Chapter X: Part 10

The larvæ of insects, which feed beneath the surface of the earth, may be bred in the following manner: Let any box that is about three or four feet square, and two or three feet deep, be lined internally with tin, and a number of very minute holes be bored through the sides and bottom. Put into this box a quantity of earth, replete with such vegetables as the caterpillars subsist on, and sink it into a bed of earth, so that the surface may be exposed to the different changes of the weather. The lid should be covered with brass or iron network, to prevent their escape, and for the free admission of air.

The young entomologist should obtain a cabinet of about thirty drawers, arranged in two tiers, and covered in with folding doors. There is a great convenience in this size, as the cabinet is rendered more portable, and at the same time admits of having another of the same size, being placed above the top of it, as the collection increases, without injuring the uniformity, and thus the drawers may be augmented to any extent. It is immaterial whether the cabinet is made of mahogany or oak; sometimes they are constructed of cedar, but seldom of pine, or any other soft wood. Small cells must be made in the inside of the fronts for camphor.

=Corking of Drawers.= The simplest way to get the cork is to purchase it of a cork-cutter, ready prepared, but it will be much cheaper for the entomologist to prepare it himself. In this case, it should be cut into strips of about three inches wide, with a cork-cutter’s knife, to smooth the surface and to divide it. The strips should be fixed in a vice, and cut to the thickness required with a fine saw; but grease must not be used in the operation, as it will not only prevent the cork from adhering to the bottom of the drawer, but will also grease the paper which should be pasted on its surface. The black surface of the cork should be rasped down to a smooth surface. After having reduced the slips to about three quarters of an inch in thickness, the darkest, or worst side of the slip should be glued down to a sheet of brown, or cartridge paper; this should be laid on a deal board, about three feet in length, and the width required for a drawer or box; a few fine nails, or brads, must be driven through each piece of cork to keep it firm and in its place until the glue is dried; by this means, sheets of cork may be formed the size of the drawer. All the irregularities are filed or rasped down quite to a level surface, and then polished smooth with pumice-stone. The sheet, thus formed and finished, is glued into the drawers. To prevent its warping, some weights must be equally distributed over the cork, that it may adhere firmly to the bottom of the drawer. When quite dry, the weights are removed, and the cork covered with fine white paper, but not very thick. The paper is allowed to be quite damp with the paste before it is placed on the cork, and when dry it will become perfectly tight.

Insect cabinets should be kept in a very dry situation, otherwise the antennæ, legs, etc., will become quite mouldy. The same evil will ensue if the insect is not perfectly dry before it is placed in the cabinet.—Should an insect be covered with mold it can be washed off with a camel’s hair pencil, dipped in camphorated spirits of wine; in which case, the insect must be dried in a warm airy situation, before being placed in the cabinet.

There should always be plenty of camphor kept in the drawers, otherwise there is great danger to be apprehended from mites; where these exist, they are easily discovered by the dust which is under the insects by which they are infested. In which case, they must be immediately taken out, and rubbed clean with a fine camel’s hair pencil, and well imbued with the solution of corrosive sublimate, and then placed near a fire, taking care, however, that too great a heat is not applied, as it will utterly destroy the specimen. The butterfly, sphinx and moth tribes are extremely liable to the attack of mites, and should, therefore, be frequently examined.

SHELL FISH, TO PRESERVE—AND THE ART OF POLISHING SHELLS.

Cuttle fish, and all other molluscous animals, can only be preserved in spirits. The same observation applies to the animals which inhabit that numerous tribe called Testaceous Shells. They must be detached from the shells, and put into spirits, while the shells themselves must be preserved, independent of the animal.

Shells naturally arrange themselves under three distinct heads: Marine, Land, and Fluviatile, or Fresh Water.

Marine shells are only to be expected perfect, when procured in a living state. The way to extract the animal is to pour some warm water on it; but, if too hot, it is liable to crack the shells. When the animals are dead, they can easily be pulled out with any hooked instrument, or fork, or if the animal is small, by a common pin. This applies to all marine shells; whether univalve, bivalve or tubular. It is of great consequence to preserve the ligament of bivalve shells entire, so that the valves may not be separated. The animals of land and fresh water shells are killed by the same means, only that the water requires to be very hot.

Unless the shells are covered with extraneous matter, it is not necessary to clean them. Marine shells are, however, very liable to be incrusted with other marine bodies, particularly with serpula and balani, etc. These must be started off by means of a sharp instrument; an engraving tool is well adapted for this purpose. This must be done with great caution, in species which have spines, and other excrescences, as they are very liable to be broken. Should any of the calcareous matter still adhere, this must be removed, by applying to it a _very weak_ mixture of muriatic acid and water, applied with the point of a quill, and then plunged into water, and allowed to remain till the acid is quite extracted. But on no account whatever attempt to eradicate these parasitic bodies by means of acid, or acid and water alone, as the chances are that the shell will be completely destroyed by their application. We have seen many fine and valuable shells destroyed by an injudicious application of acids—they should never be used when it can possibly be avoided. We have, on the other hand, seen shells which were so completely enveloped in calcareous crust, that it was impossible to trace their external surface, most thoroughly cleared of all this, without being touched at all by acids, the whole being removed by a small knife or other sharp instrument; and these, in many cases, having long and tender spines externally.

