forces of specialization.

To turn now to intellectual culture. In Dr. Hall’s opinion, the school stands essentially for the prolongation of human infancy and adolescence, and not so much for the initiation of the immature generation into the world of grown-ups; it means “the perpetuation of the primæval paradise created before the struggle for existence began” (8: p. 475).

From this viewpoint the kindergarten needs reconstruction. Here “a pound of health, growth, heredity is worth a ton of instruction.... Now the body needs most attention and the soul least” (8: p. 476). Not in the oversystematized and oversymbolized “occupations” and “games,” but in free, natural play children must have their true life. “Imitation should have a far larger scope” than at present, and precocious exercise of reasoning and thinking a less. “Part of the cult here should be idleness and the intermediate state of reverie” (8: p. 476).

At eight or nine the child enters a new period, lasting until puberty. The bodily growth is relatively at rest, but vitality, activity, and the power to resist disease and fatigue show an enormous increase. The age of reason is only dawning, and imitation is yet a strong motive power. “Demonstrate, show, envisage,” and not “explain” is to be the motto. “Children comprehend much and very rapidly if we can only refrain from explaining, but this slows down intuition, tends to make casuists and prigs, and to enfeeble the ultimate vigor of reason. It is the age of little method and much matter” (1: vol. ii, p. 452). A beginning in the fundamentals of all learning and skill which need technicalities is to be made; constant drill in these will form a stable automatic basis of mind. The qualities required of the teacher here are not so much those of the instructor as of “the captain of the boy’s gang.” He or she is to be able to lead, drive, and discipline more than to teach “the human colt, which is by nature in some sense the wildest of all wild animals.”

But with the teens there must come a total change in the mode of education. “Powers and faculties, essentially nonexistent before, are now born, and of all the older impulses and instincts some are reënforced and greatly developed, while others are subdued, so that new relations are established and the ego finds a new center” (1: vol. ii, p. 70). The child in the preceding period was well adjusted to his environment; his development was proportionate and relatively slow; and he lived content with himself in his own child world. He thus “represents probably an old and relatively perfected stage of race maturity”; which “stands for a long-continued one, a terminal stage of human development at some post-simian point” (1: vol. ii, p. 71). But with the advent of adolescence, this peaceful, primeval paradise is lost forever. The youth with its all-sided mobilization and with its intense enthusiasm enters into the conquest of a higher kingdom of manhood. The individual is now recapitulating a long viaticum of ascent which the race had to make with heat and ferment, with fight and defeat, before it evolved its historic stage of civilization. “Early adolescence is thus the infancy of man’s higher nature, when he receives from the great all-mother his last capital of energy and evolutionary momentum” (1: vol. ii, p. 71). “It is the most critical stage of life, because failure to mount almost always means retrogression, degeneracy, or fall” (1: vol. ii, p. 72). Indeed, one of the greatest problems of civilization, therefore of education, is how to make “the earlier stages of adolescence ever surer and safer, and its later possibilities ever greater and prolonged.”

Coercion and prescription can be no longer imposed without serious injuries. “Individuality must have a longer tether” (1: vol. ii, p. 453). This is preeminently the period of variation, which means nothing else than evolution. Each of the impulses, instincts, and dispositions, which represent the voices of bygone generations, shall have a free struggle for expression. “Its function is to stimulate the next higher power that can only thus be provoked to development, in order to direct, repress, or supersede it.” So-called lower faculties or instincts, if artificially and prematurely suppressed, may “break out well on in adult life, falsetto notes mingling with manly base as strange puerilities” (1: vol. ii, pp. 89-90).

The educator is now essentially to be a teacher, not a drillmaster; he must know plenty and teach plenty; he must be generous and indulgent in his giving, and not exacting in requiring returns from the pupil. “The teacher’s cue is now to graft the soul all over with buds and scions, and not to try to gather a harvest” (8: p. 485). Recitation and examination methods are harmful both to the intellect and the will. Morselizing the knowledge and insisting upon methodical steps starve the adolescent soul, which, being “all insight and receptivity,” wants to devour great wholes.

Dr. Hall makes an ardent plea for the independence of the high school from the control of the higher institutions, making it “the peoples’ college,” complete in itself. It stands to meet peculiar needs of the unique stage of life, with a distinct function of its own. It “should primarily fit for nothing, but exploit and develop to the utmost all the powers” (1: vol. ii, p. 525).

