Chapter II: Part 2

Kaduppattan.--The Kadupattans are said, [16] according to the traditional account of their origin, to have been Pattar Brahmans of Kadu gramam, who became degraded owing to their supporting the introduction of Buddhism. "The members of this caste are," Mr. H. A. Stuart writes, [17] "at present mostly palanquin-bearers, and carriers of salt, oil, etc. The educated among them follow the profession of teaching, and are called Ezhuttacchan, i.e., master of learning. Both titles are used in the same family. In the Native State of Cochin, the Kaduppattan is a salt-worker. In British Malabar he is not known to have followed that profession for some generations past, but it may be that, salt manufacture having long ago been stopped in South Malabar, he has taken to other professions, one of which is the carriage of salt. In manners and customs Kaduppattans resemble Nayars, but their inheritance follows the male line." The Kaduppattans are described [18] by Mr. Logan as "a caste hardly to be distinguished from the Nayars. They follow a modified makkatayam system of inheritance, in which the property descends from father to son, but not from father to daughter. The girls are married before attaining puberty, and the bridegroom, who is to be the girl's real husband in after life, arranges the dowry and other matters by means of mediators (enangan). The tali is tied round the girl's neck by the bridegroom's sister or a female relative. At the funeral ceremonies of this class, the barber caste perform priestly functions, giving directions and preparing oblation rice. A widow without male issue is removed on the twelfth day after her husband's death from his house to that of her own parents. And this is done even if she has female issue. But, on the contrary, if she has borne sons to the deceased, she is not only entitled to remain at her husband's house, but she continues to have, in virtue of her sons, a joint right over his property."

Kahar.--In the Madras Census Report, 1901, the Kahars are returned as a Bengal caste of boatmen and fishermen. In the Mysore Census Report, it is noted that Kahar means in Hindustani a blacksmith, and that those censused were immigrants from the Bombay Presidency.

Kaikatti (one who shows the hand).--A division of the Kanakkans (accountants). The name has its origin in a custom, according to which a married woman is never allowed to communicate with her mother-in-law except by signs. [19]

Kaikolan.--The Kaikolans are a large caste of Tamil weavers found in all the southern districts, who also are found in considerable numbers in the Telugu country, where they have adopted the Telugu language. A legend is current that the Nayakkan kings of Madura were not satisfied with the workmanship of the Kaikolans, and sent for foreign weavers from the north (Patnulkarans), whose descendants now far out-number the Tamil weavers. The word Kaikolan is the Tamil equivalent of the Sanskrit Virabahu, a mythological hero, from whom both the Kaikolans and a section of the Paraiyans claim descent. The Kaikolans are also called Sengundar (red dagger) in connection with the following legend. "The people of the earth, being harassed by certain demons, applied to Siva for help. Siva was enraged against the giants, and sent forth six sparks of fire from his eyes. His wife, Parvati, was frightened, and retired to her chamber, and, in so doing, dropped nine beads from her anklets. Siva converted the beads into as many females, to each of whom was born a hero with full-grown moustaches and a dagger. These nine heroes, with Subramanya at their head, marched in command of a large force, and destroyed the demons. The Kaikolans or Sengundar are said to be the descendants of Virabahu, one of these heroes. After killing the demon, the warriors were told by Siva that they should become musicians, and adopt a profession, which would not involve the destruction or injury of any living creature, and, weaving being such a profession, they were trained in it." [20] According to another version, Siva told Parvati that the world would be enveloped in darkness if he should close his eyes. Impelled by curiosity, Parvati closed her husband's eyes with her hands. Being terrified by the darkness, Parvati ran to her chamber, and, on the way thither, nine precious stones fell from her anklets, and turned into nine fair maidens, with whom Siva became enamoured and embraced them. Seeing later on that they were pregnant, Parvati uttered a curse that they should not bring forth children formed in their wombs. One Padmasura was troubling the people in this world, and, on their praying to Siva to help them, he told Subramanya to kill the Asura. Parvati requested Siva not to send Subramanya by himself, and he suggested the withdrawal of her curse. Accordingly, the damsels gave birth to nine heroes, who, carrying red daggers, and headed by Subramanya, went in search of the Asura, and killed him. The word kaikol is said to refer to the ratnavel or precious dagger carried by Subramanya. The Kaikolans, on the Sura Samharam day during the festival of Subramanya, dress themselves up to represent the nine warriors, and join in the procession.

The name Kaikolan is further derived from kai (hand), and kol (shuttle). The Kaikolans consider the different parts of the loom to represent various Devatas and Rishis. The thread is said to have been originally obtained from the lotus stalk rising from Vishnu's navel. Several Devas formed the threads, which make the warp; Narada became the woof; and Vedamuni the treadle. Brahma transformed himself into the plank (padamaram), and Adisesha into the main rope.

In some places, the following sub-divisions of the caste are recognised:--Sozhia; Rattu; Siru-tali (small marriage badge); Peru-tali (big marriage badge); Sirpadam, and Sevaghavritti. The women of the Siru and Peru-tali divisions wear a small and large tali respectively.

In religion, most of the Kaikolans are Saivites, and some have taken to wearing the lingam, but a few are Vaishnavites.

The hereditary headman of the caste is called Peridanakaran or Pattakaran, and is, as a rule, assisted by two subordinates entitled Sengili or Gramani, and Ural. But, if the settlement is a large one, the headman may have as many as nine assistants.