Nothing can be more monstrous than the application of pumice-stone, which some recommend, for polishing shells; as is also the use of tripoli, rotten-stone, and emery. Neither do we approve the application of varnishes, as such shells never have their natural luster.

If a shell is found dead upon the beach it is probable that it will have undergone a certain degree of decomposition, that is, it will have parted with part of its animal matter, and consequently the colors will have faded and the surface present a chalky appearance. To remove this take a small proportion of Florence oil and apply it to the surface, when the colors which were invisible will appear. When completely saturated with oil let the shell be rubbed dry and placed in a cabinet. Oil may also be applied after acid has been used, and it will be found extremely useful when applied to dry the epidermis, which it will prevent from cracking or quitting the shell entirely, which it frequently does.

Whether marine shells are procured in a living or dead state, a very necessary precaution is to immerse them in pure tepid water after the animal has been extracted, and allow them to continue in it for an hour or two so as completely to extract any salt or acid which may be in them.

Fresh water shells are liable to a calcareous or earthy incrustation, which must be removed by immersing them in warm water, and afterwards scraping and brushing them with a nail or toothbrush. Much nicety is necessary in cleaning these, as their great thinness renders them, in general, liable to be broken. A little Florence oil will improve the appearance of the epidermis and render it less liable to crack.

Land shells seldom require any cleaning except washing in water, as they are not liable to incrustations of any kind.

When shells are perforated by marine animals, or otherwise broken, if the specimen is rare, it is desirable to remedy these defects as far as possible; they may therefore be filled up, or pieces added to them with the cement, which may be colored when dry to its original state.

=Of Polishing Shells.= Many species of marine and fresh water shells are composed of mother-of-pearl, generally covered with a strong epidermis. When it is wished to exhibit the external structure of shells, the epidermis is removed and the outer testaceous coatings polished down till the pearlaceous structure becomes visible. It has been a common practice to remove the strong epidermis of shells by means of strong acids, but this is a hazardous and tedious mode of operating. The best method is to put the shells into a pan of cold water with a quantity of quicklime and boil it for two to four hours, according to the thickness of the epidermis. The shells afterwards must be gradually cooled, and some strong acid applied to the epidermis, when it will easily peel off. Two hours are sufficient for the common muscle being boiled. The shells are afterwards polished with rotten-stone and oil, put on a piece of chamois leather.

The epidermis of the uno margaritifera is so thick that it requires from four to five hours boiling. After the epidermis has been removed, there is beneath it a thick layer of dull, calcareous matter, which must be started off with a knife or other sharp instrument; this requires great labor, but, when accomplished, a fine mother-of-pearl is exhibited which adds an agreeable variety as a specimen.

Various turbos and trochuses are also deprived of their epidermis and polished with files, sand-paper, pumice-stone, etc., till the pearly appearance is obtained; but all these modes are invented for disfiguring rather than improving the shells in the eye of the naturalist, and should never be resorted to except where the species is very common, in which case it is well enough to do so with one or two specimens to show the structure of the shells.

After the operation of polishing and washing with acids, a little Florence oil should be rubbed over to bring out the colors and destroy the influence of the acid.

THE CHASE AND MANNER OF COLLECTING ANIMALS.

QUADRUPEDS AND BIRDS.

It is hardly necessary to recommend a double-barrelled gun. One of the barrels should be loaded with small shot or dross of lead for small birds and the other with large shot. These should have much less powder than an ordinary charge, so as not to tear and injure the animals. Paper, cotton or flax and powdered dry earthen ashes should form part of the naturalist’s stores.

When a bird is killed, a small quantity of dry dust is to be put on the wound. For this purpose the feathers must be raised with a pin, or a gun-picker, close to the wound. The bill of the bird should have a small quantity of cotton or flax introduced into it to prevent the blood from flowing and spoiling the plumage. The feathers must be all adjusted, and the bird then placed on the ground to allow the blood to coagulate. Every specimen should be placed in a piece of paper of the form of a hollow cone, like the thumb bags used by grocers. The head should be introduced into this, the paper should then be closed around the bird, and packed in a box filled with moss, dried grass or leaves.

Birds taken alive in nets and traps are to be preferred to others for stuffing, and also those caught by birdlime, which must be removed by spirits of wine.

Birds should always be skinned the same day they are killed, or next day at farthest, particularly in summer; as there is a danger of putrefaction ensuing, by which the feathers will fall off. However, in winter there is no danger for some days; but in tropical climates they must be prepared soon after they are killed. The same observations apply generally to quadrupeds.

Bats and owls are caught during the day, in the hollows of aged trees, in the crevices of walls, and ruins of buildings. These are animals which, it may be presumed, are still little known in consequence of their nocturnal habits.

Those who prepare for the chase, with the intention of preserving animals, should take care to provide themselves with implements necessary for fulfilling the objects advantageously. The articles most needed are one or two pairs of large pincers, scissors, forceps, scalpels, knives, needles, thread and a small hatchet, as well as one or more canisters of preserving powder, some pots of arsenical soap, or arsenical composition, and some bottles of spirits of turpentine. Cotton may be employed in stuffing the skins, and therefore a considerable quantity should always be taken along with the naturalist. In parts of Asia and Africa, where this cannot be procured, tow must be employed, or old ropes teazed down; and where even this cannot be found, dried grass and moss may be used. M. Le Vaillant used a species of dog-grass while in Africa, which is very abundant in that country; and it answered the purpose remarkably well.

It being supposed that a traveler has an ample caravan, provided with all the necessaries which we have pointed out, and having killed a quadruped, he will skin it immediately, according to the method which we have pointed out. He will then sew up the skin after receiving a partial stuffing, and having been anointed with the arsenical soap or composition. All the extremities must then be imbued with spirits of turpentine, and the skin should be placed in some convenient place to dry, so that it may have the advantage of complete exposure to the air. The turpentine must be again applied at the end of three or four days, more especially around the mouth of the quadruped.

It will be of the utmost advantage to remain a week or ten days at one place; by which means the naturalist will have had time to render himself somewhat acquainted with the animals which localize in that neighborhood. And as some species frequently confine themselves to a very limited spot, by leaving the place too hurriedly he is apt to overlook them.

After the traveler has determined on leaving his cantonment, he must see that all the objects he has collected are in a condition to be removed. He must examine carefully each specimen, and see that they have not been attacked by the destructive insects, so abundant in warm climates. Should flies have deposited their eggs in the lips of the quadrupeds or birds, these must be destroyed by spirits of turpentine. When a set of animals or birds are thoroughly dry, they should be packed in a box or case, which has been well joined.

A journal ought to be kept detailing all the circumstances connected with the animals, the places in which they were killed, and the color of their eyes, together with any information that can be procured of their habits from the natives. People are too apt to forget particulars when engaged in such varied pursuits, and the sooner they are committed to paper the better.

When the traveler arrives in Africa, he will meet with animals of the largest size, such as the elephant, the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, giraffe, quagga, urus, bubulus, condoma, as well as large antelope and deer. He will unquestionably find some difficulty in his endeavors to bring with him the skins of these animals, as in that country it is even troublesome, in many cases, to transport the necessaries of life. But the ardor of the zealous naturalist will here be increased by beholding such splendid specimens as he can never meet with elsewhere. All his energies will be strengthened and every sacrifice made to enable him to transport the fruits of his toils.

We need only to recur to the zeal manifested by Le Vaillant in his travels, and the rapturous delight experienced by him when he first beheld and killed the giraffe. He brought this large skin from Caffraria, where he killed the animal, a distance of two hundred leagues from the Cape of Good Hope.

Should the traveler, accidentally, or in pursuit of natural objects, find himself possessed of the carcase of one of these large and fine animals, he would deeply regret not being able to fetch away the skin from want of a knowledge how to separate it from the body. We shall, therefore, suppose that he has killed an animal the size of a bull. He must first make an incision under the belly, in the form of a double cross. The central line must reach from the chin to the anus; the two other transverse cuts must reach from one foot to the other. These are always made inside, so that the seams may be less conspicuous when the animal is mounted. When the skin is stuffed, the hoofs are detached by laying them on a stone, and striking them with a hatchet or mallet. The nails or hoofs must be left attached to the skin. After this, the skin is removed from the feet, legs, and thighs, and treated in other respects as pointed out in skinning other large animals. The bones of the head must be preserved if possible, leaving it attached at the muzzle only. All the muscles must be removed from the head, and the bones rendered as clean as possible.

As it is probable that an animal of this magnitude has been killed at a great distance from any habitation, there will not be an opportunity of macerating the hide in alum and water. The skin will also be too thick for the arsenical soap to penetrate with effect. Under these circumstances, the next best thing to preserve it is to take the ashes of a wood fire, and rub it well inside. The skin should then be stretched along the boughs of a tree, and allowed to dry. The skull, after it has been dried, must be returned into the skin, and the lips, ears, and feet imbued plentifully with turpentine, which operation must be several times repeated at intervals. Nothing is more effectual in preventing the attacks of insects than this spirit, and no larvæ will exist in places which it has touched.

The skin will be sufficiently dried within two or three days, so that the hair may be turned inwards. If some common salt can be procured, a solution of it should be made, and the hair rubbed with it. Both sides of the skin must be rubbed with this two or three times, at intervals of a day.

When sufficiently dry, the skin may be rolled up and packed. The hair ought to be inwards, with a layer of dried grass intervening, to prevent friction during conveyance. The operation of rolling up the skin must be begun at the head.

If the journey is long, the skin should be unrolled, and placed in the sun for a few hours, and the places liable to the attack of moths should be again rubbed with turpentine.

When a skin thus prepared has reached the place where it is to be put up, it must undergo a preparation previous to its being mounted. In the first place, it must be extended along the ground with the hair undermost, so that it may acquire fresh pliability, and those parts which remain stiff must be moistened with tepid water. The skin must then be placed in a large vessel of water saturated with alum, there to remain eight or ten days; after which, it must be extended on half rounded pieces of wood, and thinned with a sharp knife, which is facilitated by the projections of the wood, enabling the operator the more easily to cut it, while it is gradually shifted, till the whole has been pretty equally thinned. When this operation is completed, it is allowed to soak in water with an equal quantity of that saturated with the alum. Twenty-four hours will be sufficient.

In hunting for snakes, great caution must be exercised, as it is well known that the bite of some of these proves fatal within a quarter of an hour, particularly that of the rattlesnake and some others. Indeed, it would be more prudent to allow the natives to hunt for these poisonous reptiles, as they are better acquainted with their haunts, and the means of defense to be employed in this dangerous pursuit. They are also better acquainted with those which are poisonous. We may, however, remark, that the poisonous snakes have, in general, much larger heads than those which are harmless, and their necks are also narrow.

=Shells.= Shells, on account of the elegance and variety of their forms, and beauty of their colors, are objects much sought after, not only by naturalists but also by most persons who are unacquainted with science. There is no species, particularly in remote climes, which does not deserve to be brought home, the things most common in those countries being frequently the most rare in ours. Shells are found on every part of the surface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land, while others only frequent rivers, lakes, ponds, and ditches; and another and more numerous class live in the ocean. Land-shells are spread over the whole surface of the earth, and although more accessible, are perhaps less known than those which inhabit the “mighty deep.”

=Land-Shells=, for the most part, are to be found creeping abroad either in the evening or after a gentle shower of rain. During the heat of the day they retire to shaded retreats, under thick bushes, the crevices of rocks, the hollows of decayed trees, or under their bark; beneath stones, amongst moss, or in holes in the ground. A little experience will teach the naturalist readily to find their retreats.

=Fresh Water Shells= must be sought for, if in deep lakes, with a dredge, or if in shallow places, with a tin spoon fixed on the end of a stick. This is made of a circular piece of tin four inches and a half in diameter, beat concave, and then perforated with numerous small holes, not exceeding the sixteenth part of an inch in diameter; around this must be soldered a perpendicular rim three-quarters of an inch broad, and also perforated with holes. To this must be attached a hollow tubular handle three inches long, for the insertion of a walking-stick. It must have a few holes towards its outer end for passing a string through to tie it firmly and prevent it being lost. With this spoon the collector must rake along the mud at the bottom of ditches or ponds, and after bringing a quantity to the surface, he must wash the mud entirely away by shaking the spoon on the top of the water, and it will pass through the holes and leave the shells. The sharp edge of the spoon is also useful for detaching aquatic shells from the under surface of the leaves of water-plants.

The large swan-muscle (_Anadonta Cygnea_), and other ana-dons, generally lie deep in the mud, so that they cannot be procured by dredging. I found it necessary to invent a net to fish for these. This consisted of an iron triangle of twelve inches, with a hollow handle fixed on its base, and in this is inserted a pole of sufficient length to reach the bottom. It is firmly screwed to the handle. A net is attached to the triangle either of twine or hair-cloth. The point of the triangle should be sharp so that it may the more easily penetrate the mud, and it is drawn through it in situations where shells are supposed to exist.

=Marine Shells.= These are to be found in all seas; some of them inhabit rocks on the shore within high-water mark; others reside in deep water, and can only be taken by dredging, or by the use of a kind of net called in France the gangui, and an instrument called the rake has also been successfully used.

Different species of sea-weed are frequently covered by minute shells—weeds should always be carefully examined. Many of the smaller and microscopic shells are found at high-water mark among the fine dross and drifted fragments of shells; this sand should be brought home and examined at leisure. To facilitate the process a small wire-cloth sieve should be made of about six or seven inches square and all the sand sifted through it and the shells left.

=Molluscous Animals.= Many species of worms and other soft, invertebrate animals are to be caught also by the dredge. There is no way of preserving these animals except by putting them in spirits. Animals of this kind are still very imperfectly known, notwithstanding the researches of Lamarck, Poli, and other celebrated naturalists. Every opportunity should, therefore, be embraced of bringing them home; indeed, we are still little acquainted with those which inhabit our own seas.

When animals of this kind are procured in foreign parts a careful noting of the latitude should be taken; and it should be stated whether they live singly or are congregated, if they are phosphorescent, and if they were taken in deep water. And as these animals are very liable to lose their colors by being put in spirits, a careful noting of these should be taken whenever they are caught, as the colors are very evanescent; or, what would be still better, a drawing of the animal should be made.

=Intestinal Worms.= Whenever we have killed either a quadruped, bird, or fish, we should carefully examine the stomach and intestinal canal of the animal to see if there are any worms; indeed, there are few animals without them; they must also be preserved in spirits. Besides the stomach and intestines, worms are also found in the livers and other parts of the body; also in the back of Skates and various fishes.

INSECTS.

This class is subject to infinite variety, according to climate and soil. The entomologist, or the mere collector, must not confine himself to those whose beauty of coloring renders them attractive, but collect all that come in the way. Those species which have wings, and fly around plants, we take by means of gauze nets, and also those which swim in the water. Those which live on putrid substances, and such as are disagreeable to the touch, are seized with pincers; they are first put into camphorated spirits to render them clean. Trees are the habitations of innumerable insects; many of them skulk under the old rotten bark, and others attach themselves to the foliage. A cloth should be spread under the trees, or an umbrella, and the branches shaken with considerable force, when they will fall down, and may then be caught.

Insects are killed by making a crow-quill into a long point and dipping it into prussic acid; an incision with it may be made immediately below the head of the insect betwixt the shoulders, which usually produces instant death. But this acid must be used with much caution, because its effects are almost as instantaneous and fatal in the human subject as in the lower animals. When cork cannot be had for lining the bottoms of the boxes, a layer of beeswax may be used in its stead. The pin should be deeply sunk in this substance, as it is more liable to loosen than when in cork.

It is of much importance to procure the caterpillar as well as the insect, and, in this case, some of the leaves on which it feeds should be placed in a box beside it, so that it may reach maturity. A small perforation should be made in the box for the admission of air.

Every kind of insect, except butterflies, sphinges, and moths, may be preserved in bottles of spirits, which will not injure them; when they are taken out they are immediately placed in the position in which it is wished to preserve them, and they are then allowed to dry. Another mode of preserving coleopterous insects, such as beetles, etc., is to put them in a dry box amongst fine sand. A row of insects is placed in a layer of sand, and then a new layer of about an inch in depth laid on the top, and so on till the box is filled. This mode of packing will not, however, do with soft insects and those having fine wings.

It is extremely desirable that all the different kinds of Spiders should be caught, particularly those said to be venomous; also termites, or white ants, the different scolopendra, and gaily worms, etc. The nests of spiders and other insects should also be sent home; in short, every insect which is remarkable, in any way, either for its history or properties.

It is also of much importance to bring specimens of the plants on which they feed; these should be dried, and their localities marked, the kind of soil on which they grow, and the situations, whether moist or dry, should be noted.

BRITISH INSECTS.

=Woods, Hedges, and Lanes.= By far the greatest portion of insects are found in these situations. In woods, the entomologist must beat the branches of the trees into his folding net, and must select for this purpose the open paths, skirts, etc. The trunks of trees, gates, and timber which is cut down, should be carefully examined, and a great many lepidopterous and coleopterous insects are found in these situations, and in no other. In hedges and lanes, many of the most valuable and beautiful insects are found, as also in nettles and other plants which grow under them; these should be well beat, but more especially when the white thorn blossoms in the months of May and June. Hedges where the roads are dusty are very seldom productive.

=Heaths and Commons.= Many insects are peculiar to these situations from the plants which grow on them, as well as from the dung of cattle, by which many of them are frequented, in the latter of which many thousands of insects may be found in a single day, in the months of April and May. These are principally of the Order Coleoptera.

=Sand Pits.= These are favorable for the propagation of _Capris lunarius_, _Noloxus monoceros_, _Lixus sulcirostris_ and other rare insects. Minute species are found abundantly at the roots of grass.

=Meadows, Marshes and Ponds.= In meadows, when the ranunculi or buttercups are in blossom, many _Muscæ_ and dipterous insects generally abound. The flag-rushes are the habitations of _Cassida_, _Donacina_ and others. Drills in marshes should be examined, as many species of insects are found on long grass. The larvæ of various lepidoptera and neuroptera are confined to these situations, more especially if hedges and trees are near the spot. Ponds are rich in microscopic insects. These are obtained by means of the landing net, which, for this purpose, need not be so long as represented in Fig. 26, and should be made of pretty thick cotton cloth, but sufficiently thin to allow the water to escape. The mud, which is brought up from the bottom of ponds and ditches, should be examined, and what small insects are found may be put in a small phial filled with water, which will not only clean them but keep them alive; and in many instances the naturalist will be surprised, upon the examination of these, the most wonderful productions of nature.

=Moss, Decayed Trees, Roots of Grass, Etc.= Many insects will be found in moss and under it; the roots and wood of decayed trees afford nourishment and a habitation to a number of insects; many of the larvæ of _Lepidoptera_ penetrate the trunks of trees in all directions; most of the cerambyces feed on wood, as well as some species of _Carabidæ Elateridæ_, etc. In seeking for these it is necessary to use the digger. It is sometimes requisite to dig six or seven inches into the wood before they are found.

=Banks of Ponds and Roots of Grass.= These are a never-failing source of collecting, which may be followed at all seasons of the year, and in general with great success; those banks are to be preferred which have the morning or noon-day sun.

=Banks of Rivers, Sandy Sea Shore, Etc.= These situations afford a great variety of _Coleoptera_, _Crustacæ_, etc. The dead carcases of animals thrown on the shore should be examined, as they are the receptacles and food of _Silphiodæ_, _Staphilinidæ_, etc. May and June are the best seasons for collecting these insects.

=Dead Animals and Dried Bones= should be constantly examined, for these are the natural habitats of several insects. It is not uncommon for country people to hang dead moles on bushes; under these the entomologist should place his net, and shake the boughs on which they are hung, as many of the coleoptera generally inhabit these.

=Fungi and Flowers.= These are the constant abode of insects, and many curious species will be found on them. It is a mistaken idea that insects are only to be found in summer, as they are to be met with, either in a living or pupa state, at all seasons. Dried moss, beneath the bark of trees and under stones are extremely likely places to find insects in winter; and even then the entomologist is more likely to procure some of the rare species than in summer, as these are ranging in search of food and in situations hidden from view.

At this season, if the weather is mild, the pupæ of _Lepidoptera_ will be found at the roots of trees, more especially those of the elm, oak, lime, etc., or beneath the underwood, close to the trees, and these frequently at the depth of some inches under the ground.

In the months of June, July and August the woods are the best places to search for insects. Most of the butterflies are taken in those months, flying about in the daytime only. Moths are either found at break of day or at twilight in the evening. The following method of taking moths is pointed out by Haworth, in speaking of the Oak Moth (_Bombyx Quercus_). “It is a frequent practice with the London Aurelians,” says he, “when they breed a female of this and some other day-flying species, to take her, whilst yet a virgin, into the vicinity of woods, where, if the weather is favorable, she never fails to attract a numerous train of males, whose only business seems to be an incessant, rapid and undulating flight in search of their unimpregnated females, one of which is no sooner perceived than they become so much enamored of their fair and chaste relation as absolutely to lose all kinds of fear for their own personal safety, which, at other times, is effectually secured by the reiterated evolutions of their strong and rapid wings. So fearless, indeed, have I beheld them on these occasions as to climb up and down the sides of a cage which contained the dear object of their eager pursuit in exactly the same hurrying manner as honeybees, which have lost themselves, climb up and down the glasses of a window.”

RECIPES

FOR VARIOUS ARTICLES USED IN THE PRESERVATION AND SETTING UP OF ANIMALS.

SOLUTION OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE.

_Mr. Waterton’s Method._

Put a good large teaspoonful of well-pounded corrosive sublimate into a wine bottle full of alcohol (spirits of wine). Let it stand over night, and the next morning draw it off into a clean bottle. When the solution is applied to black substances, and little white particles are perceived on them, it will be necessary to make it weaker, by the addition of some alcohol.

A black feather dipped in the solution, and then dried, will be a good test of the state of the solution; if it be too strong it will leave a whiteness upon the feather.

ARSENICAL SOAP.

_Invented by Bécœur, Apothecary, Metz._

Arsenic, in powder, 2 pounds.
Camphor, 5 ounces.
White Soap, 2 pounds.
Salt of Tartar, 12 ounces.
Powdered Lime, 4 ounces.

The soap must be cut in small and very thin slices, put into a crucible with a small quantity of water, held over a gentle fire, and frequently stirred with a wooden spatula, or a piece of wood of any kind. When it is properly melted, the powdered lime and salt of tartar must then be added and thoroughly mixed. It must now be taken off the fire, the arsenic added gently, and stirred. The camphor must be reduced into a powder by beating it in a mortar, with the addition of a little spirits of wine. The camphor must then be added and the composition well mixed with a spatula while off the fire. It may be again placed on the fire to assist in making the ingredients incorporate properly, but not much heated, as the camphor will very rapidly escape. It may now be poured into glazed earthen pots and allowed to cool, after which a piece of paper should be placed over the top, and afterward some sheep leather, and then set aside for use. The composition is about the thickness of ordinary flour paste.

When it is necessary to use the soap, put as much as will answer the purpose into a preserve pot and add to it about an equal proportion of water. This is applied to the skin or feathers with a bristle brush.

N. B. It should be kept as close as possible and used with caution, as it is a deadly poison.

The above is the recipe made use of at the Jardin des Plantes, Paris.

_Mr. Laurent’s Recipe._

A distinguished French naturalist, Laurent, recommends the following composition, after ten years’ experience, for preserving the skins of stuffed animals. He observes at the same time that it penetrates them with greater readiness, and preserves them much better than any preparation which has hitherto been in use.

Arseniate of Potash, 2 drachms.
Sulphate of Alumine, 2 drachms.
Powdered Camphor, 2 drachms.
White Soap, powdered, ½ ounce.
Spirits of Wine, 6 ounces.
Essence of Thyme, 3 drops.

The arseniate of potash, sulphate of alumine, and soap, are to be placed in a phial with a large mouth, and the spirits of wine to be poured on them at a heat of _twenty-five_ degrees, and they will be perfectly combined in twenty-four hours. The essence of thyme is then added, when the phial must be carefully corked. This composition is to be shaken together before it is made use of, and it must be spread over the skin of the animal or bird with a brush.

SOLUTION OF PEARL-ASHES.

Two ounces of pearlash to one gallon of water.

ANNEALED IRON WIRE.

Take common iron wire, make it red hot, and suffer it to cool gradually; this renders it soft and pliable, so that it may be easily bent in any direction.

CEMENT.

Fine Whitening, 2 ounces.
Gum-Arabic, 2 ounces.
Finest Flour, ½ ounce.
Ox-Gall, a teaspoonful.

The whole to be dissolved, and mixed well with water into thick paste.

This is well adapted for attaching different objects, and especially for fixing shells to pasteboard, etc.

GUM PASTE.

White Sugar Candy, 2 ounces.
Common Gum-Arabic, 4 ounces.

Let these be melted in a pot of hot water, and then strained through a linen or horse-hair sieve. When properly dissolved, add to it two tablespoonfuls of starch, or hair-powder, and mix the whole well together. This paste may be used for many purposes, and it never spoils. It may be dried, and by pouring a little warm water on it, it will soon be ready for use. If it is wished to be all melted, and hurriedly, the pot containing it should be placed in warm water, or sand.

FLOUR PASTE.

Make flour paste in the ordinary way, and add to it a small portion of the solution of corrosive sublimate, or powdered corrosive sublimate. This will prevent the attack of mites, to which paste is very liable when dried. This paste may be dried into a cake, and moistened when required.

SOLUTION OF GUM-ARABIC.

The solution of gum-arabic is made by simply adding water to it. When used as a varnish, or for attaching objects, it is extremely apt to get too brittle, in very warm weather, and to crack, or split off in scales; to prevent this, a quarter of an ounce of white or brown sugar-candy must be added to two ounces of gum-arabic,

PAPER PASTE, GUMMED.

Take a coffee-pot, filled with water, and add to it a quantity of paper, which has been slightly sized, like that used for printing engravings. Let it boil three hours, and, when the water has evaporated, boil it again for a similar length of time. Take out the paper, and squeeze it well in a colander, and then pound it in a mortar, until it is reduced to a very fine paste. It must then be dried. When it is required for use, add to it some of the solution of gum-arabic, and keep it in a pot for use.

POLLEN POWDER.

The paper made as above directed, when well dried, is pounded in a mortar till it becomes a very fine powder; it is then put into a tin pepper-box, and when any of the parts of parrot’s bills, etc., are wished to have this powdered appearance, a little of the solution of gum-arabic is washed over the part with a camel-hair pencil, and the powder dusted on it and allowed to dry.

RED VARNISH.

Take a stick of red sealing wax, beat it down with a hammer, and then put it into a phial, with an ounce of strong spirits of wine, which will dissolve it within four or five hours. It may be applied to any part with a camel-hair pencil, and it will dry in less than five minutes.

Black, yellow, and green, or indeed any color of varnish, may be made from sealing-wax of these various colors.

To those unacquainted with the combination of colors, we may mention, that a mixture of blue and yellow produces green; pink and blue makes purple; red and yellow, orange; black, red, and yellow, brown; black and blue, gray. These may be varied, in an infinity of shades, by either color predominating, and by the addition of other colors.

LUTING FOR RENDERING BOTTLES AIR TIGHT.

Common Resin.
Red Ochre reduced into a fine powder.
Yellow Wax.
Oil of Turpentine.

These must be melted over a fire in the following manner, and the vessel in which it is made should be capable of holding three times the quantity required, to allow room for boiling up. An earthenware pipkin with a handle is the best thing for the purpose, and a lid must be made of tin to fit it. The luting will be rendered more or less brittle, or elastic, as the red ochre prevails:

The wax is first melted, and then the resin; the ochre is then added in small quantities, and stirred quickly with a spatula each time. When all the ochre has been added, it must be allowed to boil six or eight minutes; the turpentine is then added, and briskly stirred with the spatula, and continue to boil it. There is considerable risk of the mixture taking fire, and should it do so, the lid must immediately be put on the vessel to extinguish it.

To ascertain the consistence of the luting, a little must be, from time to time, dropped on a cool plate, or flat piece of iron. If it is too soft, more of the ochre must be added to it; and if too hard, additional wax and turpentine.

TOW AND FLAX SLIVERS.

These are fillets of prepared tow and flax, of from one to three inches in breadth. They are extremely uniform in their thickness, being made to weight, and can easily be procured from any flax-spinning mill, at a moderate price per pound weight.

METHOD OF MAKING ENAMEL-EYES FOR ANIMALS.

Much of the character and expression of animals depends upon their eyes; it will, therefore, be evident that great attention is necessary in the artificial imitation of these.

In this operation, a pipe of baked earth is used, or a tube of glass six or seven inches in length, at the end of which a little white enamel is placed. This is placed to the flame, so that it may be blown. This enamel forms a globe, whose dimensions depend upon the quantity of air introduced. When this globe is of the size wished, we place in the middle, and perpendicularly to the point of the pipe, the quantity of enamel necessary to form the enamel. The second enamel is then incorporated with the first by presenting it to the flame, while attention is paid to turn the pipe gradually round, so that the enamel may diffuse itself equally, and the iris be exactly circular. If it is required that this iris should be of various colors, like that of man, for example, small filaments of enamel are distributed in diverging rays of the suitable color; the eye is then placed in the flame, until these have incorporated with the iris, after which the pupil is placed as before directed, and the glass applied as before directed.

During this operation, the globe is almost certain of sinking down, partly from the air escaping, partly from the heat, and from the pressure which is used in applying the different substances; air must again be supplied from time to time to prevent it from losing its form. This becomes particularly necessary when glass is applied, and when it is extended over the whole surface of the iris.

The eye having got its form and size, the pipe is taken away. To effect this, after the air has been introduced, the entrance of the pipe is stopped with the finger, and the back part of the eye exposed to the flame; when the air contained in the globe, and rarefied by the pipe, comes through at the place where the flame has most action. This opening is prolonged by turning the point of the flat pincers, or an iron-wire, all round the pipe; one point only is left by which the eye remains fixed. It is then warmed equally all over, after which it is exposed to a gentle heat, and when it again cools, it is separated from the pipe.

ARTICLES REQUIRED FOR SKINNING AND MOUNTING QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, REPTILES,
AND FISHES.

1. A box containing scalpels of different shapes; a pair of scissors
with pointed blades, and two or three pointed forceps of different
sizes, the extremities of one of which ought to be indented.

2. Two flat pincers, or pliers, large and small.

3. A round pincer for turning wire.

4. A cutting pincer for wire.

5. A hammer.

6. Two files.

7. A triangular.

8. Points for perforating holes.

9. A saddler’s awl for drilling holes; also various shoemakers’ awls,
which will be found useful.

10. Brushes of different sizes for putting the preservative on the
animals’ and birds’ skins, and for smoothing and dusting the
feathers.

11. An assortment of iron-wire of all sizes.

12. Flax and tow, coarse cotton. When these cannot be had, untwisted
ropes or cords. A quantity of tow and flax slivers for twisting
round the leg-bones of small quadrupeds and birds.

13. Some small hardwood meshes for assisting in stuffing.

=Instructions to Travelers.= The best means of procuring living animals, is by applying to the natives of the different countries, who are accustomed to their habits, and the situation in which they are likely to be found, and to take them in traps and snares. They are also more likely to be able to find their retreats, so that they may take these animals in a young state, and also birds in their nests.

By thus securing animals while young, they are much more likely to reach home in a living state. Every exertion should be used to render them familiar, when, being habituated to the appearance of man, they will be more able to resist the effects of a tedious sea voyage than those which have been taken when wild, and are under a continued degree of excitement. Every care should be taken to soothe and caress them; and there is no animal whose manners cannot be softened by gentle treatment. During fine weather, they should be allowed to take exercise on the deck, as nothing is so injurious to their health and growth as being long pent up in a small cage. While thus confined, it will be obvious that they require a much smaller portion of food than when they can have sufficient room to exercise themselves. Many of these animals are lost from over-feeding. Their diet should be given with great regularity, but always in such quantity as they can easily digest.

Next to food, cleanliness is of the utmost importance, and of this requires too much of the attention of those who are bringing them home, it will be easy to procure the assistance of some of the crew. And unless this is strictly attended to, there is little chance of preserving their health.

When animals’ skins are imported, it is also necessary to bring the head and feet. Those of the mammalia, which can be put into a barrel or bottle, should be preserved entire in spirits.

In the event of not being able to transport the carcase, the next best thing is to bring the skeleton along with the skin. It will not be necessary to mount these. All that is required is to boil the bones, take off the flesh, and dry them. Afterwards all the bones belonging to the same skeleton should be put in a bag by themselves, taking care to fill up the bag with dried moss, or any other substance which will prevent friction. The more effectually to secure this, the small and tender bones ought to be wrapped in paper. It is of the utmost consequence that not a bone should be lost.

In shooting birds, it is of much importance not to use the shot too large; indeed, it ought to be proportioned, as nearly as possible, to the size of the bird to be shot at. When the bird is killed, the blood must be carefully wiped away, and a little cotton must be put into the bill to prevent the blood flowing from it to injure the feathers. The wound should also be stuffed with cotton.

Birds should be skinned as soon as possible, as the feathers are apt to fall off if kept too long. The os coccygis must be kept attached to the skin. If several individuals of the same species be killed, one should, if possible, be preserved entire in spirits, with the whole muscles of the body. If the bird has a fleshy crest, it ought to be preserved in spirits.

It is of the utmost consequence to procure the male, female and young, and these at different ages besides, as many species are subject to great variety, in their progress from the young to the adult state. This is more particularly the case with Eagles and Hawks, many of which have been described as different species in their immature state. The eggs and nest should also be procured.

=Reptiles.= The chief thing to be attended to in skinning reptiles is not to injure the scales; and in the lizard kind, care must be taken not to break the tail. But for all the smaller and middle sized species, the best mode is to preserve them in spirits; and of the larger kind which are skinned, the skeletons ought to be kept. The flesh should be taken away with knives and scalpels as well as possible, and the bones thoroughly dried, and packed in a box with cotton or grass, and they can be articulated after they are brought home. When the skeletons are too large, they may be separated into convenient parts for packing.

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Changed “materials needed for this work, is” to “materials needed for this work are” on p. 37. 2. Changed “spirits turpentine” to “spirits of turpentine” on p. 88. 3. Added missing “China Painting” headings on p. 115 and 118. 4. Changed “plaster paris” to “plaster of paris” on p. 147. 5. Silently corrected typographical errors. 6. Retained anachronistic and non-standard spellings as printed. 7. Enclosed italics font in _underscores_. 8. Enclosed bold font in =equals=.

End of Project Gutenberg's Ladies' manual of art, by Anonymous