The nineteenth year in boys marks an epoch. It is a time for adjustment and rest after the rank growth. It is a period of systematic rounding up, following the all-sided mobilization. The liberal education of the college is provided here, for those who are favored by circumstances. It is to be an essentially cultural and humanistic institution, broadly propædeutic and preparatory to the career of mature manhood. Therefore, college “should stand for extensive more than intensive study.... It implies knowing something of everything more than everything of something” (1: vol. ii, p. 528). Not scientific or professional acquirement, still less mastery, but training and discipline of mind is the aim. The teacher “should address his efforts more to the upper and less to the lower half of his class, forage widely and incessantly, and bring everything within reach in his field to them.... Mental awakening should be his goal, and he should inspire them to read for pleasure, for the only real measure of culture is the number and kinds of things done for the love of them.... The test of success here is the number of interests and the intensity of curiosity aroused far more than the size of the body of knowledge laid away in the memory” (1: vol. ii, p. 530).

As to university education, the fundamental notions of Dr. Hall are a clearer and more definite statement of those of Bacon and Fichte, which the modern advancement of science and his own experience as a university president have enabled him to make. The university stands chiefly for specialization in scholarship. Its inspiration is the conquest of truth, extension of the domain of human knowledge, and consequently of human power. Its education is in and for and by a free, though at first guided and assisted, investigation. Not merely accumulating what has already been found and refined, but digging out yet undiscovered mines of facts and laws, is its chief task. The university in this sense is the culmination of adolescent education. It cultivates in the youth the creative ability which does not, like the mere carrying capacity, weigh down the possessor; the sense of I-can-do-something-important, which gives one confidence, and poise, an enthusiasm which is not fanatic, a genuine attitude of respect, even of reverence for the efforts of all seekers for truth. It calls forth “truthfulness, integrity, morality in every direction, self-sacrifice, and what perhaps includes them all, enthusiasm for the highest ideals of living and thinking,” by laying demands upon these best qualities in man’s character.

The right of a larger manhood has been the claim of all the educational reformers deserving the name. The unfolding of the total man has been their repeated assertion. But they have always fallen into one or another form of one-sidedness--mainly on account of their narrow conception of the human soul. Here comes another renovator with his “new psychology,” which he believes “will surely take the place of the older concepts of soul, as the theory of evolution has taken the place of those of life,” and claims for it the potency of bringing about a total reconstruction of our educational spirit and methods. His own pedagogy is a still incomplete, unfinished, and ever-enlarging construction. But he opens the way for the philosophy of education, which is to be “one with that of history and of life,” and predicts with the zeal and vision of a prophet its future position:

“If evolution is true, the time will come, as certainly as the sun will rise to-morrow, when it (pedagogy) will be the basis of a new harmony, unity, and organization of the sciences, and instead of being the Cinderella in their circle, it will supply the criterion by which they are all judged; it will grade and evaluate each product of culture” (4: p. 383).

REFERENCES

1. +Harris, William Torrey.+ Report of the Subcommittee on the Correlation of Studies in Elementary Education. _Educational Review_, Vol. IX, March, 1895, pp. 230-289.

2. ---- Social Culture in the Form of Education and Religion. Proceedings of International Congress of Arts and Sciences. Houghton & Mifflin Co., New York and Boston, 1907. Vol. VIII, pp. 1-16.

3. ---- Psychologic Foundations of Education; an Attempt to Show the Genesis of the Higher Faculties of the Mind. (International Education Series.) Appleton, New York, 1894. 400 pages.

4. ---- Lectures on the Philosophy of Education. Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science. Supplementary notes. Eleventh series, 1893, pp. 269-277.

5. ---- Prescription, its Province in Education. Proceedings of American Institute of Instruction, 1871, pp. 127-151.

6. ---- Vocation _versus_ Culture. Proceedings of American Institute of Instruction, 1891, pp. 1-20.

7. ---- Moral Education in the Common Schools. Proceedings of American Institute of Instruction, 1884. Lectures, pp. 29-46.

8. ---- The Relation of School Discipline to Moral Education. Herbartian Year Book, No. 3, 1897, pp. 58-72.

9. ---- Relation of Women to the Trades and Professions. _Educational Review_, October, 1900, Vol. XX, pp. 217-229.