According to Mr. H. A. Stuart, [21] "the Kaikolans acknowledge the authority of a headman, or Mahanattan, who resides at Conjeeveram, but itinerates among their villages, receiving presents, and settling caste disputes. Where his decision is not accepted without demur, he imposes upon the refractory weavers the expense of a curious ceremony, in which the planting of a bamboo post takes part. From the top of this pole the Mahanattan pronounces his decision, which must be acquiesced in on pain of excommunication." From information gathered at Conjeeveram, I learn that there is attached to the Kaikolans a class of mendicants called Nattukattada Nayanmar. The name means the Nayanmar who do not plant, in reference to the fact that, when performing, they fix their bamboo pole to the gopuram of a temple, instead of planting it in the ground. They are expected to travel about the country, and, if a caste dispute requires settlement, a council meeting is convened, at which they must be present as the representatives of the Mahanadu, a chief Kaikolan head-quarters at Conjeeveram. If the dispute is a complicated one, the Nattukattada Nayanmar goes to all the Kaikolan houses, and makes a red mark with laterite [22] on the cloth in the loom, saying "Andvaranai," as signifying that it is done by order of the headman. The Kaikolans may, after this, not go on with their work until the dispute is settled, for the trial of which a day is fixed. The Nattukattada Nayanmars set up on a gopuram their pole, which should have seventy-two internodes, and measure at least as many feet. The number of internodes corresponds to that of the nadus into which the Kaikolan community is divided. Kamatchiamma is worshipped, and the Nattukattada Nayanmars climb up the pole, and perform various feats. Finally, the principal actor balances a young child in a tray on a bamboo, and, letting go of the bamboo, catches the falling child. The origin of the performance is said to have been as follows. The demon Suran was troubling the Devas and men, and was advised by Karthikeya (Subramanya) and Virabahu to desist from so doing. He paid no heed, and a fight ensued. The demon sent his son Vajrabahu to meet the enemy, and he was slain by Virabahu, who displayed the different parts of his body in the following manner. The vertebral column was made to represent a pole, round which the other bones were placed, and the guts tightly wound round them. The connective tissues were used as ropes to support the pole. The skull was used as a jaya-mani (conquest bell), and the skin hoisted as a flag. The trident of Virabahu was fixed to the top of the pole, and, standing over it, he announced his victory over the world. The Nattukattada Nayanmars claim to be the descendants of Virabahu. Their head-quarters are at Conjeeveram. They are regarded as slightly inferior to the Kaikolans, with whom ordinarily they do not intermarry. The Kaikolans have to pay them as alms a minimum fee of four annas per loom annually. Another class of mendicant, called Ponnambalaththar, which is said to have sprung up recently, poses as true caste beggars attached to the Kaikolans, from whom, as they travel about the country, they solicit alms. Some Kaikolans gave Ontipuli as the name of their caste beggars. The Ontipulis, however, are Nokkans attached to the Pallis.

The Kaikolan community is, as already indicated, divided into seventy-two nadus or desams, viz., forty-four mel (western) and twenty-eight kil (eastern) nadus. Intermarriages take place between members of seventy-one of these nadus. The great Tamil poet Ottaikuththar is said to have belonged to the Kaikolan caste and to have sung the praises of all castes except his own. Being angry on this account, the Kaikolans urged him to sing in praise of them. This he consented to do, provided that he received 1,008 human heads. Seventy-one nadus sent the first-born sons for the sacrifice, but one nadu (Tirumarudhal) refused to send any. This refusal led to their isolation from the rest of the community. All the nadus are subject to the authority of four thisai nadus, and these in turn are controlled by the mahanadu at Conjeeveram, which is the residence of the patron deity Kamatchiamman. The thisai nadus are (1) Sivapuram (Walajabad), east of Conjeeveram, where Kamatchiamman is said to have placed Nandi as a guard; (2) Thondipuram, where Thondi Vinayakar was stationed; (3) Virinjipuram to the west, guarded by Subramanya; (4) Sholingipuram to the south, watched over by Bairava. Each of the seventy-one nadus is sub-divided into kilai gramams (branch villages), perur (big) and sithur (little) gramams. In Tamil works relating to the Sengundar caste, Conjeeveram is said to be the mahanadu, and those belonging thereto are spoken of as the nineteen hundred, who are entitled to respect from other Kaikolans. Another name for Kaikolans of the mahanadu seems to be Andavar; but in practice this name is confined to the headman of the mahanadu, and members of his family. They have the privilege of sitting at council meetings with their backs supported by pillows, and consequently bear the title Thindusarndan (resting on pillows). At present there are two sections of Kaikolans at Conjeeveram, one living at Ayyampettai, and the other at Pillaipalayam. The former claim Ayyampettai as the mahanadu, and refuse to recognise Pillaipalayam, which is in the heart of Conjeeveram, as the mahanadu. Disputes arose, and recourse was had to the Vellore Court in 1904, where it was decided that Ayyampettai possesses no claim to be called the mahanadu.

Many Kaikolan families have now abandoned their hereditary employment as weavers in favour of agriculture and trade, and some of the poorer members of the caste work as cart-drivers and coolies. At Coimbatore some hereditary weavers have become cart-drivers, and some cart-drivers have become weavers de necessité in the local jail.

In every Kaikolan family, at least one girl should be set apart for, and dedicated to temple service. And the rule seems to be that, so long as this girl or her descendants, born to her or adopted, continue to live, another girl is not dedicated. But, when the line becomes extinct, another girl must be dedicated. All the Kaikolans deny their connection with the Deva-dasi (dancing-girl) caste. But Kaikolans freely take meals in Dasi houses on ceremonial occasions, and it would not be difficult to cite cases of genuine Dasis who have relationship with rich Kaikolans.

Kaikolan girls are made Dasis either by regular dedication to a temple, or by the headman tying the tali (nattu pottu). The latter method is at the present day adopted because it is considered a sin to dedicate a girl to the god after she has reached puberty, and because the securing of the requisite official certificate for a girl to become a Dasi involves considerable trouble.

