Chapter I: Part 1

LADIES
MANUAL OF ART
OR
PROFIT AND PASTIME.
A SELF TEACHER IN
All Branches of Decorative Art,
EMBRACING EVERY VARIETY OF
PAINTING AND DRAWING
On China, Glass, Velvet, Canvas, Paper and Wood
THE SECRET OF ALL
_GLASS TRANSPARENCIES, SKETCHING FROM NATURE. PASTEL AND CRAYON DRAWING,
TAXIDERMY, Etc._

CHICAGO:

DONOHUE, HENNEBERRY & CO.

407–425 DEARBORN STREET

1890

------------------------------------------------------------------------

PREFACE

In presenting to the public and our artistically inclined people our “Art Manual” we should do so with some trepidation had we not the assurance, in placing before them this work, that it would instantly win its way into their favor by its merits. Most books produced by the press of the present day are novels, compilations, scientific and theological ones, meeting as they do only certain classes, and are subjects which have been constantly before the people. We present you a “new book” in every sense of the word. We propose entering with our readers into the beautiful realms of Art, than which there is no more interesting subject; our object being its promotion and dissemination. We want to see the great majority of our refined, educated, but needy women embrace it as a source of profit as well as pleasure, many of whom with an intellect for greater things, but incapable of muscular labor or exposure, can, by applying themselves energetically to this occupation, earn a good livelihood and famous name, and assist in disseminating its beauties everywhere. Many homes are there in our land, which they can ornament, and embellish to their profit, and the pleasure of others. Those comfortably situated in life, whose home decorations they prefer to be the product of their own hands, will hail our “Manual” as “a friend indeed.” To the child in whom is observed traits of genius it will be of invaluable assistance in developing those traits. Our aim is to combine in this work all the different methods of producing portraits, landscapes, painting on canvas, wood, china, etc., etc., to furnish to all lovers of the useful and beautiful in art a true teacher, making every instruction so plain and comprehensive, that a child can grasp the meaning. In thus combining all these arts in one volume, we save the learner the expense of purchasing a large number of books at a cost which effectually precludes the possibility of many engaging in this profitable and pleasant occupation. Then, to those whose tastes are artistically inclined, and who find it most inconvenient to obtain instructions in all the branches desired; to those in whom genius lies dormant and whom necessity compels to earn their own livelihood; to those who desire to combine pastime with pleasure, and to those who have the means, tastes and desire but not the necessary assistance at hand to ornament their homes, we respectfully dedicate our “Art Manual.”

THE PUBLISHERS.

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

In learning the art of drawing or writing, like all other Arts and Sciences, there are certain first and fixed principles to be observed as a foundation upon which the whole is built. A right understanding of these is absolutely necessary that we may become masters of that art which we undertake to learn. A neglect of these first principles is the reason why so many who have spent time sufficient to become accomplished artists, are, after all their pains and loss of time, incapable of producing even fair work; and are often at a loss to know how to begin. Many commence by copying the work of others, and are surprised to find how little such ability avails them when attempting to make sketches from nature. The instruction for those who intend prosecuting this delightful study, is prepared with great care by the author, who has had very many years of experience in landscape drawing. ’Tis true that much of his ability has been attained by years of patient industry and practice. Yet time might have been saved by little earlier attention to principles and study of works on the subject, prepared by experts. The best advice to those contemplating a study of the art—who possess any degree of skill in the use of the pencil, is to go out into the field, with the “instructor” in one hand and your sketch-book in the other, select some object of interest, and “take it in.” If not satisfactory, try again—be not too easily discouraged. You will find the study of nature a source of pleasure, objects of interest will appear on every hand, in the valleys, on the mountains, the lakes, or by the river side, and as you become familiar with the scenes in nature, difficulties will disappear, and you are happy in the thought that sketching from nature is truly one of the most pure and refined of intellectual pleasures and professions, and the sketch-book with you, as with the writer, will ever be a chosen companion.

When this branch of the work has been completed, and the landscape transferred to paper and shaded up, the most difficult part of the task is accomplished. The next essential element in the advancement of the picture, and that which renders it more beautiful to the eye, is color. ’Tis well to turn aside from your unfinished landscape or portrait, and study the colors in nature, the mixing of tints, and how to apply them, as shown on a subsequent page of this book.

To become an artist requires only a love for the art, a good eye, and an abundance of continuity.

CONTENTS

=Sketching from Nature.=—How to Make a Drawing—Linear
Perspective—Materials—Terms in a Picture—Lines in Nature—Line of
Beauty—Landscapes—Selecting a Position—Lights and Shades 9

=Colors in Nature.=—Primary Colors—Advantages of Colors—Colors of a
Spectrum—Mixtures of Colors—Transmission of Light—Pure White,
Black, Gray, Green—Neutralization of Colors 23

=Pen and Pencil Drawing.=—Paper Used for Transferring—Preparation
of Paper—Method of Transferring—Shading by Pen—Pentagraph—How to
Use it—Copying with Transparent Paper 27

=Pastel Painting.=—Crayons and Pastels—Paper Used—Exposure to the
Sun—Colors Employed—Colors of Paper—Mounting the
Picture—Sketching In the Outlines—Applying the Crayon—Colors and
Composition of Tints—Background 29

=Landscape Painting in Crayon.=—Paper—Arranging the
Paper—Drawing—Using the Colors—Fixing the Drawing—Materials for
Pastel Drawing 33

=Monochromatic Drawing.=—Directions—Materials
Used—Shades—Blending—Sky—Mountains—Water—Moonlight—Old Ruins,
etc. 37

=Water Colors.=—Instructions—Colors Used for Sky and
Distances—Hills—Trees—Foreground—Sky—Moonlight, etc.—Selecting
the Paper—Different Kinds—Brushes—Other Materials—Colors Used 38