10. ---- The Use of Higher Education. _Educational Review_, September, 1898, Vol. XVI, pp. 147-161.

11. ---- Educational Policy for Our New Possessions. _Educational Review_, September, 1899, Vol. XVIII, pp. 105-118.

12. ---- The Future of the Normal School. _Educational Review_, January, 1899, Vol. XVII, pp. 1-15.

13. ---- How the School Strengthens the Individuality of the Pupil. _Educational Review_, October, 1902, Vol. XXIV, pp. 228-237.

14. Prof. John Dewey’s Doctrine as Related to Will. _Educational Review_, May, 1896, Vol. XI, pp. 486-493.

REFERENCES

1. +Hall, Granville Stanley.+ Adolescence; its Psychology and its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion. Appleton, New York, 1905. 2 vols.

2. ---- Youth; its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene. Appleton, New York, 1906. 369 pages.

3. ---- and Some of his Pupils. Aspects of Child Life and Education. Ginn & Co., Boston, 1907. 326 pages.

4. ---- What is Pedagogy? _Pedagogical Seminary_, December, 1905. Vol. XII, pp. 375-383.

5. ---- Confessions of a Psychologist. _Pedagogical Seminary_, March, 1901. Vol. VIII, pp. 92-143.

6. ---- Moral and Religious Training of Children and Adolescents. _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1891, pp. 196-210.

7. ---- Moral Education and Will Training. _Pedagogical Seminary_, June, 1892, pp. 72-98.

8. ---- The Ideal School, as Based on Child Study. Proceedings of National Education Association, 1901, pp. 475-488. (Also in _Forum_, September, 1901, Vol. XXXII, pp. 24-39.)

9. ---- The High School or the People’s College versus the Fitting School. Proceedings of National Education Association, 1902. (Also in _Pedagogical Seminary_, March, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 63-73.)

10. ---- What is Research in a University Sense and How May it Best be Promoted? _Pedagogical Seminary_, March, 1902, Vol. IX, pp. 74-80.

11. ---- Pedagogy of History. _Pedagogical Seminary_, September, 1905, Vol. XII, pp. 339-349.

12. ---- How to Teach Reading and What to Read in School. Heath & Co., Boston, 1890. 40 pages.

13. ---- Coeducation in the High School. Proceedings of National Education Association, 1903, pp. 446-460.

14. ---- The Question of Coeducation. _Munsey_, February, 1906. Vol. XXXIV, pp. 588-592. (Also in _Bulletin of American Academy of Medicine_, October, 1906, Vol. VII, pp. 653-656.)

15. +Russel, Elias Harlow.+ Biographical Sketch of President Hall. (In _American Journal of Insanity_, October, 1896, Vol. LIII, pp. 317-322.)

INDEX

Adolescence, 28, 82-89, 109-110, 262-264, 280-282, 284, 286-290.

Alsted, 19.

Andreä, 19.

Arithmetic, 135, 178.

Association, 52, 206.

Athenian education, 2-3.

Attention, 50-51, 129, 208-209, 233, 255.

Bacon, 12-15.
mentioned, 18, 30, 38, 39, 52, 54, 223, 225, 226, 289.
on higher education, 15.
on knowledge, 12-14.

Barnard, quoted, 146.

Basedow, 93-98.
fundamental principles of didactics, 96-97.
ideal education, 95.
influence of, 94, 97-98.
language instruction, 95-96.
mentioned, 103, 105, 113, 139.
“Philalethie,” 94.
physical culture, 95-96.

Bible, 8, 27.

Boardman, quoted, 189-190.

Bodily faculty, A. B. C. of, 151.

Boyhood, 28, 77-82, 179-186, 253-261, 270-274, 280, 283-286.

Browning, on Locke, 38.
on Rousseau, 61.

Campanella, 19.

Carlyle, on Rousseau, 59, 60.

Character. See Moral Training.

Child-study movement, 277-278.

Childhood, 28, 71-77, 133-137, 174-179, 252-253, 270, 280, 282-283,
285.
early, 28, 69-71, 173-174, 252.

Chinese, compared with Greeks, 1.

Christianity, influence of, on education, 3-12.

Church, education by, 4-5.
service of Catholic, 7.

Cicero, quoted, 3.

Circle of thought, 206.