"It is said," Mr. Stuart writes, [23] "that, where the head of a house dies, leaving only female issue, one of the girls is made a Dasi in order to allow of her working like a man at the loom, for no woman not dedicated in this manner may do so."

Of the orthodox form of ceremonial in connection with a girl's initiation as a Dasi, the following account was given by the Kaikolans of Coimbatore. The girl is taught music and dancing. The dancing master or Nattuvan, belongs to the Kaikolan caste, but she may be instructed in music by Brahman Bhagavathans. At the tali-tying ceremony, which should take place after the girl has reached puberty, she is decorated with jewels, and made to stand on a heap of paddy (unhusked rice). A folded cloth is held before her by two Dasis, who also stand on heaps of paddy. The girl catches hold of the cloth, and her dancing master, who is seated behind her, grasping her legs, moves them up and down in time with the music, which is played. In the course of the day, relations and friends are entertained, and, in the evening, the girl, seated astride a pony, is taken to the temple, where a new cloth for the idol, the tali, and various articles required for doing puja, have been got ready. The girl is seated facing the idol, and the officiating Brahman gives sandal and flowers to her, and ties the tali, which has been lying at the feet of the idol, round her neck. The tali consists of a golden disc and black beads. Betel and flowers are then distributed among those present, and the girl is taken home through the principal streets. She continues to learn music and dancing, and eventually goes through a form of nuptial ceremony. The relations are invited for an auspicious day, and the maternal uncle, or his representative, ties a gold band on the girl's forehead, and, carrying her, places her on a plank before the assembled guests. A Brahman priest recites the mantrams, and prepares the sacred fire (homam). The uncle is presented with new cloths by the girl's mother. For the actual nuptials a rich Brahman, if possible, and, if not, a Brahman of more lowly status is invited. A Brahman is called in, as he is next in importance to, and the representative of the idol. It is said that, when the man who is to receive her first favours, joins the girl, a sword must be placed, at least for a few minutes, by her side. When a Dasi dies, her body is covered with a new cloth removed from the idol, and flowers are supplied from the temple, to which she belonged. No puja is performed in the temple till the body is disposed of, as the idol, being her husband, has to observe pollution.

Writing a century ago (1807) concerning the Kaikolan Dasis, Buchanan says [24] that "these dancing women, and their musicians, now form a separate kind of caste; and a certain number of them are attached to every temple of any consequence. The allowances which the musicians receive for their public duty is very small, yet, morning and evening, they are bound to attend at the temple to perform before the image. They must also receive every person travelling on account of the Government, meet him at some distance from the town, and conduct him to his quarters with music and dancing. All the handsome girls are instructed to dance and sing, and are all prostitutes, at least to the Brahmans. In ordinary sets they are quite common; but, under the Company's government, those attached to temples of extraordinary sanctity are reserved entirely for the use of the native officers, who are all Brahmans, and who would turn out from the set any girl that profaned herself by communication with persons of low caste, or of no caste at all, such as Christians or Mussulmans. Indeed, almost every one of these girls that is tolerably sightly is taken by some officer of revenue for his own special use, and is seldom permitted to go to the temple, except in his presence. Most of these officers have more than one wife, and the women of the Brahmans are very beautiful; but the insipidity of their conduct, from a total want of education or accomplishment, makes the dancing women to be sought after by all natives with great avidity. The Mussulman officers in particular were exceedingly attached to this kind of company, and lavished away on these women a great part of their incomes. The women very much regret their loss, as the Mussulmans paid liberally, and the Brahmans durst not presume to hinder any girl who chose, from amusing an Asoph, or any of his friends. The Brahmans are not near so lavish of their money, especially where it is secured by the Company's government, but trust to their authority for obtaining the favour of the dancers. To my taste, nothing can be more silly and unanimated than the dancing of the women, nor more harsh and barbarous than their music. Some Europeans, however, from long habit, I suppose, have taken a liking to it, and have even been captivated by the women. Most of them I have had an opportunity of seeing have been very ordinary in their looks, very inelegant in their dress, and very dirty in their persons; a large proportion of them have the itch, and a still larger proportion are most severely diseased."

Though the Kaikolans are considered to belong to the left-hand faction, Dasis, except those who are specially engaged by the Beri Chettis and Kammalans, are placed in the right-hand faction. Kaikolan Dasis, when passing through a Kammalan street, stop dancing, and they will not salute Kammalans or Beri Chettis.

A peculiar method of selecting a bride, called siru tali kattu (tying the small tali), is said to be in vogue among some Kaikolans. A man, who wishes to marry his maternal uncle's or paternal aunt's daughter, has to tie a tali, or simply a bit of cloth torn from her clothing, round her neck, and report the fact to his parents and the headman. If the girl eludes him, he cannot claim her, but, should he succeed, she belongs to him. In some places, the consent of the maternal uncle to a marriage is signified by his carrying the bride in his arms to the marriage pandal (booth). The milk-post is made of Erythrina indica. After the tali has been tied, the bridegroom lifts the bride's left leg, and places it on a grinding-stone. Widows are stated by Mr. Stuart to be "allowed to remarry if they have no issue, but not otherwise; and, if the prevalent idea that a Kaikola woman is never barren be true, this must seldom take place."

On the final day of the death ceremonies, a small hut is erected, and inside it stones, brought by the barber, are set up, and offerings made to them.

The following proverbs are current about or among the Kaikolans:--

Narrate stories in villages where there are no Kaikolans.

Why should a weaver have a monkey?

This, it has been suggested, [25] implies that a monkey would
only damage the work.

On examining the various occupations, weaving will be found to
be the best.

A peep outside will cut out eight threads.

The person who was too lazy to weave went to the stars.

The Chetti (money-lender) decreases the money, and the weaver
the thread.