=Landscape Painting in Oil Colors.=—Technical Names and Materials
Used—Mixing of Tints—How to Apply Them—A
Glaze—Impasting—Scrumbling—Handling—Light—Brushes—Materials
Used—Canvas—Prepared Paper—Millboards—Panels—Palettes—A
Dipper—Rest Stick—Knives—Easels—Vehicles—Mixed Tints 45

=Oil Photo.=—Miniature or Cameo Oil—Improved Method—Treating the
Photograph—Paste Preparation—The Glass Cleaning—Colors
Applied—Wedges—Caution—Directions for Coloring—Second
Method—Ivory Type or Mezzotint—Mounting the Photograph—Materials
Used—Another Plan 55

=Photo Painting in Water Colors.=—Selecting Photograph—Preparing
the Photo—Colors Used—Coloring Background, Face, Eyes, Mouth,
Hair, Clothing—Shadowing 60

=Russian or Egyptian Method.=—To Produce First Class
Picture—Applying Colors—Palette—Liquid Colors Used—Brushes 63

=Making Photographs.=—Gelatine Dry-plate Process—The Outfit—Filling
the Plate-Holder—Taking the Picture—Making Negatives—Chemical
Outfit—Directions for Using Chemicals—Instructions
Summarized—Making Prints from Negatives—Sensitized Paper
Prints—Toning Process—Mounting Pictures 65

=Draughtsmen’s Sensitive Paper for Copying
Drawings.=—Directions—How to Use—Printing by Exposure 70

=Wood Painting.=—From the German—General
Preliminaries—Requisites—Colors—Transferring the Drawing on
Wood—Enlarging and Reducing Designs—Divisions of Wood
Surface—Tracing and Transferring Designs—Fixing Transferred
Design—Coloring—Retouching—Wood Articles—Polishing Designs 71

=Transparencies.=—Instructions—General Directions 81

=Crystal, or Oriental Painting.=—Materials Used—Colors
Used—Directions 83

=Antique Italian Landscape Painting.=—Style of the
Painting—Transferring—Quality of the Glass
Used—Materials—Directions—Paints Used 85

=Grecian Oil Painting.=—Selecting the Engraving—Applications—Method
of Painting—Mixing the Paints—Eyes, Hair,
Flesh—Suggestions—Colors—Brushes 87

=Ornamental Glass Sign Work.=—Lettering Door Plates—Ornamenting
Glass Work, Boxes, etc.—Instructions—Lettering the Glass—Holding
the Letters—Next Process—Remaining Directions—Articles Used—Note 89

=Vitremanie.=—Easy and Inexpensive Decoration of Windows, Churches,
Public Buildings, Private Houses, etc.—Supersedes
Diaphanie—Defects of Diaphanie—Materials Used in
Vitremanie—Simple Instructions—Applying the Design—Removing the
Paper—Arranging the Designs 91

=Diaphanie.=—Similarity to Decalcomanie—Materials Required—The
Application—Designs Used 93

=Painting on Silk.=—Satin and Silk—Its Beauty and
Popularity—Transferring—Painting Directions—Using Colors
Lightly—Raised Work—Colors Used—Bringing out the Picture 94

=Staining Wood and Ivory.=—Yellow Mahogany—Black, Red, Blue,
Purple—Acids and Materials Used 96

=Crystalline Surfaces.=—Paper, Wood, and Glass—Mixture
Used—Application—Directions 97

=China Painting.=—On China, Porcelain, Earthenware, and
Enamel—Colors Used—Process of Burning In—Tracing and
Drawing—First Method—Second Method—Third Method—Cleaning
Brushes—Composition, Use, and Mixing of Colors—Classification of
Colors—Tests—Fusibility—Thickness—Mediums—Conduct of the
Work—Special Information Concerning Painting Colors—Mode of
Use—Mixtures—Concordance of Enamel with Moist and Oil
Colors—Technical Names 99

=Monochrome.=—China Painting—Painting on Porcelain or
Earthenware—Tints of Monochromes—Sketching In—Painting the
Head—Hair—Flesh Tints—Drapery—Retouching—M. Lacroix’s
Colors—Finishing the Monochrome—General Suggestions 111

=China Painting.=—Painting the Head in Colors on Porcelain—Drawing
and Sketching In—Highly Colored Faces—Cast Shadows—Painting the
Lips—Blue Eyes—Fair Hair—Colored Draperies—The Palette 115

=China Painting.=—Style of Boucher—Flowers, Fruits, Birds and
Landscape on Porcelain—Retouching Leaves—Peaches—Instructions on
Landscapes—The Sky—Trunks of
Trees—Branches—Houses—Ground—Water—Strengthening
Touches—Directions for Packing 118

=Terra Cotta Painting.=—Enamel, Oil and Water Color Painting on
Terra Cotta—Special Instructions—Materials and Brushes Used 123

=Burning In.=—Mineral Decalcomanie—New and Beautiful
Art—Transferring Pictures to China and Other Ware—Imitating
Exactly Beautiful Painting—Directions, Materials Required,
Designs, Numbers, Prices 126

=Natural Flowers.=—Preservation—Hot Water System—Sandwich Island
Process—Sand Drying Method—Last Process 129

=Paper-Flower Making.=—Arrangement of Bouquets—Materials
Used—Directions for Using Wire, Silk, etc.—Crimson
Rhododendron—White Camelia, Rose, Pink Fuchsia—Grouping
Flowers—Examples—List of Materials, Tools, etc. 134

=French Art=—Decorating Wood, Leather, Silk, etc.—To Decorate
Delicate Fabrics—Another Method—Decorating Dark Colored
Articles—Choice of Subjects—Covered Designs—List of Subjects that
can be Decorated—General Suggestions 143