Civilization and education, 268-269.

Classics, 5, 10, 14, 26, 39, 48-49, 94, 162, 225, 228, 257.

Coeducation, 157, 293.

Comenius, 18-31.
compared with Locke. See Locke.
early education advocated, 22-24.
existing schools criticised, 24-26.
“Great Didactic,” 20, 29, 35.
ideal of education, 20-21, 29, 35.
mentioned, 68, 89, 94, 96, 119-120, 138, 139, 194, 276-277.
on discipline, 25-26.
on function of school, 24.
on method, 26-28.
on necessity of education, 21-22.
on necessity of school, 23-24.
on school system, 28.
on subject-matter, 26.
“Orbis Pictus,” 96.

Compayré, on Froebel, 192-193.
on Greek influence on education, 1.
on Luther, 7.

Comte, 230.

Concentration-center, 213-214.

Coöperation, 155-156, 162-163, 216.

Corporal punishment, 43-44, 283.

Cosmopolitanism, 110.

Culture stages, 213-214.

Curiosity, 50, 253.

Dancing, 48.

Davidson, on Rousseau, 61.

Developmental stages, 68-69, 124, 169, 171-173, 213, 251-252.

Discipline, 10, 25-26, 42-46, 102-103, 152, 214-215, 234-236, 250-251,
259-260, 270-272, 282-283.
See also Moral Training.

Domestic work, 12, 129-130, 136-137, 178-179, 183-184.

Drawing, 177-178.

Education, academic, 15, 159-164, 239-240.
Athenian, 2-3.
by nature, 64-66.
early, 22-23, 69-77, 101-103, 133-137, 173-179, 252-253, 270, 280,
282-283, 285.
economic, 155-157.
efferent, 181-184.
elementary, 133-137, 272-274.
in middle ages, 4-5.
industrial, 137-139, 281-282.
intellectual, 10, 15, 25-28, 48-54, 66-68, 72-74, 76-77, 79-82, 87,
88, 95-96, 104-106, 133-136, 148-151, 159-164, 174, 178, 179, 180-181,
184, 185, 206-214, 225-233, 239-240, 254-259, 268, 272-275, 284-290.
liberal, 288.

man-making, 282.
moral, 10, 25, 42-46, 83-89, 106-110, 112-113, 132, 136-137,
152-155, 181-182, 205-207, 214-215, 236-238, 250-251, 259-261,
270-272, 279, 282-284.
national, 144.
of adolescents, 28, 82-89, 109-110, 262-264, 280-282, 284, 286-290.
of boys, 28, 77-82, 179-186, 253-261, 270-274, 280, 283-286.
physical, 1, 10, 40-41, 54, 65, 69, 71-75, 101, 103-104, 151,
173-174, 182-183, 236-238, 280-281.
private, 55-56, 217.
See also Home Training.
“psychologizing,” 124.
public, 2-3, 55-56, 101, 144, 216-217, 238-243, 268.
religious, 83, 110-113, 158-159, 260-261.
Roman, 3.
Spartan, 2-3.
uniform, opposed, 3, 240-243.
universal, advocated by Comenius, 22.
university, 15, 161-164, 289-290.

Educational ideals, 1-3, 4, 5, 6-7, 11-12, 15, 21, 24, 40, 63, 95,
99-100, 122, 146-147, 169, 203, 227, 250-251, 268, 278.

Emotion, 63, 84-85, 87, 128-129, 133, 153-154, 182, 204, 239, 261, 278.

Emulation, 23, 55, 109.

Evolutionary ideas, 169-170, 213, 230-232, 248-249, 278-279, 290.

Examination, 163, 288.

Fairy tales, 184-185, 213.

Family. See Home Training.

Fichte, 143-164.
“Addresses to the German Nation,” 145.
“Aphorisms on Education,” 147.
“Characteristics of the Present Age,” 152.
first essentials of new education, 152.
mentioned, 113, 195, 245, 246, 248, 259, 263, 289.
on moral training, 152-155.
on academic education, 159-164.
on coeducation, 157.
on home, 154-155.
on manual work, 156.
on Pestalozzi, 140.
on religious education, 158-159.
on university education, 161-164.
plan of an educational community, 154-157.

Formal steps of instruction, 209.

Formative instinct, 183-184.

Froebel, 166-196.