The titles of the Kaikolans are Mudali and Nayanar.

Among the Kaikolan musicians, I have seen every gradation of colour and type, from leptorhine men with fair skin and chiselled features, to men very dark and platyrhine, with nasal index exceeding 90.

The Kaikolans take part in the annual festival at Tirupati in honour of the goddess Gangamma. "It is," Mr. Stuart writes, [26] "distinguished from the majority of similar festivals by a custom, which requires the people to appear in a different disguise (vesham) every morning and evening. The Matangi vesham of Sunday morning deserves special mention. The devotee who consents to undergo this ceremony dances in front of an image or representation of the goddess, and, when he is worked up to the proper pitch of frenzy, a metal wire is passed through the middle of his tongue. It is believed that this operation causes no pain, or even bleeding, and the only remedy adopted is the chewing of a few margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, and some kunkumam (red powder) of the goddess. This vesham is undertaken only by a Kaikolan (weaver), and is performed only in two places--the house of a certain Brahman and the Mahant's math. The concluding disguise is that known as the perantalu vesham. Perantalu signifies the deceased married women of a family who have died before their husbands, or, more particularly, the most distinguished of such women. This vesham is accordingly represented by a Kaikolan disguised as a female, who rides round the town on a horse, and distributes to the respectable inhabitants of the place the kunkumam, saffron paste, and flowers of the goddess."

For the following account of a ceremony, which took place at Conjeeveram in August, 1908, I am indebted to the Rev. J. H. Maclean. "On a small and very lightly built car, about eight feet high, and running on four little wheels, an image of Kali was placed. It was then dragged by about thirty men, attached to it by cords passed through the flesh of their backs. I saw one of the young men two days later. Two cords had been drawn through his flesh, about twelve inches apart. The wounds were covered over with white stuff, said to be vibuthi (sacred ashes). The festival was organised by a class of weavers calling themselves Sankunram (Sengundar) Mudaliars, the inhabitants of seven streets in the part of Conjeeveram known as Pillaipalyam. The total amount spent is said to have been Rs. 500. The people were far from clear in their account of the meaning of the ceremony. One said it was a preventive of small-pox, but this view did not receive general support. Most said it was simply an old custom: what good it did they could not say. Thirty years had elapsed since the last festival. One man said that Kali had given no commands on the subject, and that it was simply a device to make money circulate. The festival is called Punter (flower car)."

In September, 1908, an official notification was issued in the Fort St. George Gazette to the following effect. "Whereas it appears that hook-swinging, dragging of cars by men harnessed to them by hooks which pierce their sides, and similar acts are performed during the Mariyamman festival at Samayapuram and other places in the Trichinopoly division, Trichinopoly district, and whereas such acts are dangerous to human life, the Governor in Council is pleased, under section 144, sub-section (5), of the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1898, to direct that the order of the Sub-divisional Magistrate, dated the 7th August, 1908, prohibiting such acts, shall remain in force until further orders."

It is noted by Mr. F. R. Hemingway [27] that, at Ratnagiri, in the Trichinopoly district, the Kaikolans, in performance of a vow, thrust a spear through the muscles of the abdomen in honour of their god Sahanayanar.

Kaila (measuring grain in the threshing-floor).--An exogamous sept of Mala.

Kaimal.--A title of Nayars, derived from kai, hand, signifying power.

Kaipuda.--A sub-division of Holeya.

Kaivarta.--A sub-division of Kevuto.

Kaka (crow).--The legend relating to the Kaka people is narrated in the article on Koyis. The equivalent Kaki occurs as a sept of Malas, and Kako as a sept of Kondras.

Kakara or Kakarla (Momordica Charantia).--An exogamous sept of Kamma and Muka Dora.

Kakirekka-vandlu (crows' feather people).--Mendicants who beg from Mutrachas, and derive their name from the fact that, when begging, they tie round their waists strings on which crows', paddy birds' (heron) feathers, etc., are tied.

Kakka Kuravan.--A division of Kuravas of Travancore.

Kakkalan.--The Kakkalans or Kakkans are a vagrant tribe met with in north and central Travancore, who are identical with the Kakka Kuravans of south Travancore. There are among them four endogamous divisions called Kavitiyan, Manipparayan, Meluttan, and Chattaparayan, of which the two first are the most important. The Kavitiyans are further sub-divided into Kollak Kavitiyan residing in central Travancore, Malayalam Kavitiyan, and Pandi Kavitiyan or immigrants from the Pandyan country.

The Kakkalans have a legend concerning their origin to the effect that Siva was once going about begging as a Kapaladharin, and arrived at a Brahman street, from which the inhabitants drove him away. The offended god immediately reduced the village to ashes, and the guilty villagers begged his pardon, but were reduced to the position of the Kakkalans, and made to earn their livelihood by begging.

The women wear iron and silver bangles, and a palunka mala or necklace of variously coloured beads. They are tattooed, and tattooing members of other castes is one of their occupations, which include the following:--

Katukuttu, or boring the lobes of the ears.

Katuvaippu, or plastic operations on the ear, which Nayar women and others who wear heavy pendant ear ornaments often require.

Kainokku or palmistry, in which the women are more proficient than the men.

Kompuvaippu, or placing the twig of a plant on any swelling of the body, and dissipating it by blowing on it.

Taiyyal, or tailoring.

Pampatam or snake dance, in which the Kakkalans are unrivalled.

Fortune telling.

The chief object of worship by the Kakkalans is the rising sun, to which boiled rice is offered on Sunday. They have no temples of their own, but stand at some distance from Hindu temples, and worship the gods thereof. Though leading a wandering life, they try to be at home for the Malabar new year, on which occasion they wear new clothes, and hold a feast. They do not observe the national Onam and Vishu festivals.