=The Wax Art=—Flowers and Fruit—Instructions for Making Wax and
Molds—Materials Used, etc.—Molding—Preparing Wax—To Mold a Calla
Lily—Painting Variegated Flowers—Directions for Sheeting
Wax—Molding Wax Fruit—Oranges, Apples, Peaches, Grapes,
etc.—Special Instructions—Leaf Molds, Wires, Steel Molding Pins,
Moss, Miscellaneous Articles, Colored Wax 146

=Sprinkle Work.=—Decoration of Wood and China Ornaments—Its Ease
and Beauty—Utensils—Process—Special Directions—Varnishing and
Polishing—Sprinkle Work on China—Veins—Colors Generally and
Satisfactorily Used—General Suggestions 154

=Pearl Embroidery.=—Fish Scales—To Prepare Them—Drawing the Pattern
of Leaf—Directions 161

=Feather Flowers.=—Instructions to Begin—Color of
Feathers—Dyeing—Renewing Ostrich Feathers 162

=Lustral Bronze Painting.=—Preparations—Instructions—Copy from
Engravings—Stems of Trees—Second Shade—Figures—Parts of
Mountains—Varnishing—Suggestions—Gilding 164

=Japanese Art.=—Gathering Leaves—Directions 168

=Staining Glass.=—Causes of Decay—Of Glass Painting—Colors
Used—Classes—Process of Laying the Colors—Peinture et
Apprêt—Ground or Foundation—The Vehicle—Most Suitable
Oil—Palette—Pigments—Fused Colors—Illuminated Colors—New Tone of
Color—Mosaic Glass Painting—Cartoons—Cutting—Over-laid
Glass—Colored Pot Metal 169

=Gilding Glass.=—Preparations—Cutting Figures and Ornaments—most
Important Secret—General Suggestions 179

=Etching on Copper.=—Heating—Dabbing—Smoking—Etching—Fluid for the
Purpose—Directions 182

=Kensington Painting.=—Its Progress and Popularity—Materials
Used—Colors Necessary—Applying Colors—Flowers,
Leaves—Instructions 185

=Arrasene Embroidery.=—Novelty and Beauty—Wool and Silk Arrasene—A
Wild Rose—Blind Stitch—Double
Rose—Daisies—Forget-me-not—Leaves—Stems—Full Instructions 189

=Portraiture in Black Crayon.=—Careful Instructions—Paper—Cutting
and Trimming—Dampening and Framing—Selecting Materials—Enlarging
the Photograph—Tracing—Carefulness—Features—Pupils of the
Eyes—Iris—Nose—Lips—Blending Process—The Hair—The Drapery—Collar
and Shirt Front—The Background—Lace Work—Finishing—General
Important Suggestions 191

=Analysis of Colors.=—Nature and Quality—Blues—Reds—Browns—Mixing
Compound Tints for the Face—Tints and Colors—Producing
them—Transparent Colors—Semi-Transparent—Contrast and Harmony of
Colors 197

=Taxidermy.=—Profit, Usefulness and Beauty—Skinning—Mounting in
General—Preserving—Spiders and Insects—Shell Fish—Polishing
Shells—Collecting Animals—Recipes—General and Special
Instructions 203

SKETCHING
FROM
NATURE

“GOD HAS DIFFUSED BEAUTY, AND ART HAS COMBINED IT.”—_Houssaye._

A sketch is a graphic memorandum. “The field of labor is the wide world of nature—her beautiful truths the lessons to be learned by heart. Once fairly within her school, Art awakens to a life of sympathy with its teacher that lasts forever.” A capacity for _drawing_ means more than producing a linear representation. The sculptor _draws_ when he models the plastic clay into imitative or ideal creations. The painter _draws_ when he disposes his pigments with like impulse. The stalwart smith _draws_ when he shapes the heated metal into form. He that cannot draw a crooked line, cannot draw a straight one, and he who cannot draw a straight line, the simplest, easiest, and most comprehensible, has certainly much to learn, and should begin with it.

=In Making a Drawing from Nature=, we start out with one of two things in view, a desire to make a perfect copy of the scene before us, or a wish to make a choice selection from the whole, and arrange it to suit our fancy. The first is historic, from the fact of its being a true and faithful copy. The second is called poetic, as the effort is for beauty of arrangement and general make up. In the latter, the artist is generally better satisfied with his effort when the picture is complete, than if he followed closely to the laborious work of perfectly copying that which is not altogether interesting. But at the same time the first, that of picturing facts, must form the basis of the art. By it we acquire a knowledge of detail, and store the mind with true nature, which is essential in good work. A true and faithful copy is what is sought after. In following our own fancy, we go out into the field and select from a combination of objects, and make up our picture. We find a log cabin standing beside a rocky stream of rippling water, which is spanned by an ancient log bridge; in another place we find cows grazing; and again a horseman is coming down the road. We combine the three. The cattle are driven into the stream, the horse and his rider are brought into and form a part of the picture, which is now complete.

In sketching from nature it is first essential that we should be trained to some extent in a course of perspective drawing.

=Linear Perspective= is the application of the principles of geometry to the accurate delineation of the principal lines of the picture. Drawing on a plain surface an object as it appears, or as it would appear on a pane of glass, held between you and the object.

Perspective is absolutely necessary in drawing from nature, not only in perfecting finished work, but in all circumstances. Theoretically, as well as practically, it bears more or less upon all the great requisites of perfection in art. We can by its aid, select our own point of observation, even though it be imaginary.

=Materials.= Of the variety of instruments and materials for drawing and sketching, there is the lead pencil of different degrees of hardness, and tint; then there is the French crayon, tinted crayons, etc.; French sketching boards, prepared of various tints, with skies, and suggestive effects ready laid in; “solid sketching blocks,” bound as a portfolio, will be found convenient. Paper for “cartoons” can be obtained of most any size, up to six feet wide.

=In a Picture we have Six Terms=, the center of the picture, or center of view, the distance of the picture, the base line, the horizontal line, the perpendicular line, the point of view.

=Lines in Nature.= It is a remarkable fact that all the lines in nature are curve lines, the body of trees, the branches and their leaves, and the fruit that grows thereon; the blades of grass, and flowers in the field; the swells of the ocean, the hills and hollows, are all composed of curved lines. Nature is all loveliness and perfection, all her effects are true, and the desire of the student should be to realize them thoroughly, and let nature, and nature alone, be the teacher, following her faithfully, in the full assurance of the attainment of truth, whatever else he may fail to accomplish.

Then let the pencil, the servant of thought,
Copy the lessons which nature has taught;
For the skillful hand of the artist entwines,
No garland more fair than her beautiful lines.

A LESSON IN DRAWING.

Before going into the field to make a sketch, it is essential you become familiar with the different lines used in drawing, the less difficulty you will have in sketching from nature.

The first effort will be to get control of the hand and pencil, or pen, which is the leading essential in learning to write or draw. Secondly, a right understanding of the straight and curve lines used cannot be dispensed with. A neglect of these first principles, and the want of a thorough drilling by an experienced teacher, in our educational institutions, is the leading difficulty in the advancement of students in these branches, and has often been a subject of comment.

There are three leading lines in drawing, the straight horizontal line, thus:

──────────────────

made by carrying the pencil from left to right, and vice versa, beginning and ending abruptly; then perpendicular ones, commencing at the top, draw the pencil down; then a straight oblique line, with 52 deg. slant, which is about the proper angle for writing.

The right and left curve is used as the beginning and ending of all the small letters.

Fig. 1.
]

=The Line of Beauty=, as it is called, is the two curves combined; commencing at the top, making first the left and then the right line, equal in length, forming a compound curve, the basis of two-thirds of all the capital letters. A combination of curves lying horizontally, as in fig. 2, gives the line which is formed by the meeting of the lips, from these different lines our sketches from nature are made up.

Fig. 2.

A _curved_ line changes its direction at every point.
]

A circle is a figure comprehended by a single curve line, called its circumference, every part of which is equally distant from a point called the center. From _a_ to _b_ will be found the left, or convex, and from _c_ to _d_ the right, or concave curve. The whole may be made by a quick movement of the hand, with crayon, on the black-board, thus: Turn your right side to the board, place the crayon at the bottom, _c_, and with the elbow as the radius, carry the crayon toward the left from _c_ to _a_, and so on until you reach the starting point, _c_, again, moving the hand at as rapid a rate as is possible.

Fig. 3.
]

Now, if these lines can all be drawn correct, and with freedom, take the equilateral triangle and practice it without a ruler.

Fig. 4.

An _angle_ is the space between two lines that start from the same
point.
]

The perpendicular line, passing from the vanishing point _a_, to the base _b_. The whole of the fig. 4 forms what appears to us the gable of a house, _a_ the point where the rafters meet, _b_ the center of the plate. This gives the horizontal, vertical, and oblique lines.

I shall endeavor to make these lessons clear and concise for the beginner, touching only on those points which are indispensable in learning to draw. Although many of these principles you may have acquired, the elements of linear perspective is the very first thing to which your attention should be directed.

=Landscapes.= All objects which present themselves to the eye, such as buildings, forests, fields, mountains, water, &c., whether viewed from a hill or on a level, we will call a landscape. Now as it is impossible to make an exact copy of the subject before us, by means of any transfer process, it can only be effected by a distinct apprehension of the real form of the objects themselves, and of those apparent forms under which they are presented to the eye, in their different positions in the landscape. All these objects have their outlines, composed either of straight or curve lines, which may be irregular in their relation to each other. Now if we were placed on a flat, horizontal plain, the water or ground which we would have in view before us, would appear to rise from the spot on which we stood, the limit of that rise being determined by a clear and well defined straight line, called the horizontal line. It will appear in the lake; between this and the sky no object intervenes. This horizontal or boundary line lies directly opposite to the range of the eye, and the one to which every other line is referred, and by which the accuracy of the drawing is secured. The point where it crosses the perpendicular line will be the center of our picture.

=In Placing a Landscape on Paper=, first arises the question as to how much of the landscape we will introduce into our picture. Let us suppose it to be taken from the point of view, then that position of the scene which the eye can easily take in, without moving the head, will constitute the picture. The space included between the point where we are standing and a point where our picture commences, establishes the required distance of the eye from the proposed picture. Now, if through this point a straight line be supposed drawn, perpendicular to the horizon, this line will pass through, and determine the foremost objects of the picture—touching all the leading objects directly in front of us.

=Position of the Horizontal Line= will depend upon whether or not we make the sketch from the ground, or from an elevation. If the view be made from the level with it, the horizontal line may be drawn at about one-fifth of the space of the paper we intend for our picture. If we take the sketch from an elevated point, a little above the level of the ground, then the horizontal line may be placed at about one-third the height, and so on. If the view is to be made from a high hill, or top of the house, place the horizontal line at one-half the height.

Now, in holding up the pencil or ruler horizontally with the eye, and on a level with it, you will see what objects will appear on that horizontal line. In making a photograph of a building it is always best to have the camera a little elevated, and at a considerable distance from the object, as a better picture can be secured. All horizontal planes seem to ascend if they lie below the horizontal line, and to descend if they lie above it, vanish or merge into it, as shown in figures 5 and 6.

In making a sketch from an elevation, the distant part of the view seems higher than the foreground. This occurs when the point from where the view is taken is too much elevated. A better, and much more natural perspective, can be obtained by lowering the point of view, which also changes the horizontal line.

After knowing the position of the horizon of your subject, point of sight for the point of distance, you have to extend the line of horizon from the point of sight to the limits of such distance.

For illustration, fasten a thread with a pin to the table, at a point corresponding to the line of the horizon of your picture; a thread thus adjusted will, when drawn out over the picture, fall exactly over all the lines seeking

=The Vanishing Point.= In this way you get the lines for the cornice in a building, or row of buildings, upper and lower lines of the windows and doors, base and sidewalk.

Fig. 5.
]

In making a sketch of a building, it is only necessary to get the general outlines, and instead of working in all the doors and windows, finishing up the cornice, etc., all that is necessary will be to get the outline of one door or window, and the style of cornice, and indicate the remainder by merely a mark showing the position, and make a memorandum of the essential points which is needed in completing the work. In figure 5, street view, make a dot on the sketch board at a point where you wish the first upper corner of the building to commence, draw a perpendicular line for the corner, do likewise at such a distance to the left as you wish the building to extend on the sketch, and you have the other corner. Holding the drawing book perpendicular between you and the building, and on a level with the eye, place the ruler on the sketch-book corresponding to the upper horizontal line of the building, and make a line for the cornice, the base line is produced in the same manner. The point _C_, where the two lines would meet, were they continued toward the left, will be the vanishing point, from which run all the other horizontal lines when you come to finish up the drawing.

THE EFFECTS OF THE DRAWING IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF THE HORIZONTAL
LINE.

Fig. 6.
]

A horizontal right line has, with respect to the plane of the picture, one of three positions. It is either parallel to it, oblique to it, or perpendicular to it. We will sit with the back against one of the walls of a rectangular room. The wall opposite is parallel to that behind us, and consequently to the plane of our picture in that position. The two remaining walls being at right angles with that opposite, are evidently perpendicular to the plane of the drawing, and all horizontal right lines on those two walls, are also perpendicular to that plane, and will appear to tend towards a point immediately opposite to the eye. H. H. is the horizontal line or level of sight; C the point opposite the eye, and that point toward which all horizontal right lines on the walls, A & B, appear to slant, though in reality they are perpendicular to the wall C. The lines 1 & 2, where the ceiling and sidewalls meet, and 3 & 4, the lower limit of the walls, as well as the horizontal lines of the door, and its panels, are in that position, all perpendicular to the plane of the opposite wall, and therefore to the plane of the drawing. The effects of the drawing in different positions of the horizontal line, should be carefully studied; if it be placed above the level of the eye, and removed to the right or left, it will appear like this:

If below the level of the eye, it will assume a direction like this:

But placed to the right or left of the eye, on a perfect level, and horizontal, it will appear thus:

──────────────────

If drawn from, and directly opposite to the eye, the end may appear thus:

•
A _point_ has position, but not magnitude.

Fig. 7.
]

If a book, or block of wood, having a square base, be represented at different distances, seen from a point in which its sides are oblique to the plane of the picture, and seen from both points, under the same circumstances in all respects, as regards surrounding objects, except that the distance of the artist from the base line is much less in one than the other, then it will appear as do figures 7 and 8.

Fig. 8.

A _surface_ has length and breadth only. A _solid_ has length,
breadth, and
thickness.
]

In figure 7 the distance from us is much greater than in figure 8, and the vanishing point farther away. We will find the first the most pleasing to the eye, although both are accurate. In these figures we make the two oblique lines of the base equal in length, and our position directly opposite the center perpendicular line. If we should change our position further to the right, the left oblique line at the base would apparently shorten, and _vice versa_.

In making a sketch from nature, the artist must choose a position that will command the best view of the scene about to be placed on paper, and from a standpoint that will secure the leading objects in the landscape before you. Begin by sketching those _objects nearest you first_. The reasons will be shown hereafter.

In attempting to make a “bird’s eye” view of buildings, where an elevation cannot be obtained, it will be found somewhat difficult. We can only mark down on the sketch-book what can be seen from the position we occupy on the level with the objects before us, and imagine the remainder. At the same time three things should be kept in view, the perspective, the perpendicular lines, and proper elevation, in order to give to our picture the appearance it would have if others viewed it from the supposed point of observation as the sketcher.

The intention of the writer has been to touch upon all the points and rules in drawing, and dwell upon each separately, and sufficient for a person of ordinary ability, and a good many grains of continuity, to make a sketch artist.

“It matters not what a man’s vocation may be, if he has the taste to discern, and mind to esteem, the good and beautiful in nature and art, an expression of refinement will be manifest in all that he undertakes.”

In this work I did not expect more than to take the first step toward teaching to sketch from nature. An easy, rapid, and decided manner of sketching is to be acquired only by practice. It is an acquisition essential to excellence in all the other artistic qualities, to which it serves as a basis. Having given you the necessary instruction, I will now assist you in

=Selecting a Position.= Choose a point that will command a good view of the scene, and prevent closer and more immediate objects from concealing any portion of the remote distance; and though the height of the horizontal line in this case may sometimes be more than half the height of the paper, according to the elevation attained by the artist to command the view. In this case the horizontal line is at about one-half the height of the paper. It frequently occurs in making a sketch, that the artist cannot place himself at the desired point for the best view. In such case we will imagine a point above the highest object in the foreground of the proposed sketch. That point may be on the land, or on the water. The artist, with a knowledge of perspective and elevation in view, may make a memorandum of the whole; but should he attempt to draw it from the point he is compelled to see it, no one would recognize it as a truthful representation. We regulate the whole by our knowledge of perspective, as accurately as if we stood upon the very spot from which we desired to be understood that the view was taken.

=In Making a Bird’s Eye View= of a village or city, the first thing to be done is to get a plat, or outline, of the streets and blocks, and mark them on the sketch-book in squares, (or rather diamond shape), each line and cross line representing a street. Commence sketching _in_ the buildings from the point chosen, which should be the one nearest the business center, and where the best houses stand, or from a point where you can secure the best material for a foreground, such as a stream of water and bridge, or a forest, etc. Transfer each block to paper, showing the fronts of one side and the rear of the buildings of the other side, and so on through the entire row of blocks, when you return to the place of starting, and go down the second row, always working toward the vanishing point.

After you have gone over the entire city, and taken every building, tree, and other objects of interest, and completed the sketch, you are ready for working it up. Lay out the blocks and streets on drawing paper, with pencil, in perspective, ruling from the vanishing point, the center of the picture, toward the point of view, which enlarges the objects of the foreground, and diminishes those in the distance.

In drawing _in_ the buildings, begin with the first house in the foreground, drawing the roof lines, which should be parallel with the lines of the street; next the gables, after which the corner lines, which should be perpendicular to the drawing paper.

The drawing should be made first with pencil, and then in ink, with fine pointed steel pen; for shading, use small camel hair brush and India ink.

=Lights and Shades.= In a sketch it is found that mere outline is insufficient to the representation of an object in relief; it cannot give substance, nor define relative distances so as to maintain the objects in their proper places. The matter of fact representation of the breadth of a meridian light, and the same passage of landscape viewed under the shades of evening, affects the feeling very differently. In the latter, there is a charm which operates even upon minds least susceptible of impressions from the beauties of nature. The general principle acted upon by artists, is to dispose the lights and shades in the manner best suited to the treatment they propose for their work.

There are two extremes of light and shade, and between these lie all those half tints and reflected lights, and exquisite gradations of shade, which must be so carefully placed in the drawing as to clearly indicate the graceful curve of each individual petal, without in any way destroying the roundness and breadth of a flower. The gradations of shade are sometimes perplexing to the learner; but in this respect the eye is a very safe guide. It requires no cultivated taste—not even any great amount of critical observation—to see when an object which should look perfectly round, appears flattened on the one side, or swell too much on the other. The theory of foreground and middle distances and background, has much to do with the principles of light and shade. It is not the line of perspective alone which makes one portion of a picture retreat, and another come forward.

In the drawing of a round object, apple or ball, the shades fall on the concave part, and incline toward the side opposite to light. All shades of objects in the same picture must fall the same way, or farthest from the light. That part lying nearest to the light must receive the least shade. This rule will be noticed in the face, folds of the drapery, etc. Landscapes show the heaviest shades nearest us, the greater the distance the lighter grows the picture. In clouds, the shades are the lightest that are nearest the horizon, it being the greatest distance from us, and those nearest the center of the picture the strongest.

COLORS in NATURE.

Colors are merely sensations produced by the action of light on the
nervous tissue of the retina, which covers the back of the eye.

There are Three Primary Colors in Nature, Blue, Red, and Yellow. From these are formed, all the other beautiful tints which well up from the bosom of the deep, glows in every flower, blossoms in the trees, and sparkles in the dew drop; softly stealing from the moon and stars, and written upon the blue arc of night. Red indicates anger, and sometimes guilt. Blue is said to be true, but denotes melancholy and gloom. Yellow indicates cautiousness and prudence, and reflects the most light of any, after white.

Yellow-green is the color nature assumes at the falling of the leaf, and this was worn in the days of chivalry, the emblem of despair. Green denotes tranquility. In heraldry it is used to express liberty, love, youth and beauty, and at one time all letters of grace were signed with green.

The color of all objects depend on the action of those bodies on the light which fall upon them, the different rays of which they reflect, either entirely, or only partially. The light of the sun, and the lights used for illumination, gas, etc., seem to consist of an infinite number of rays, of different color, and however widely they may be spread out by the prism in the spectrum, can never be entirely separated, but always form an even gradation of color, from red at one end of the spectrum, through orange, yellow, green, etc., to purple at the other end. Sir Isaac Newton divided the spectrum into seven parts, thinking he could distinguish seven different colors, red, yellow, blue, orange, green, indigo, and violet, which he called primary colors. Sir D. Brewster showed that those colors which Newton considered simple were, in reality, compound, and mixed up with a considerable proportion of white light. He concludes from his experiments that there were but three simple colors, red, yellow, and blue—by the mixing of which the other colors were produced.

The principal advantages attending the choice of red, blue, and yellow, as primary colors, are: That the choice seems to agree with the fact that whenever a ray of white light has one of these three colors removed by absorption, the remaining colors of the ray is that which would be found by an equal mixture of the other two colors. And when a ray has two of its primary colors removed, the remaining color of the ray is that of the third primary color. The color which opposes the strongest contrast to any primary color, is that secondary color, which is formed of a mixture of the remaining two primaries, in such proportion as would form with the first white light. This color is called its complimentary color—colors being called complimentary to each other when they together form white light. For instance, blue has for its complimentary color the neutral secondary orange, formed of a mixture of red and yellow, and this color gives the most vivid contrast that can be opposed to blue. Green is the complimentary, and strongest contrasting color to red, and red to green; and yellow the strongest contrast, and complimentary to purple, and purple to yellow.

When the colors of the spectrum in a circle, in a perfect gradation all around the circumference, and so that the three primaries, red, yellow and blue, are at points in the circumference equal distance from each other, the strongest contrast to any color will be found at a point on the other side of the circle diametrically opposite to it. Thus, blue will be found exactly opposite to orange, which will be intermediate between red and yellow; and, in the same way, yellow-green will be found exactly opposite purple-red, etc. Now, as red, blue and yellow are the three primaries, and that all other colors are composed of mixtures of these, let us decide which of the many different colors called reds, yellows, and blues we are to consider as pure, and true primaries. A pure _yellow_ has been decided upon; _chrome-yellow_ (No. 1), chromate of zinc (citron yellow), or light cadmium. A mixture of any two bright primaries will produce a bright secondary, and any admixture of the third primary will make the secondary color produced much duller or blacker. We consider that would be the purest blue which gave the brightest green with yellow, at the same time that it gave the brightest purple with a red, and it was decided that _cobalt blue_ was the pure primary, which was blue with regard to the yellow chosen. It is obvious that if the blue were a greenish blue, although it might give a very bright green with yellow, it would give but a dull purple with the red. The yellow contained in the blue, and which made it greenish, would blacken or dirty the purple produced, but would not interfere with the brightness of the green. We choose _carmine_ for the primary red as the color which gives the brightest purple with cobalt blue, at the same time that it gave the brightest orange with chrome yellow. Thus we have chrome (No. 1), for yellow, cobalt for blue, and madder carmine for red. These are the primaries.

Colored objects appear colored owing to their action on light. This action consists in absorbing one or more of the different colored rays which fall upon it, and reflecting the rest; and it is these reflected rays that give the color to the object. Bodies which emit light are called _luminous_, as the sun. Bodies which transmit light, and through which objects can be distinguished, are called _transparent_, as water, glass, etc. Bodies which transmit light, and not so as to permit objects to be seen through them, are called _translucent_, as ground glass, etc. Bodies which absorb or reflect all the rays of light, or transmit so few rays that the eye does not perceive them, are called _opaque_, as wood, metal, etc.

What we call a pure white object, such as chalk or white paper, appears white by reflecting all the light which falls upon it, and is therefore precisely the same color as the light which falls upon it. A pure black object is one which _absorbs_ all the light which falls upon it, and reflects _none_. Such an object will always appear black, whatever may be the color of the light which falls upon it. Gray objects, (pale black), absorb the three primary rays equally, or in equivalent proportions, but not _entirely_, so that there is a certain portion of the white light reflected unchanged. A pure green absorbs _all_ the red, and reflects _all_ the yellow and blue. A pale but pure green absorbs only _part_ of the red, and reflects the remainder of the red, together with all the yellow and blue. A dull and blackish green is formed by the absorption of all the red, and also part of the blue and yellow, and the reflection of the remainder of the blue and yellow. The same rule will apply in all cases of all other colored objects, except transparent ones. Silks and satins of either color reflect light.

When three colored rays are mixed together in neutralizing proportions, white light is produced. The easiest way of finding what are the equivalent proportions of the primary colors is this: divide a circle of paper into three equal parts, by lines drawn from the center to the circumference. Paint one of these spaces with pure yellow, such as lemon yellow, or the palest chrome yellow, and paint one of the remaining spaces pure but weak blue, with cobalt, and the other space pure but weak red, with madder carmine. Then try, by spinning the card rapidly on a pivot, whether these colors neutralize each other, and if not, darken that color that is deficient until the gray produced is neutral—that is, of the color of lampblack mixed with white; and when this is the case, the colors on the three spaces will be of the proper neutralizing strength for equal spaces.

PEN AND PENCIL DRAWING,

BY AID OF THE TRANSFER PROCESS.

The art of transferring pictures from one paper to another is what few understand. Many have drawings or engravings which they hold as valuable keepsakes, and wish to preserve copies. The plan of duplicating almost exactly a picture by the method given here, is original with the author of this book, who has many a time found it valuable in getting perfect the outlines of engravings, prints, and pictures of various kinds for pen or crayon drawings. Penmen produce very fine specimens of pen drawing, aided by the above process of copying; and although many a novice in the art of pen drawing exhibits equally as good designs as older professionals, they are, nevertheless, borrowed.

The paper used for transferring purposes is light tea paper, generally found in a tea store, or on sale at paper stores.

=We Prepare it as follows=: Procure a piece of soft pine or cedar, and burn to a coal, paste one side of the tea paper with it until quite black, and you have a neat transfer sheet. (In choosing the wood be sure and get soft white pine). Lay this black paper upon the white, where you wish the drawing to be made, the dark side down; upon this lay the copy, face up, and fasten the whole to the table with thumb tacks, to prevent its moving around and changing the outlines. This done, go over the whole with a tracer made of wood or ivory, with sufficient pressure to carry the lines through to the paper underneath, following every outline of the picture until the whole has been gone over. Lift the tracing paper, and you have upon the sheet below the desired drawing, which you now go over with pen or pencil. After this is done, rub the crayon from off the picture with your handkerchief, and complete the shading with a fine pointed steel pen or pencil, keeping the copy before you. Use Spencerian Artistic Pen, Crow-quill, or Gillott’s No. 170.

THE USE OF THE PENTAGRAPH.

This is an instrument in four sections, so arranged that you can enlarge or diminish in size, and copy a photograph, engraving, or any kind of picture. It contains a screw to fasten it to the table, a small steel needle to guide in the outlining, and a lead pencil to do the drawing.

=How to Use it.= Screw the Pentagraph to the table, with the needle point to your left, upon the photograph, (which is fastened to the table also), holding the end containing the pencil with the fingers, to the right. With your eye on the photo, move the hand so that the needle follows the outlines of the copy, and the pencil is producing the same on your drawing paper at the right. In this way go over the entire picture until you have a complete copy of the same. You may now shade with pen or crayon to suit the wants of the copy.

The small screws on the bars near the figures, are used in adjusting it to suit the size of picture required.

COPYING WITH TRANSPARENT PAPER.

Another method of transferring pictures to paper is by the use of a transparent paper, which is made by dissolving castor oil in absolute alcohol, and applying the liquid to the paper with a brush or sponge. The paper becomes dry as soon as the alcohol evaporates, which is almost instantly. After which lay the paper on the picture you are about to copy, and with a pencil follow the outlines of the picture until you have gone over the whole. As soon as done immerse the paper in alcohol, which will remove the oil, and restore the paper to its natural state.

PASTEL PAINTING,

WITH SUGGESTIONS FROM THE BEST ENGLISH AUTHORS.

“Exactly in proportion as an artist is certain of his end, will he
be swift and simple in his means; and as he is accurate and deep
in his knowledge, will he be precise and refined in his
touch.”—_Ruskin._

PORTRAITS.

For the past few years a great improvement has been made in the execution of portraits in black and colored crayons. Crayon painting is much easier in its execution than oil painting, and pictures may be completed at one sitting, owing to the fact that dry colors are used instead of oil, which may easily be removed or changed at will, left and resumed again at any time desired. In this department of art _crayon takes the place of brush and paint_, in all the different places where colors are used.

Crayon painting is said to have been practiced for a century or more after it came into use, and during the past few years it has had a “big run” in this country.

=Crayons, or Pastels=, can now be purchased by the box, in all varieties of tint, each box containing a graduated series.

=The Paper= upon which the drawing or painting is made, is manufactured for this purpose in such a manner that the texture becomes loosened and forms a woolly surface, which assists the blending of the tints, and receives the crayon.

As soon as a crayon picture is completed it will necessarily have to go under glass, for so slightly tenacious is the crayon, in some places where it may have been repeatedly applied with a view to brilliancy, that it may be blown from the surface of the paper.

=Exposure to the Sun=, which may brighten pictures painted in oil, will in a short time destroy the delicacy of crayon colors. They must also be kept free from _moisture_ or _dampness_, as it is sure to _change the color and produce spots_ on the face of a portrait, or the sky in a landscape.

=Colors.= The colors employed in pastel painting are about the same as used in oil painting, with some exceptions. The best for crayon work are the following:

Oxide of Zinc, White Chalk, Spanish White, Naples Yellow, Mineral Yellow, Chromes, Cadmium Yellow, Gallstone, Soft Red Chalk, Chinese Vermilion, Venetian Red, Chrome Red, Carmine, Lakes, Indigo, Prussian Blue, Smalt, Cobalt, Terre Verte, Cobalt Green, Brunswick Green, all the Greens from Copper, Green Oxide of Chromium, Lampblack, Umber, Ivory Black, Blue Black, Black Chalk.

=Color of Paper.= In regard to the use of paper, any color may be used, it being wholly a matter of taste with the artist.

_The prevailing colors_ are Blue, Drab, Grey, Straw, Buff, Olive and Stone Colors.

_A yellowish tint_, you will find, produces the best results.

=Mounting the Picture.= Before commencing upon the drawing it must be mounted upon a stretcher, after which, with a firm crayon, trace the outlines, with either red, brown, or grey color. The beginner will find the Pentagraph of excellent service for outlining where you are working from a copy.

=Sketching in the Outlines.= This must be done lightly, in order that the crayon does not enter into the texture of the paper, so as to render the marks difficult to be superseded subsequently by the necessary colors. When the outline is completed, the breadths are made out by means of a brown crayon, and a stump, working for the degrees of shade.

=Applying the Crayon.= When the likeness is satisfactory in the sketch, the complexion may be commenced on, beginning with the lights. The whites, yellows, reds and greys must be worked in, and blended to an imitation of the reality of nature. From the highest lights, proceed in regular order to the deepest shades, and, in order to secure substance, these must be put in equal in strength to nature; after which the middle tones must be carefully blended, so as to unite the lights and shades by imperceptible gradations. The markings must be definitely made out, and the reflexes also, if there be any. As the fresher tints occur principally in the lights, it would be well to keep the color rather high, and of a warm tone, in order to reserve the brightest and most effective tints till the last.

When all the tints have been laid in, and the head is in a satisfactory state as to form, color and expression, then, with the finger, pass over the whole, working and blending the colors in harmony. In this operation the finger is used instead of a stump, and nothing else will answer better. When this operation is concluded, the crayons will be again used to bring up the colors, and tone to those of the life—to modify and correct those which may require retouching.

Those parts which are heavy must be relieved, and those which may be too cold or too warm, must be reduced to harmony. Working with the finger will be found the most available method of managing the crayons.

Having laid in the tints, according to the natural complexion, it will be necessary, before touching the work with the finger or blender, to be certain that all are laid in the proper places; a little experience will enable you to judge; there remains but little work for the fingers to perform, and the less the colors are worked upon the more fresh and transparent they will remain.

=Colors and the Composition of Tints.= The shades of flesh tints are warm or cold, according to the warmth or coldness of the breadths of the light. If the lights be of a healthy hue, the shades may be warm, inclining to brown, mixed of various colors, broken with light red, carmine, yellow, blue or grey. Some artists represent nature as violet or green, in shade; but this is untrue and must be guarded against. It is advisable generally to follow the Italian feeling of leaving the dark passages warm. When the complexion is strong in color, the effect is most agreeable; if worked without hardness, opacity or blackness. In feminine portraits the work must be brought up to the utmost brilliancy of color, by the brightest and freshest hues, composed of White, Naples Yellow, Vermilion and Madder, mellowed with Yellows, or slightly purpled with Lake or Carmine, according to the prevalent tint of the subject. In the masculine subject the colors will be stronger, and the half-tints more positive. Great care must be observed, lest the high and delicate passages be soiled or stained. They must only be approached by, and blended with, other shades at their extremities; and these shades are, in most cases, half tints.

It will be clearly seen by the artist, that if the intermediate tint be too cold, it must be treated with the reds or yellow; if too warm, reduce by grey or blue. The lights and shades should be carefully graduated, and harmony prevail throughout the work.

=Backgrounds.=—For backgrounds there is no established rule; a head may be relieved by a light, or dark background, either producing good effect. A dark background is not always suitable for female loveliness.

Backgrounds are not to be rubbed in mechanically, with the idea that any dark shade will relieve any light, or that any middle tint will suffice. As a general rule, the background around the head should be lower in tone than the half tints of the face, and lighter than the shades—to disengage the head.

Where the paper becomes greasy or glazed by the too frequent application of the pastel, or the finger, it may be necessary to rub it with pumice pounce, or with cuttle-fish, lightly.

If the paper stretches by constant pressure on it, you can remedy it by wetting the back with a light solution of alum water.

LANDSCAPE PAINTING
WITH
CRAYON COLORS.