“Education of Man,” 168, 193.
evolutionary idea of education, 169-170.
mentioned, 199, 200, 250, 258.
on arithmetic, 178.
on education of boys, 179-186.
on domestic work, 178-179, 182, 183-184.
on drawing, 177-178.
on early education, 173-179.
on efferent education, 181-184.
on harmonious development, 171.
on ideal of education, 169.
on kindergarten, 180-181, 186-192.
on mathematics, 178.
on play, 174-175, 182-183.
on rhythm, 176.
on school, 181.
on songs, 185-186.
on speech, 174, 175-176, 179-180.
on stories, 184-185.
pedagogy of, characterized, 166-168, 192-196.
“Prospectus of an institution for the Training of Nurses and
Educators of Children,” 190.

Grammar, 54, 228, 257, 273.

Genetic psychology, 278.

Greek, language and culture, 14, 39, 162, 257.

Greek ideals of education, 1-3.

Gymnastics, 151, 237, 281.

Habit, 41, 49, 95, 101, 102-103, 105, 153-154, 157, 178, 270-271, 279.

Hall, G. Stanley, 276-290.
on adolescence, 282, 283, 286, 288.
on college education, 288-289.
on discipline, 282-283.
on education of boys, 282-283, 285-286.
on Froebel, 193.
on industrial education, 281-282.
on intellectual education, 284-290.
on kindergarten, 285.
on moral training, 279, 282-284.
on motor training, 279-282.
on play, 281.
on teachers, 286, 287-289.
on university education, 289-290.
on harmonious development, 287.
pedagogy of, characterized, 278-279, 290.
psychology of, 278-279.

Harmonious development, 1, 12, 21, 24, 40, 71, 94-95, 105, 121-123,
130-131, 136-137, 157, 170-172, 206-208, 227, 280, 287-288.

Harnisch, on Pestalozzi, 139.

Harris, William T., 267-276.
on elementary education, 273-274.
on higher education, 274.
on intellectual education, 268, 269, 272-275.
on manual training, 273.
on moral training, 270-272.
on school, 268, 271.
pedagogy of, characterized, 267-268, 276.
school and home compared, 271-272.
subject-matter, 272-273.

Hegel, 245-266.
“Ages of Man,” 251.
education defined by, 248-251.
mentioned, 267-268.
on adolescence, 262-264.
on classics, 257.
on early education, 252-253.
on education of boys, 253-261.
on grammar, 257.
on intellectual education, 254-259.
on logic, 257.
on manhood, 264.
on mathematics, 257, 259.
on memory, 256.
on moral training, 250-251, 259-261.
on old age, 265.
on school, 258-259.
on subject-matter, 257-258.
pedagogy of, characterized, 245-248, 265-266.

Heinemann, quoted, 189.

Herbart, 199-219.
end of education, 203.
mentioned, 119, 248, 265.
on attention, 208-209.
on discipline, 214-215.
on home training, 216-217.
on instruction, 206-214.
on interest, 206-209.
on moral training, 205-207, 214-215.
on state education, 216-217.
pedagogy of, characterized, 199-203, 215-216.
psychology of, 203-205, 218-219.

Heredity, 170-171, 278-279, 281, 282, 285, 286-287.

Herr von Arnswald, quoted, 188.

High school, 288.

Higher education, 15, 28, 161-164, 274, 288-290.

Home training, 3, 8, 12, 23, 55-56, 70, 100-101, 124-137, 155,
178-179, 182, 183, 184, 187-188, 216-217, 241, 261, 268, 271.

Honor, 45.

Hotho, quoted, 246.

Humanism, 5-6.

Infant schools, 188.

Institutions, private, 217.

Instruction. See Learning, Intellectual Education, and Subject-Matter.
analytic, 210-211.
presentative, 210.
synthetic, 211-212.

Interest, 27, 50, 51, 77-81, 104-105, 127, 147, 206-209, 233, 253-254,
255, 268-269, 289.
See also Natural Development, Spontaneous Activity.

Jahn, 96, 151.

Kant, 98-114.
compared with Locke, 102-103.
compared with Rousseau, 98-99.
mentioned, 41, 143-144, 153-154, 169, 200-203, 257.
on adolescence, 109.
on discipline, 102-103.
on emulation, 109-110.
on home training, 100-101.
on ideal of education, 99-100.
on manners, 106.
on mental culture, 104-106.
on moral education, 106-110, 112-113.
on physical culture, 103-104.
on play, 104-105.
on religious education, 110-113.
on sex pedagogy, 109-110.
on state education, 110.
on sympathy, 108-109.
pedagogy of, characterized, 98-99.