The Kakkalans are conspicuously polygamous, and some have as many as twelve wives, who are easily supported, as they earn money by their professional engagements. A first marriage must be celebrated on Sunday, and the festivities last from Saturday to Monday. Subsequent marriages may also be celebrated on Thursday. On the night of the day before the wedding, a brother, or other near relation of the bridegroom, places the sambandham (alliance) by bringing a fanam (coin), material for chewing, and cooked rice to the marriage pandal (booth). Fruit and other things are flung at him by the bride's people. On the following day the bridegroom arrives at the pandal, and, after raising the tali (marriage badge) three times towards heaven, and, invoking a blessing from on high, ties it round the bride's neck. When a girl reaches puberty, a merry celebration is kept up for a week. The dead are buried. Inheritance is from father to son. A childless widow is a coparcener with the brothers of the deceased, and forfeits this right if she remarries.

Though in the presence of other castes the Kakkalans speak Malayalam, they have a peculiar language which is used among themselves, and is not understood by others. [28]

Kakke (Indian laburnum: Cassia fistula).--A gotra of Kurni.

Kala.--Recorded, in the Travancore Census Report, 1901, as a sub-division of Nayar.

Kalaikuttadi (pole-dancer).--A Tamil synonym of Dommara.

Kalal.--A Hindustani synonym of Gamalla.

Kalamkotti (potter).--An occupational title of Nayar.

Kalasi.--A name given to Vada fishermen by Oriya people.

Kalava (channel or ditch).--An exogamous sept of Padma Sale.

Kalavant.--The Kalavants are dancers and singers, who, like other dancing-girls, are courtesans. The name occurs not only in South Canara, but also in the Telugu country.

Kalinga.--A sub-division of Komatis, who "were formerly the inhabitants of the ancient Kalinga country. They are considered inferior to the other sub-divisions, on account of their eating flesh. Their titles are Subaddhi, Patro, and Chaudari." [29] In the Ganjam Manual, they are described as "traders and shopkeepers, principally prevalent in the Chicacole division. The name Kling or Kaling is applied, in the Malay countries, including the Straits Settlements, to the people of peninsular India, who trade thither, or are settled in those regions." It is recorded by Dr. N. Annandale that the phrase Orang Kling Islam (i.e., a Muhammadan from the Madras coast) occurs in Patani Malay.

Kalingi and Kalinji.--There has been some confusion, in recorded accounts, between these two classes. In the Ganjam Manual, the Kalinjis are described as agriculturists in that district, and, in the Vizagapatam Manual, the Kalingas or Kalingulu are stated to be cultivators in the Vizagapatam district, and a caste of Paiks or fighting men in Jeypore. In the Census Report, 1891, the Kalingis are said to be "most numerous in Ganjam, but there is a considerable number of them in Vizagapatam also. The word means a native of Kalinga, the name of the sea-board of the Telugu country; the word Telugu itself is supposed by Dr. Caldwell to be a corruption of Tri-Kalinga. The three large sub-divisions of the caste are Buragam, Kintala, and Odiya. In the Kintala sub-division, a widow may remarry if she has no male issue, but the remarriage of widows is not allowed in other sub-divisions. The use of flesh and alcoholic liquor is permitted. Naidu and Chaudari are their titles." Further, in the Census Report, 1901, the Kalingis are described as follows: "A caste of temple priests and cultivators, found mainly in Ganjam and Vizagapatam, whither they are supposed to have been brought by the Kalinga kings to do service in the Hindu temples, before the advent of the Brahmans. They speak either Oriya or Telugu. They have two sub-divisions, the Kintali Kalingas, who live south of the Langulya river, and the Buragam Kalingis, who reside to the north of it, and the customs of the two differ a great deal. There is also a third section, called Pandiri or Bevarani, which is composed of outcastes from the other two. Except the Kalingis of Mokhalingam in Vizagapatam, [30] they have headmen called Nayakabalis or Santos. They also have priests called Kularazus, each of whom sees to the spiritual needs of a definite group of villages. They are divided into several exogamous gotras, each comprising a number of families or vamsas, some of which, such as Arudra, a lady-bird, and Revi-chettu, the Ficus religiosa tree, are of totemistic origin. Each section is said to worship its totem. Marriage before puberty is the rule, and the caste is remarkable for the proportion of its girls under twelve years of age who are married or widowed. Widow marriage is not recognised by the Buragam Kalingis, but the Kintalis freely allow it. As usual, the ceremonies at the wedding of a widow differ from those at the marriage of a maid. Some turmeric paste is placed on a new cloth, which is then put over a pot of water, and the ceremony takes place near this. The binding portion of it is the tying of a saffron-coloured string to the woman's wrist. The Kalingis pay special reverence to Sri Radha Krishna and Chaitanya. Some of the caste officiate in temples, wear the sacred thread, and call themselves Brahmans, but they are not received on terms of equality by other Brahmans. All Kalingis bury their dead, but sraddhas (memorial services) are performed only by the Kintali sub-division. The Buragam Kalingis do not shave their heads in front. Kalingi women wear heavy bangles of brass, silver bell-metal and glass, extending from the wrist to the elbow. The titles of the castes are Naidu, Nayarlu, Chowdari, Bissoyi, Podhano, Jenna, Swayi, and Naiko."