Kindergarten, 28, 180, 186-192, 258, 285.

Krüsi, on Pestalozzi, 116.

La Chalotais, 93.

Language, Bible as text-book of, 8.
instruction in, 10, 28, 54, 73, 95, 96, 151, 162, 176, 212, 228,
257, 272-273.
See also Speech and Vernacular.

Laurie, on Comenius, 19.
on Locke, 37.

Learning, discussed by Bacon, 12-15.
Comenius, 25-28.
Fichte, 147-151, 162-164.
Froebel, 174, 181.
Hall, 284-290.
Harris, 268-270, 272-275.
Hegel, 253-258.
Herbart, 206-212.
Kant, 104-106.
Locke, 48-55.
Pestalozzi, 131-137.
Rousseau, 65-68, 71-82, 87, 88.
Spencer, 225-228, 230-233.

Leibnitz, on Locke, 37.

Locke, 35-56.
compared with Comenius, 35-38, 54-56.
compared with Kant, 102-103.
influence on English education, 38.
mentioned, 59, 89, 94, 96, 99, 113, 139, 203, 224, 237.
on attention and association, 50-52.

on dancing, 48.
on discipline, 42-45.
on example and company, 45-46.
on Greek, 39.
on honor, 44-45.
on learning, 48-55.
on logic, 52.
on manners, 47-48.
on mathematics, 52.
on memory, 52-53.
on play instinct, 42-43.
on principles of hygiene, 40-41.
on punishment, 43-44.
on subject-matter, 54.
psychology of, 41-42, 52-53.

Logic, 52, 135, 257.

Luther, 7-12.
mentioned, 19, 145, 146.
on discipline, 9-10.
on home training, 8, 10, 12.
on relation of religion and
education, 8-9.
on school, 9-10, 12.
on subject-matter, 10, 12.
on teachers, 9-11.

Madame de Staël, on Rousseau, 59-60.

Mager, on Pestalozzi, 120.

Manhood, 264.

Manners, 47-48, 106, 270-271.

Manual training, 12, 54, 88, 94-95, 136-139, 155-157, 162, 168,
183-184, 273, 281.

Marenholz-Bülow, on Froebel, 187.

Mathematics, 52, 178, 257.

Memory, 52-53, 256.

Method, 26-28, 42, 242, 275.

Military drill, 258.

Montaigne, 39, 40.

Mother, 125-129, 134, 187-188, 190, 261, 270.
See also Parents.

Morley, on Rousseau, 62.

Motor training, 71-72, 74-75, 95-96, 103-104, 129, 136-139, 151,
155-157, 162, 168, 173-179, 181-184, 188, 237-238, 258, 279-282.

Munroe, on Froebel, 166, 192.

Muscles. See Motor Training.

Music. See Songs.

Natural development, 122-124, 229-231.
See also Spontaneous Activity.

Nature, 13, 27, 62-64.

Niemeyer, on “Émile,” 61.

Parents, 10, 23, 43, 46, 69-70, 100-101, 107, 129, 133, 171, 172, 179,
189, 216-217, 228, 234, 235, 242-243, 250, 261.
See also Home Training and Mother.

Perception of A. B. C. of, 150-151, 200.

Pestalozzi, 116-140.
“Christopher and Alice,” 125.
compared with Rousseau, 124-125.

elementary method of education, 133-137.
function of education, 123.
“How Gertrude Taught Children,” 131.
“Leonard and Gertrude,” 131.
mentioned, 149-151, 159, 169, 190, 194-196, 199-201, 218, 223, 229,
234, 257, 259, 273.
“New Year’s Address,” 121-122.
on harmonious education, 121, 123, 136.
on home, 126-132.
on ideal of education, 121.
on industrial education, 137-139.
on moral training, 128-129, 132, 133.
on motor training, 136-137, 138-139.
on nature’s method, 132-133.
pedagogy of, characterized, 117-120.
“Swan Song,” 132, 133.

Philanthropium, 94, 96, 98.

Play, 42-43, 103-105, 174-175, 182-183, 238, 281.

Prescription, 254, 269, 270-271, 287.

Protestantism, 6-7.

Psychology, genetic, 278.
national, 274-275.
of Hall, 278-279.
of Herbart, 203-205.
of Locke, 41-42, 52-53.

Puberty, 82-87, 109-110, 280-281, 286-287.

Public school versus private education, 55-56, 125-128, 216-217,
271-272.

Punishment, 43-44, 214, 235, 287.

Pythagoras, 255.

Quick, on Froebel, 193.

Rabelais, 19, 39.

Ratke, 19.

Recitation, 275, 288.

Reformation, 5-7, 11-12, 31.

Rein, 214.
on Herbart, 202.

Religion and education, relation of, 8-9, 19.

Renaissance, 5-6, 11-12.

Rhythm, 176.

Roman education, 3.

Rousseau, 59-90.
“Émile,” 61.
mentioned, 41, 93-94, 96, 97, 98-99, 103, 113, 119, 124, 159, 169,
171, 172, 186-187, 194, 201, 223, 229, 235, 250, 261, 267.
on adolescent education, 87-89.
on book study, 63-68, 72-73.
on duty of parents, 69-70.
on early education, 64-67, 70-71.
on education by activity, 64, 67-68, 71-72, 74-75.
on education by inaction, 65-66.

on education by nature, 63-65, 89.
on ideal boyhood, 81-82.
on ideal childhood, 76-77.
on the origin of intellectual interest, 78-79.
on preadolescent education, 77-82.
on puberty, 82-87.
on science instruction, 66-68, 79-81.
on work interest, 81.
pedagogy of, characterized, 59-62, 89-90.
sex pedagogy, 83-88.
social-settlement anticipated, 88-89.
stages of natural development, 68-69.

Rosenkranz, 245.

Scholars, vocation of, discussed by Fichte, 160-161, 163-164.

School, 9-10, 12, 24-26, 55-56, 181, 258, 268, 271, 272, 284-285.
See also teachers.

Schneider, on Pestalozzi, 139.

Science, instruction in, 66-68, 79-81, 282.
value of, 227-228.

Self-activity, 147-149, 155, 160-163, 171, 208, 254, 256, 269,
273-275.
See also Spontaneous Activity.

Self-expression, 174-175, 177.

Self-instruction, 232-235.

Sensation, A. B. C. of, 150-151.

Sex pedagogy, 83-88, 109-110.

Silence, 255, 272.

Social nursery, 188.

Solger, quoted, 247.

Songs, 10, 185-186.

Spartan education, 2-3.

Speech, 70, 133-135, 151, 174-176, 179, 180, 252-253.
See also Language.

Spencer, 223-243.
“Education, intellectual,
moral, physical,” 243.
mentioned, 267.
on aim of education, 226-227.
on classics, 225, 228.
on intellectual education, 225-233.
on method, 242.
on moral training, 233, 236.
on physical education, 236-238.
on state education, 238-243.
on value of science, 227-228.
pedagogy of, characterized, 223-224.

Spielmann, on Comenius, 30.
on Herbart, 217-218.

Spontaneous activity, 170-171, 180, 188, 192, 280.
See also Natural Development, Self-activity and Self-instruction.

State education, 2-3, 101, 144, 216-217, 238-243, 268.

Stoicism, 3.

Stories, 184-185.

Subject-matter, 10, 12, 26, 53-54, 208, 227-228, 257-258, 272-273.

Teachers, 9-11, 127-128, 203, 216, 250, 271.

Temming, on Kant, 113.

Text-books, 275.

Vernacular, 19, 26.

Vives, 19.

Work interest, 51, 81, 105, 253-254.

Youth. See Adolescence.

Ziegler, on Kant, 113.

Ziller, 213-214.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES.

_12mo, cloth, uniform binding._

THE INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION SERIES was projected for the purpose of bringing together in orderly arrangement the best writings new and old, upon educational subjects, and presenting a complete course of reading and training for teachers generally. It is edited by +William T. Harris+. LL D., United States Commissioner of Education, who has contributed for the different volumes in the way of introduction, analysis, and commentary.

1. =The Philosophy of Education.= By +Johann K. F. Rosenkranz+, Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy. University of Königsberg. Translated by +Anna C. Brackett+. Second edition, revised, with Commentary and complete Analysis. $1.50.