In the foregoing account, the Oriya-speaking Kalinjis, and Telugu-speaking Kalingis, are both referred to. The confusion seems to have arisen from the fact that the Kalinjis are sometimes called Kalingis by other castes. The Kalingis are essentially Telugus, and are found mainly on the borderland between the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam. The Kalinjis are, on the other hand, Oriyas, and seem to be closely allied to the agricultural castes, Doluva, Alia, Bosantiya, etc., like which they are mainly agriculturists. The Kalinjis can be easily distinguished from the Kalingis, as the latter wear the sacred thread. The following story is told in connection with the origin of the Kalinji caste. A band of robbers was once upon a time staying in a fort near Bhattu Kunnarade, and molesting the people, who invited the king of Puri to come and drive the robbers away. Among the warriors who were recruited for this purpose, was a member of the Khondaito caste, who, with the permission of the king, succeeded in expelling the robbers. He was named by the people Bodo-Kalinja, or one having a stout heart. He and his followers remained in the Ganjam country, and the Kalinjis are their descendants. The caste is widespread in the northern part thereof.

There do not seem to be any sub-divisions among the Kalinjis, but there is a small endogamous group, called Mohiri Kalinji. Mohiri is a well-known division in Ganjam, and Kalinjis who dwell therein intermarry with others, and do not form a separate community. It has been suggested that the Mohiri Kalinjis are Telugu Kalingis, who have settled in the Oriya country. Like other Oriya castes, the Kalinjis have gotras, e.g., bano (sun), sukro (star), sanko (conch-shell), bhago (tiger) and nago (cobra). There is a good deal of confusion regarding the gotras in their connection with marriage. The same gotra, e.g., sukro, is exogamous in some places, and not so in others. Many titles occur among the Kalinjis, e.g., Borado, Bissoyi, Bariko, Behara, Dolei, Gaudo, Jenna, Moliko, Naiko, Patro, Podhano, Pulleyi, Ravuto, Santo, Savu, Swayi, Guru. In some places, the titles are taken as representing bamsams (or vamsams), and, as such, are exogamous. Families as a rule refrain from marrying into families bearing the same title. For example, a Dolei man will not marry a Dolei girl, especially if their gotras are the same. But a Dolei may marry a Pullei, even if they have the same gotra.

The headman of the Kalinjis is styled Santo, and he is assisted by a Patro. There is also a caste messenger, called Bhollobhaya. For the whole community there are said to be four Santos and four Patros, residing at Attagada, Chinna Kimedi, Pedda Kimedi, and Mohiri. A man who is suffering from a wound or sore infested by maggots is said to be excommunicated, and, when he has recovered, to submit himself before the caste-council before he is received back into the community.

Girls are generally married before puberty, and, if a real husband is not forthcoming, a maid goes through a mock marriage ceremony with her elder sister's husband, or some elder of the community. A bachelor must be married to the sado (Streblus asper) tree before he can marry a widow. The remarriage of widows (thuvathuvvi) is freely allowed. A widow, who has a brother-in-law, may not marry anyone else, until she has obtained a deed of separation (tsado patro) from him. The marriage ceremonies conform to the standard Oriya type. In some places, the little fingers of the contracting couple are linked, instead of their hands being tied together with thread. On the fourth day, a Bhondari (barber) places on the marriage dais some beaten rice and sugar-candy, which the bride and bridegroom sell to relations for money and grain. The proceeds of the sale are the perquisite of the Bhondari. On the seventh day, the bridegroom breaks a pot on the dais, and, as he and the bride go away, the brother of the latter throws brinjal (Solanum Melongena) fruits at him.

The dead are as a rule cremated. On the day after death, food, made bitter by the addition of margosa (Melia Azadirachta) leaves, is offered. A piece of bone is carried away from the burning-ground, and buried under a pipal (Ficus religiosa) tree. Daily, until the tenth day, water is poured seven times over the spot where the bone is buried. On the tenth day, if the deceased was an elder of the community, the jola-jola handi ceremony is performed with a pot riddled with holes. (See Bhondari.)

Kalkatta.--An occupation name for stone-masons in South Canara.

Kalkatti.--Kalkatti, denoting, it has been suggested, those who wear glass beads, is a sub-division of Idaiyan. The Lingayats among Badagas of the Nilgiri hills are called Kalkatti, because they hang a stone (the lingam) from their necks in a casket. Some Irulas of the same hills are also said to go by the name Kalkatti.

Kalla.--Recorded as a sub-division of Shanan, and of Idaiyans in localities where Kallans are most numerous.

Kalladi.--The title of a Cheruman who performs important duties, and becomes possessed by the spirit of the deceased, at a Cheruman funeral.

Kalladi Mangan.--A synonym of Mondi.

Kalladi Siddhan.--The name, meaning a beggar who beats himself with a stone, of a class of Telugu mendicants, who are very clamorous and persistent in their demands for alms. The name is applied as a term of contempt for any obstinate and troublesome individual. These beggars carry with them a gourd, have tortoise and cowry shells tied on their elbows, and carry an iron rod, with which they beat an iron ring worn on the hand. They present a very revolting spectacle, as they smear their bodies with rice done up so as to resemble vomit, and with the juice of the prickly-pear (Opuntia Dillenii), to make people believe that it is blood oozing from cuts made with a knife. They are said to be very fond of eating crows, which they catch with nets. (See Mondi.)

Kallamu (threshing-floor).--An exogamous sept of Panta Reddi.

Kallan.--Of the Kallans of the Madura district in the early part of the last century, an excellent account was written by Mr. T. Turnbull (1817), from which the following extract has been taken. "The Cullaries are said to be in general a brave people, expert in the use of the lance and in throwing the curved stick called vullaree taddee. This weapon is invariably in use among the generality of this tribe; it is about 30 inches in curvature. The word Cullar is used to express a thief of any caste, sect or country, but it will be necessary to trace their progress to that characteristic distinction by which this race is designated both a thief, and an inhabitant of a certain Naud, which was not altogether exempted from paying tribute to the sovereign of Madura. This race appears to have become hereditary occupiers, and appropriated to themselves various Nauds in different parts of the southern countries; in each of these territories they have a chief among them, whose orders and directions they all must obey. They still possess one common character, and in general are such thieves that the name is very justly applied to them, for they seldom allow any merchandize to pass through their hands without extorting something from the owners, if they do not rob them altogether, and in fact travellers, pilgrims, and Brahmans are attacked and stript of everything they possess, and they even make no scruple to kill any caste of people, save only the latter. In case a Brahman happens to be killed in their attempt to plunder, when the fact is made known to the chief, severe corporal punishment is inflicted on the criminals and fines levied, besides exclusion from society for a period of six months. The Maloor Vellaloor and Serrugoody Nauds are denominated the Keelnaud, whose inhabitants of the Cullar race are designated by the appellation of Amblacaurs.

"The women are inflexibly vindictive and furious on the least injury, even on suspicion, which prompts them to the most violent revenge without any regard to consequences. A horrible custom exists among the females of the Colleries when a quarrel or dissension arises between them. The insulted woman brings her child to the house of the aggressor, and kills it at her door to avenge herself. Although her vengeance is attended with the most cruel barbarity, she immediately thereafter proceeds to a neighbouring village with all her goods, etc. In this attempt she is opposed by her neighbours, which gives rise to clamour and outrage. The complaint is then carried to the head Amblacaur, who lays it before the elders of the village, and solicits their interference to terminate the quarrel. In the course of this investigation, if the husband finds that sufficient evidence has been brought against his wife, that she had given cause for provocation and aggression, then he proceeds unobserved by the assembly to his house, and brings one of his children, and, in the presence of witness, kills his child at the door of the woman who had first killed her child at his. By this mode of proceeding he considers that he has saved himself much trouble and expense, which would otherwise have devolved on him. This circumstance is soon brought to the notice of the tribunal, who proclaim that the offence committed is sufficiently avenged. But, should this voluntary retribution of revenge not be executed by the convicted person, the tribunal is prorogued to a limited time, fifteen days generally. Before the expiration of that period, one of the children of that convicted person must be killed. At the same time he is to bear all expenses for providing food, etc., for the assembly during those days.

"A remarkable custom prevails both among the males and females in these Nauds to have their ears bored and stretched by hanging heavy rings made of lead so as to expand their ear-laps (lobes) down to their shoulders. Besides this singular idea of beauty attached by them to pendant ears, a circumstance still more remarkable is that, when merchants or travellers pass through these Nauds, they generally take the precaution to insure a safe transit through these territories by counting the friendship of some individual of the Naud by payment of a certain fee, for which he deputes a young girl to conduct the travellers safe through the limits. This sacred guide conducts them along with her finger to her ear. On observing this sign, no Cullary will dare to plunder the persons so conducted. It sometimes happens, in spite of this precaution, that attempts are made to attack the traveller. The girl in such cases immediately tears one of her ear-laps, and returns to spread the report, upon which the complaint is carried before the chief and elders of the Naud, who forthwith convene a meeting in consequence at the Mundoopoolee. [31] If the violators are convicted, vindictive retaliation ensues. The assembly condemns the offenders to have both their ear-laps torn in expiation of their crime, and, if otherwise capable, they are punished by fines or absolved by money. By this means travellers generally obtain a safe passage through these territories. [Even at the present day, in quarrels between women of the lower castes, long ears form a favourite object of attack, and lobe-tearing cases figure frequently in police records. [32]]

"The Maloor Naud was originally inhabited and cultivated by Vellaulers. At a certain period some Cullaries belonging to Vella Naud in the Conjeeveram district proceeded thence on a hunting excursion with weapons consisting of short hand pikes, cudgels, bludgeons, and curved sticks for throwing, and dogs. While engaged in their sport, they observed a peacock resist and attack one of their hounds. The sportsmen, not a little astonished at the sight, declared that this appeared to be a fortunate country, and its native inhabitants and every living creature naturally possessed courage and bravery. Preferring such a country to their Naud in Conjeeveram, they were desirous of establishing themselves here as cultivators. To effect this, they insinuated themselves into the favour of the Vellaulers, and, engaging as their servants, were permitted to remain in these parts, whither they in course of time invited their relations and friends, and to appearance conducted themselves faithfully and obediently to the entire satisfaction of the Vellaulers, and were rewarded for their labour. Some time afterwards, the Vellaulers, exercising an arbitrary sway over the Cullaries, began to inflict condign punishment for offences and misdemeanours committed in their service. This stirred up the wrath of the Cullaries, who gradually acquired the superiority over their masters, and by coercive measures impelled them to a strict observance of the following rules:--

1st.--That, if a Culler was struck by his master in such a manner as to deprive him of a tooth, he was to pay a fine of ten cully chuckrums (money) for the offence.

2nd.--That, if a Culler happened to have one of his ear-laps torn, the Vellauler was to pay a fine of six chuckrums.

3rd.--That if a Culler had his skull fractured, the Vellauler was to pay thirty chuckrums, unless he preferred to have his skull fractured in return.

4th.--That, if a Culler had his arm or leg broke, he was then to be considered but half a man. In such case the offender was required to grant the Culler one cullum of nunjah seed land (wet cultivation), and two koorkums of punjah (dry cultivation), to be held and enjoyed in perpetuity, exclusive of which the Vellauler was required to give the Culler a doopettah (cloth) and a cloth for his wife, twenty cullums of paddy or any other grain, and twenty chuckrums in money for expenses.

5th.--That, if a Culler was killed, the offender was required to pay either a fine of a hundred chuckrums, or be subject to the vengeance of the injured party. Until either of these alternatives was agreed to, and satisfaction afforded, the party injured was at liberty to plunder the offender's property, never to be restored.

"By this hostile mode of conduct imposed on their masters, together with their extravagant demands, the Vellaulers were reduced to that dread of the Cullers as to court their favour, and became submissive to their will and pleasure, so that in process of time the Cullers not only reduced them to poverty, but also induced them to abandon their villages and hereditary possessions, and to emigrate to foreign countries. Many were even murdered in total disregard of their former solemn promises of fidelity and attachment. Having thus implacably got rid of their original masters and expelled them from their Naud, they became the rulers of it, and denominated it by the singular appellation of Tun Arrasa Naud, signifying a forest only known to its possessors [or tanarasu-nad, i.e., the country governed by themselves]. [33] In short, these Colleries became so formidable at length as to evince a considerable ambition, and to set the then Government at defiance. Allagar Swamy they regarded as the God of their immediate devotion, and, whenever their enterprizes were attended with success, they never failed to be liberal in the performance of certain religious ceremonies to Allagar. To this day they invoke the name of Allagar in all what they do, and they make no objection in contributing whatever they can when the Stalaters come to their villages to collect money or grain for the support of the temple, or any extraordinary ceremonies of the God. The Cullers of this Naud, in the line of the Kurtaukles, once robbed and drove away a large herd of cows belonging to the Prince, who, on being informed of the robbery, and that the calves were highly distressed for want of nourishment, ordered them to be drove out of and left with the cows, wherever they were found. The Cullers were so exceedingly pleased with this instance of the Kurtaukle's goodness and greatness of mind that they immediately collected a thousand cows (at one cow from every house) in the Naud as a retribution, and drove them along with the plundered cattle to Madura. Whenever a quarrel or dispute happens among them, the parties arrest each other in the name of the respective Amblacaurs, whom they regard as most sacred, and they will only pay their homage to those persons convened as arbitrators or punjayems to settle their disputes.

"During the feudal system that prevailed among these Colleries for a long time, they would on no consideration permit the then Government to have any control or authority over them. When tribute was demanded, the Cullers would answer with contempt: 'The heavens supply the earth with rain, our cattle plough, and we labour to improve and cultivate the land. While such is the case, we alone ought to enjoy the fruits thereof. What reason is there that we should be obedient, and pay tribute to our equal?'

"During the reign of Vizia Ragoonada Saitooputty [34] a party of Colleries, having proceeded on a plundering excursion into the Ramnad district, carried off two thousand of the Raja's own bullocks. The Raja was so exasperated that he caused forts to be erected at five different places in the Shevagunga and Ramnad districts, and, on pretext of establishing a good understanding with these Nauttams, he artfully invited the principal men among them, and, having encouraged them by repeatedly conferring marks of his favour, caused a great number to be slain, and a number of their women to be transported to Ramiserum, where they were branded with the marks of the pagoda, and made Deva Dassies or dancing girls and slaves of the temple. The present dancing girls in that celebrated island are said to be the descendants of these women of the Culler tribe." In the eighteenth century a certain Captain Rumley was sent with troops to check the turbulent Colleries. "He became the terror of the Collerie Naud, and was highly respected and revered by the designation of Rumley Swamy, under which appellation the Colleries afterwards distinguished him." It is on record that, during the Trichinopoly war, the horses of Clive and Stringer Lawrence were stolen by two Kallan brothers.

Tradition says that one of the rooms in Tirumala Nayakkan's palace at Madura "was Tirumala's sleeping apartment, and that his cot hung by long chains from hooks in the roof. One night, says a favourite story, a Kallan made a hole in the roof, swarmed down the chains, and stole the royal jewels. The king promised a jaghir (grant of land) to anyone who would bring him the thief, and the Kallan then gave himself up and claimed the reward. The king gave him the jaghir, and then promptly had him beheaded." [35]

By Mr. H. A. Stuart [36] the Kallans are said to be "a middle-sized dark-skinned tribe found chiefly in the districts of Tanjore, Trichinopoly and Madura, and in the Pudukota territory. The name Kallan is commonly derived from Tamil kallam, which means theft. Mr. Nelson [37] expresses some doubts as to the correctness of this derivation, but Dr. Oppert accepts it, and no other has been suggested. The original home of the Kallans appears to have been Tondamandalam or the Pallava country, and the head of the class, the Raja of Pudukota, is to this day called the Tondaman. There are good grounds for believing that the Kallans are a branch of the Kurumbas, who, when they found their regular occupation as soldiers gone, 'took to maraudering, and made themselves so obnoxious by their thefts and robberies, that the term kallan, thief, was applied, and stuck to them as a tribal appellation.' [38] The Rev. W. Taylor, the compiler of the Catalogue Raisonné of Oriental Manuscripts, also identifies the Kallans with the Kurumbas, and Mr. Nelson accepts this conclusion. In the census returns, Kurumban is returned as one of the sub-divisions of the Kallan caste.'

"The Chola country, or Tanjore," Mr. W. Francis writes, [39] "seems to have been the original abode of the Kallans before their migration to the Pandya kingdom after its conquest by the Cholas about the eleventh century A.D. But in Tanjore they have been greatly influenced by the numerous Brahmans there, and have taken to shaving their heads and employing Brahmans as priests. At their weddings also the bridegroom ties the tali himself, while elsewhere his sister does it. Their brethren across the border in Madura continue to merely tie their hair in a knot, and employ their own folk to officiate as their priests. This advance of one section will doubtless in time enhance the social estimation of the caste as a whole."

It is further noted, in the Gazetteer of the Tanjore district, that the ambitions of the Kallans have been assisted "by their own readiness, especially in the more advanced portions of the district, to imitate the practices of Brahmans and Vellalans. Great variations thus occur in their customs in different localities, and a wide gap exists between the Kallans of this district as a whole and those of Madura."