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8. =Memory: What it is and How to Improve it.= By +David Kay+, F. R. G. S., author of “Education and Educators,” etc. $1.50.

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11. =Education in the United States: Its History from the Earliest Settlements.= By +Richard G. Boone+, A.M., Professor of Pedagogy, Indiana University. $1.50.

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38. =The School System of Ontario.= By the Hon. +George W. Ross+, LL. D., Minister of Education for the Province of Ontario. $1.00.

39. =Principles and Practice of Teaching.= By +James Johonnot+. $1.50.

40. =School Management and Methods.= By +Joseph Baldwin+. $1.50.

41. =Froebel’s Educational Laws for all Teachers.= By +James L. Hughes+, Inspector of Schools, Toronto. $1.50.

42. =Bibliography of Education.= By +Will S. Monroe+, A. B. $2.00.

43. =The Study of the Child.= By +A. R. Taylor+, Ph.D. $1.50.

44. =Education by Development.= By +Friedrich Froebel+. Translated by +Josephine Jarvis+. $1.50.

45. =Letters to a Mother.= By +Susan E. Blow+. $1.50.

46. =Montaigne’s The Education of Children.= Translated by +L. E. Rector+, Ph. D. $1 00.

47. =The Secondary School System of Germany.= By +Frederick E. Bolton+. $1.50.

48. =Advanced Elementary Science.= By +Edward G. Howe+. $1.50.

49. =Dickens as an Educator.= By +James L. Hughes+. $1.50.

50. =Principles of Education Practically Applied.= By +James M. Greenwood+. Revised. $1.00.

51. =Student Life and Customs.= By +Henry D. Sheldon+, Ph.D. $1.20 net.

52. =An Ideal School.= By +Preston W. Search+. $1.20 net.

53. =Later Infancy of the Child.= By +Gabriel Compayré+. Translated by +Mary E. Wilson+. Part II of Vol. 35. $1.20 net.

54. =The Educational Foundations of Trade and Industry.= By +Fabian Ware+. $1.20 net.

55. =Genetic Psychology for Teachers.= By +Charles H. Judd+, Ph.D. $1.20 net.

56. =The Evolution of the Elementary Schools of Great Britain.= By +James C. Greenough+, A.M., LL. D. $1.20 net.

57. =Thomas Platter and the Educational Renaissance of the Sixteenth Century.= By +Paul Monroe+. $1.20 net.

58. =Educational Issues in the Kindergarten.= By +Susan E. Blow+. $1.50 net.

OTHER VOLUMES IN PREPARATION.

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.

AN IMPORTANT EDUCATIONAL HISTORY.

A History of Higher Education in America.

By Dr. +Charles F. Thwing+, President of Western Reserve University and author of “College Training and the Business Man.” Cloth, $3.00 net; postage additional.

This volume, as its title implies, is a brief but comprehensive history of the higher education in America from the foundation of the first college down to the present day. All the larger colleges in each section of the country--their inception, growth, methods, present position, etc.--are discussed fully and accurately, and altogether the work forms a complete and authoritative history of the development of one of the most important factors in the advancement of the nation, the higher education.

“The President of Western Reserve University, a graduate of Harvard thirty years ago, has rendered a good service to the students of education, in this country and abroad, by the preparation of an historical volume which is full and comprehensive.... The supporters of superior education are certainly grateful to the author for bringing together such a mass of details on this important subject.”--_New York Evening Post._

“The book has a very distinct character of its own: first, it does not contain an uninteresting page; the reader who takes it up is likely to read from page to page and from chapter to chapter until he reaches the end.... The book is conceived and executed in a large and generous spirit, combines accuracy and interest in an unusual degree, and is a notable addition to the literature of our educational history.”--_The Dial._

“This is the first adequate modern book on higher education in America that has appeared, and it is also President Thwing’s best work. It is good history, good literature, and good professional reading.”--_Boston Journal of Education._

“A careful and comprehensive history of higher education in America, which will fill a permanent place in the literature of educational subjects.”--_Boston Evening Transcript._

“The history is the result of persevering research and careful study. It is judiciously arranged and admirably written. Undoubtedly the book will immediately take its place as a standard presentation of an important and difficult subject.”--_Cleveland Plain Dealer._

D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK.