Chapter V: Muscles of the Leg and Foot (17)

The =accessory cephalic vein= arises from the union of three dorsal metatarsal veins. It joins the cephalic about the middle of the forearm.

There are three short =volar metacarpal veins= which open into the superficial venous arch. They are formed above the metacarpo-phalangeal joints by the junction of the =volar digital veins=, of which there are two for each of the chief digits. The volar vein of the first digit joins the superficial venous arch.

Each of the chief digits has two =dorsal digital veins=, while the first digit has one.

The =posterior vena cava=, its collateral affluents, and common iliac radicles present no special features of importance.

The =internal iliac vein= corresponds in regard to its tributaries with the branches of the artery, except that it is not divided into dorsal and ventral branches.

The =external iliac=, =femoral=, and =popliteal veins= with their collateral tributaries are satellites of the arteries.

The =anterior tibial vein= is usually double, and the =posterior tibial vein= is very small.

The =internal saphenous vein= is the upward continuation of the internal plantar metatarsal vein. It communicates by a large branch with the dorsal metatarsal vein, and ascends the leg as a satellite of the saphenous artery and its plantar (posterior) branch. The =recurrent tarsal= or =external saphenous vein= is larger. It is formed at the lower part of the leg by the union of dorsal and external plantar metatarsal veins, crosses the outer surface of the leg obliquely upward and backward, ascends behind the gastrocnemius and joins the posterior femoral vein.

The =metatarsal= and =digital veins= resemble in general the corresponding vessels of the fore limb.

THE LYMPH VESSELS AND GLANDS

The =cisterna chyli= is large and fusiform. The =thoracic duct= may be single throughout, but often divides anteriorly into two branches, which may then unite and form a dilatation which receives the left tracheal duct and the vessels from the fore limb. The primitive plexiform arrangement persists in varying degree. The duct terminates in the left brachiocephalic vein.

The =tracheal ducts= accompany the internal jugular veins. The right duct opens into the right brachiocephalic vein.

The =submaxillary lymph glands= (Fig. 486) are commonly three in number on each side. They are situated in the angle between the masseter and the submaxillary salivary gland, in relation to the external maxillary vein and covered only by the skin and panniculus. The number may be reduced to two or one with a corresponding increase in size.

A small round =parotid= or =auricular lymph gland= is situated superficially between the upper part of the posterior border of the masseter and the parotid gland.

The =pharyngeal= (or retropharyngeal) =lymph glands=, one or two in number on each side, lie on the pharynx chiefly under cover of the submaxillary salivary gland.

The =prescapular= or =superficial cervical lymph glands= lie on the serratus magnus at the anterior border of the supraspinatus, embedded in a mass of fat. Usually two or three are present on each side, but there may be only one. They are oval and are about an inch long in a dog of medium size when two are present.

The =axillary lymph gland= lies in a mass of fat on the inner face of the lower part of the teres major. It is discoid.

The =cubital lymph gland= is inconstant. It is situated on the deep face of the long head of the triceps or on the latissimus dorsi.

The =mediastinal lymph glands= are small and quite variable in arrangement. Usually one or two glands are found on the course of the internal thoracic vessels at the second segment of the sternum.

The =bronchial lymph glands= are commonly four in number. The largest is situated in the angle of divergence of the chief bronchi, two lie on the origin of the right apical bronchus, and the fourth is between the aortic arch and the anterior face of the left bronchus. They are commonly pigmented.

The =lumbar lymph glands= are small.

The =mesenteric lymph glands= are represented chiefly by a long flattened mass (formerly known as the pancreas Aselli) which lies in the mesentery along the course of the anterior mesenteric artery and vein. It is succeeded by three or four glands which lie along the portal vein and appear to receive vessels from the stomach, spleen, liver, pancreas, and great omentum. A few very small nodes occur along the colon.

The =iliac lymph glands= are relatively large and are situated at the termination of the aorta and the origin of the iliac arteries. Commonly four are present. Of these, the two largest lie on the psoas minor on each side in relation to the aorta and vena cava respectively. The other two are in the angle of divergence of the internal iliac arteries.

The =superficial inguinal lymph glands= are situated in the subcutaneous fat behind the external inguinal ring. They are relatively large, especially when there is only one on each side; two smaller ones may be found instead.

The =popliteal lymph gland=—usually unique, but sometimes double—lies in a pad of fat on the upper part of the gastrocnemius between the biceps femoris and semitendinosus. It may project back so as to be superficial and palpable.

NEUROLOGY

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system is a complex mechanism by which the organism is brought into functional relation with its environment, and its various parts are coördinated. For purposes of gross description it is divided primarily into two parts, central and peripheral.

The =central nervous system= (Systema nervorum centrale) comprises (_a_) the =spinal cord= (Medulla spinalis), and (_b_) the =brain= (Encephalon).

The =peripheral nervous system= (Systema nervorum periphericum) includes (_a_) the =cerebral= and =spinal nerves= with their =ganglia=, and (_b_) the =sympathetic nervous system=.

The division into central and peripheral parts is quite arbitrary and
is employed purely as a matter of convenience of description. The
fibers of which the nerves are composed either arise or end within the
central system, and therefore constitute an integral part of the
latter. The structural and functional unit of the nervous system is
the =neurone=, which consists of the =cell-body=, usually termed the
=nerve-cell=, and all its =processes=. The processes arise as
outgrowths from the cell-body and conduct impulses to or from the
cell. They vary greatly in length, some being less than a millimeter
long, while others extend from a cell in the spinal cord to the distal
end of a limb. A nerve is composed of such processes, usually inclosed
in a protecting and insulating sheath, and united into bundles by
connective tissue. The neurones are embedded in a peculiar supporting
tissue termed =neuroglia=. This consists of a very intricate feltwork
of glia-fibers, many of which are connected with the small glia-cells
or astrocytes. In addition the nervous tissue is invested closely by a
vascular layer of connective tissue, the pia mater, from which
ingrowths extend into the nervous substance proper.[186]

To the naked eye the central nervous system appears to be composed chiefly of two kinds of substance, white and gray. The =white matter= (Substantia alba) is dead white in color and is soft in the natural state. It consists largely of medullated nerve-fibers, packed closely together and arranged more or less clearly in large or small bundles or tracts (Funiculi, fasciculi). The =gray matter= (Substantia grisea) is usually brownish-gray in color, often with a tinge of pink. It is softer than the white substance and much more vascular. It is composed chiefly of cell-bodies and non-medullated processes. In some situations it is modified to form the =gelatinous substance= (Substantia gelatinosa), which is pale yellowish-gray and jelly-like.

=Ganglia= are gray masses found on the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves and on the course of many nerves. They are commonly ovoid in form and are inclosed in a fibrous capsule. They are composed largely of the cell-bodies of neurones, but have connected with and passing through them nerve-fibers (processes) which extend peripherally and centrally. In origin and function the spinal ganglia belong properly to the central system, but it is customary to include them with the peripheral part in gross anatomical descriptions.

=Nerves= are conducting trunks composed of bundles of parallel nerve-fibers. They are enveloped in a fibro-elastic sheath, the epineurium, which contains the blood and lymph vessels. They are classified according to their central connections as =cranial= or =cerebral=, =spinal=, and =sympathetic=. The groups of cells of which the nerve-fibers are processes are termed the =nuclei of origin or termination= of the nerves, according as the latter conduct impulses in a peripheral or central direction. On the same basis the nerve-fibers are designated =efferent= and =afferent= respectively. A bundle of fibers which passes from one nerve-trunk to another is called an =anastomotic branch= (Ramus anastomoticus). In some situations the exchange of branches between adjacent nerves is so free as to constitute a =nerve-plexus= (Plexus nervorum). The term =ramus communicans= is properly restricted to branches which connect the ventral divisions of the spinal nerves with adjacent ganglia or nerves of the sympathetic system. The terminal twigs of the nerves are designated according to their distribution as =muscular branches= (Rami musculares), =cutaneous nerves= (Nervi cutanei), and =articular nerves= (Nervi articulares). The muscular branches are motor in function, the cutaneous and articular sensory, but all contain vasomotor fibers which control the caliber of the blood-vessels.

THE MENINGES

The central organs of the nervous system are inclosed in three meninges or membranes. From without inward these are: (1) the dura mater, (2) the arachnoidea, and (3) the pia mater.

THE DURA MATER

The =dura mater= is a dense resistant membrane of white fibrous tissue; in the fresh state it is bluish-white in color. On account of the difference in its arrangement within the cranium from that in the spinal canal it is customary to describe it as consisting of two parts, cerebral and spinal; these portions are continuous with each other at the foramen magnum.

The =cerebral dura mater= (Dura mater encephali) is adherent to the interior of the cranium, and may be regarded as forming an internal periosteum for the bones here as well as being an envelope of the brain. Its outer surface is connected with the bony wall of the cranial cavity by numerous fine fibrous strands and by blood-vessels; hence it appears rough in many places when separated from the wall. The degree of adhesion varies greatly at different points. It is most firmly attached at the various projections, _e. g._, the internal sagittal crest, the tentorium osseum, the petrosal crest; also at the base and the foramen magnum. Before the sutures are closed the dura is connected with the sutural ligaments and through them is continuous with the external periosteum. The cranial nerves receive sheaths from the dura, which is thus continuous without the cranium with the epineurium and periosteum. Along the roof and sides (except as noted above) the adhesion is relatively slight, and lymph-spaces are said to exist between the dura and the bone. The internal surface of the dura is smooth and glistening, since it is lined by endothelium and is moistened by a fluid resembling lymph; it forms the outer boundary of the subdural space. In accordance with its double function the dura is composed of two layers, which are, however, intimately adherent to each other in most places in the adult. The venous sinuses are channels between the two layers and are lined by endothelium. They have been described with the other vessels.

Several folds or septa are given off from the inner surface of the dura; these project into the cavity between the gross subdivisions of the brain. These septa are: (1) the falx cerebri; (2) the tentorium cerebelli; and (3) the diaphragma sellæ.

The =falx cerebri= is a sickle-shaped median partition which projects downward in the great longitudinal fissure between the cerebral hemispheres. It is attached above to the internal sagittal crest, in front to the crista galli, and behind to the tentorium osseum. Its superior border is convex and separates into two layers which inclose the superior longitudinal sinus. Its lower border is concave and lies over the corpus callosum. The falx is thick above, but much thinner below, and in some places cribriform.

In the horse the posterior part of the falx cerebri does not extend to
the corpus callosum, and hence the hemispheres are here in contact and
adherent to each other over a small area. In the ox and pig the falx
does not descend so far as in the horse, while in the dog it
completely separates the hemispheres.

The =tentorium cerebelli= is a crescentic transverse fold which separates the cerebellum from the posterior poles of the cerebral hemispheres. It is attached above to the tentorium osseum and laterally to the petrosal crests. Its lower border is thin, concave, and free; it forms the upper and lateral boundaries of an opening (Incisura tentorii) which incloses the mid-brain.

The =diaphragma sellæ= is a small circular fold which roofs over the sella turcica and the pituitary body. It is perforated centrally by an opening (Foramen diaphragmatis) for the infundibulum.

The falx cerebelli, a sickle-shaped fold which projects into the
median notch between the cerebellar hemispheres in man, is not present
in the domesticated animals. There is instead merely a slight
thickening of the dura.

The =spinal dura mater= (Dura mater spinalis) forms a tube around the spinal cord from the foramen magnum to the second or third segment of the sacrum. It is separated from the periosteum of the spinal canal by a considerable =epidural space= (Cavum epidurale) which is occupied by fatty connective tissue and veins. It is held in position chiefly by the sheaths which it furnishes to the roots of the spinal nerves, and in its anterior part by two ligaments; the latter connect it with the inferior atlanto-occipital membrane and with the odontoid process. It is large in proportion to its contents, but its diameter is not uniform. It is largest in the atlas, small in the thoracic region, and becomes very small in its terminal part, where it incloses the delicate filum terminale of the spinal cord.

The =subdural space= (Cavum subdurale) is the cavity between the inner surface of the dura mater and the arachnoidea. It is a mere capillary space which contains just sufficient fluid to moisten its surfaces; this fluid is usually regarded as lymph, which is replenished by filtration through the walls of the blood-vessels. The space is in communication with the lymph-paths of the nerve-sheaths.

THE ARACHNOIDEA

The =arachnoidea= is a very delicate and transparent membrane situated between the dura and pia mater. Its outer surface forms the inner wall of the subdural space and is covered by a layer of endothelium continuous with that of the opposed surface of the dura mater. Between it and the pia mater is the =subarachnoid space= (Cavum subarachnoideale) which contains the cerebrospinal fluid. An inner surface can scarcely be said to exist, since deeply the membrane becomes a reticulum of fine fibers which traverse the subarachnoid space and are attached to the pia mater. The arachnoidea furnishes sheaths to the cerebral nerves from their superficial origins to a variable but usually short distance beyond the emergence from the dursal sac. In the case of the optic nerve this sheath extends to the eyeball.

The =arachnoidea of the brain= (Arachnoidea encephali), except in the case of the great longitudinal and transverse fissures, does not dip into the sulci on the surface of the brain. On the summits of the gyri it is so closely attached to the pia mater that the two form practically a single membrane. Its outer part bridges over the sulci, and here the subarachnoid space is partially divided up by the loose arachnoid tissue into intercommunicating cavities. In certain situations the arachnoidea is separated from the pia by spaces of considerable depth and extent. These enlargements of the subarachnoid space are termed =subarachnoid cisterns= (Cisternæ subarachnoidales). In them the subarachnoid tissue does not form a close network, but consists of a relatively small number of long, thread-like strands which traverse the cavity.

The chief cisternæ are: (1) the cisterna magna, which is at the angle
formed between the posterior face of the cerebellum and the upper
surface of the medulla oblongata. It communicates with the fourth
ventricle through the foramen of Magendie (in man); and behind with
the wide subarachnoid space of the spinal cord; (2) the cisterna
pontis on the ventral surface of the pons; (3) the cisterna basalis,
which lies at the base of the cerebrum and is divided by the optic
chiasma into two parts (cisterna chiasmatis, cisterna
interpeduncularis); (4) the cisterna fossæ lateralis, situated at the
lower part of the lateral fissure (of Sylvius), and continuous with
the cisterna basalis.

Along the upper border of the falx cerebri the arachnoidea bears bulbous excrescences, the =arachnoid granulations= or =Pacchionian bodies=. These are inclosed in thin evaginations of the dura mater and project into the sagittal sinus or the parasinoidal sinuses along either side of it. In some cases they are sufficiently large to exert pressure on the bone and produce in it depressions of variable depth.

The =spinal arachnoidea= (Arachnoidea spinalis) is directly continuous with that of the brain at the foramen magnum. It forms a relatively wide tube around the spinal cord, so that the latter (inclosed in the pia) is surrounded by a very considerable quantity of cerebrospinal fluid. The spinal subarachnoid space is traversed by fewer arachnoid trabeculæ than is the case in the cranium. It is partially subdivided by three imperfect septa. One of these, the septum dorsale, is median and dorsal. The other two, the ligamenta denticulata, are lateral and will be described with the pia mater.

PIA MATER

The =pia mater= is a delicate and very vascular membrane which invests closely the surface of the brain and spinal cord and sends processes into their substance. It also furnishes sheaths to the nerves, which blend outside of the dural sac with the epineurium.

The =pia mater of the brain= (Pia mater encephali) follows accurately all the inequalities of the surface, dipping into all the fissures and sulci of the cerebrum, and into the larger fissures of the cerebellum. Its external surface, which forms the inner boundary of the subarachnoid space, is covered by a layer of endothelium. From its deep face numerous trabeculæ are given off which penetrate into the substance of the brain and cord, forming a path for the blood-vessels, and concurring with the neuroglia in forming the supporting tissue of the nervous substance proper. The larger blood-vessels of the brain lie within the subarachnoid space, but the smaller vessels ramify in the pia, forming rich plexuses. The twigs which penetrate into the gray matter are inclosed in pial sheaths. They are end-arteries, _i. e._, constitute the entire supply of the district which they enter and do not anastomose with adjacent vessels.

Two important folds of the pia extend into the two great transverse fissures of the brain; these processes overlie the third and fourth ventricles and are known as the =telæ chorioideæ= of these cavities. They constitute paths for the deeper vessels and their edges contain vascular convolutions which are known as chorioid plexuses. They will receive further consideration more appropriately later.

The =spinal pia mater= (Pia mater spinalis) is thicker and denser than that of the brain. It has a strong outer layer of fibrous tissue, most of the fibers of which are longitudinal. The inner layer is vascular and adheres closely to the surface of the cord because it sends numerous processes into it. It sends a fold into the median ventral fissure and also helps to form the median dorsal septum of the cord. Along the median ventral line it forms a band-like thickening, the linea splendens, along which the ventral spinal artery runs. On each side the pia mater gives off a strong longitudinal band, the =ligamentum denticulatum=, which is connected externally with the dura mater. The inner or pial border extends in a line between the dorsal and ventral roots of the nerves. The outer or dural border is denticulated and to a large extent free. The denticulations are attached to the dura between the nerve-roots.

NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE HORSE

THE SPINAL CORD

The =spinal cord= (Medulla spinalis) is the part of the central nervous system which is situated in the vertebral canal. It extends from the foramen magnum to about the middle of the sacrum.

In the horse its average length is about 76 to 78 inches (ca. 190 to 195 cm.), and its weight about 8½ to 9 ounces (ca. 240 to 255 grams).

It is approximately cylindrical, but more or less flattened dorso-ventrally. There is no line of demarcation between it and the medulla oblongata, but for practical purposes the division is usually assumed to be at the posterior border of the foramen magnum. Its posterior part tapers rapidly to a point, forming the =conus medullaris=. This is prolonged for a short distance by the slender =filum terminale=.

Forty-two pairs of spinal nerves are connected with the sides of the spinal cord. They are classified as eight cervical, eighteen thoracic, six lumbar, five sacral, and five coccygeal. According to the attachments of these series of nerves the spinal cord is divided into =cervical=, =thoracic=, =lumbar=, and =sacral= parts.

In a horse about 16½ hands high these parts measured 65 cm. (ca. 26
in.), 86 cm. (ca. 34.4 in.), 27 cm. (ca. 10.8 in.), and 15 cm. (ca. 6
in.) respectively (Dexler).

In the embryo these divisions correspond primitively to the regions of the vertebral column, but later, through unequal growth of the cord and spine, the correspondence between the two is not at all exact in the anterior regions and is lost in the last two. The lumbar part of the cord in the horse ends at the junction of the fifth and sixth lumbar vertebræ, so that the roots of the last lumbar nerve must run backward the length of the last lumbar vertebra to reach the intervertebral foramen through which it emerges. The conus medullaris reaches only to the anterior part of the sacral canal, so that the roots of the sacral and coccygeal nerves extend backward in the spinal canal for a considerable distance, forming a leash of bundles, in the center of which lie the conus medullaris and the filum terminale. This arrangement is expressively designated the =cauda equina=.

Each pair of spinal nerves is attached by its root-fibers to a certain length of the cord, and the latter is, therefore, regarded as consisting of as many =segments= as there are nerves. It is to be noted, however, that there is no line of demarcation between the segments other than the intervals between the root-fibers of adjacent nerves.

The segments are of different lengths; the longest are the third to
the sixth cervical, which measure 11, 10, 10, and 8.5 cm.
respectively. The spinal nerves are in general designated according to
the vertebræ behind which they emerge from the vertebral canal. In the
neck, however, there are eight pairs of nerves and only seven
vertebræ; here the first nerve emerges through the intervertebral
foramen of the atlas and the eighth between the last cervical and the
first thoracic vertebra.

In the greater part of the thoracic region the spinal cord is fairly uniform in size, but there are two conspicuous wide enlargements which involve the segments with which the nerves of the limbs are connected. The =cervical enlargement= (Intumescentia cervicalis) begins gradually in the fifth cervical vertebra and subsides in the second thoracic. Its maximum transverse diameter is about an inch (ca. 25 mm.) and its dorso-ventral nearly half an inch (ca. 12 mm.). The =lumbar enlargement= (Intumescentia lumbalis) is situated in the fourth and fifth lumbar vertebræ. It is a little narrower than the cervical enlargement, and its dorso-ventral diameter is also slightly smaller. Behind this the cord tapers rapidly to form the =conus medullaris=. The tip of the latter is continued by a delicate glistening strand, the =filum terminale=, which is composed largely of fibrous tissue continued from the pia mater, covered by arachnoid.

FIG. 495.—VENTRAL VIEW OF MEDULLA OBLONGATA AND FIRST AND SECOND
SEGMENTS OF SPINAL CORD OF HORSE; THE MEMBRANES ARE CUT AND
REFLECTED.

_1_, Lig. suspensorium arachnoideale; _2_, right cerebrospinal artery;
_3_, _5_, digitations of lig. denticulatum; _4_, free border of lig.
denticulatum; _6_, middle spinal artery; _7_, basilar artery; _8_,
pons; _9_, arachnoidea; _10_, dura mater; _11_, _12_, ventral
root-bundles of first and second segments of spinal cord; _VI._, N.
abducens; _IX_, _X_, glossopharyngeus and vagus; _XI_, accessory,
medullary part; _XI′_, accessory, spinal part; _a_, line between
medulla oblongata and spinal cord. (Dexler, in Ellenberger-Baum,
Anat. d. Haustiere.)
]

FIG. 496.—CAUDA EQUINA.

_1_, Dura and arachnoidea divided and reflected; _2_, spinal cord;
_3_, nerve-roots. (From Leisering’s Atlas, reduced.)
]

The surface of the spinal cord is divided into two similar halves by a =dorsal median groove= (Sulcus medianus dorsalis) and a =ventral median fissure= (Fissura mediana ventralis). On either side of the former is the =dorso-lateral groove= (Sulcus dorsalis lateralis) at which the fibers of the dorsal nerve-roots enter the cord; it is faint except at the enlargements, and is represented by two grooves in the first cervical segment. The ventral root-fibers as they emerge from the cord do not form a continuous series, but arise from a zone (Area radicularis ventralis) 3 to 5 mm. in width a little lateral to the ventral median fissure, and no groove is found here. In the greater part of the cervical region and the anterior part of the thoracic region there is a shallow =dorsal paramedian groove= (Sulcus intermedius dorsalis) a short distance lateral to the median groove. These grooves indicate the division of the white matter of the cord into columns to be described later.

Examination of cross-sections of the spinal cord shows that it is a bilaterally symmetrical structure, incompletely divided into right and left halves by a ventral fissure and a dorsal septum. The =ventral median fissure= (Fissura mediana ventralis) is narrow and penetrates nearly to the middle of the dorso-ventral diameter of the cord. It is occupied by a fold of pia mater. The =dorsal median septum= (Septum medianum dorsale) is a partition which descends from the posterior median groove to about the middle of the cord. It apparently consists of condensed neuroglia with an admixture of pial tissue. The two halves of the cord are connected by commissures of gray and white matter. The =gray commissure= (Commissura grisea) is a transverse band of gray matter at the ventral end of the dorsal septum. It is divided into dorsal and ventral parts by the central canal of the cord. The =white commissure= (Commissura alba) is a bridge of white matter which connects the ventral columns of the cord over the dorsal end of the ventral median fissure, and constitutes a conducting path from one side to the other.

FIG. 497.—CROSS-SECTION OF SPINAL CORD _in situ_, IN PART SCHEMATIC.

_1_, Dorsal column; _2_, lateral column; _3_, ventral column; _4_,
dorsal horn; _5_, ventral horn; _6_, gray commissure; _7_, white
commissure; _8_, central canal; _9_, dorsal septum; _10_, ventral
fissure; _11_, dorsal nerve-root; _12_, ventral nerve-root; _13_,
spinal ganglion; _14_, nerve; _15_, intervertebral foramen; _16_,
arch of vertebra; _17_, epidural space; _18_, dura mater
(represented a little too thick); _19_, ligamentum denticulatum;
_20_, _20_, longitudinal venous sinuses; _21_, middle spinal artery.
The subdural and subarachnoid spaces (black) are traversed by
delicate trabeculæ. The outer part of the arachnoid and the pia
mater are not shown.
]

The =central canal= of the cord (Canalis centralis), the spinal vestige of the lumen of the embryonal neural tube, is a minute passage which tunnels the gray commissure. It opens at its anterior end into the posterior part of the fourth ventricle of the brain, and its terminal part in the conus medullaris forms a slight dilatation, the ventriculus terminalis. It is lined by epithelium and is surrounded by a layer of modified neuroglia (Substantia grisea centralis).

The =gray matter= of the spinal cord as seen in cross-sections resembles roughly a capital =H= the cross-bar of the letter being formed by the gray commissure. Each lateral part is considered as consisting of =dorsal= and =ventral gray columns= or =horns= (Columna grisea dorsalis, ventralis). In the greater part of the cord the dorsal column or horn is elongated and narrow and tapers to a point which extends almost to the surface of the cord at the attachment of the dorsal root-fibers of the spinal nerves. Its apex or tip consists of gray matter which is lighter in color and less opaque than that of the rest of the horn and is termed the =substantia gelatinosa= (Rolandi). The ventral column or horn is short, thick and rounded, and is separated from the surface of the cord by a thick layer of white matter, through which the fibers of the ventral roots of the spinal nerves pass. From the middle of the cervical region to the lumbar region there is a medial projection of gray matter on the lower part of the dorsal column; this is the =nucleus dorsalis= or Clarke’s column. In the anterior part of the cord there is an outward projection of the gray matter at the base of the ventral horn; this is termed the =lateral column= or =horn=. The demarcation between the gray and white matter is in many places indistinct; this is especially the case laterally, where processes of gray matter extend into the white substance, producing what is known as the =formatio reticularis=.

Cross-sections of the spinal cord present the following gross regional
characters: (1) The cervical cord near the medulla is compressed
dorso-ventrally, its width is about 18 mm. and its greatest thickness
about 8 mm. It has dorsally a deep median sulcus and a distinct
dorso-lateral sulcus. Lateral grooves are also present. The dorsal
cornua are strongly everted. Each has an expanded head, which comes
very close to the surface of the cord, and has an extensive cap of
substantia gelatinosa. The neck is distinct. The ventral cornua are
short and blunt and diverge very little. The gray commissure is about
in the middle of the section and 2.5 mm. in length. According to
Dexler the column between the median and lateral grooves dorsally is
the funiculus cuneatus, the funiculus gracilis being very small and
not showing on the surface in this region. In the middle of the
cervical region the diameters are about 16 mm. and 10 mm.
respectively. The ventral surface is somewhat flattened. The dorsal
cornua have pointed ends and turn decidedly outward. The ventral
cornua are short and thick and are directed very slightly outward;
their ends are about 4 mm. from the ventral surface. The gray
commissure is just above the middle of the section and is about 2 mm.
long. The cervical enlargement measures about 25 mm. transversely and
12 mm. vertically. The dorsal cornua are smaller than the ventral and
have a large cap of substantia gelatinosa. The ventral cornua are
short and thick, curve strongly outward, and are about 4 mm. from the
ventral surface. Each bears a prominence on its inner side near the
base. The gray commissure is considerably above the middle of the
section and is about 4 mm. long. (2) In the middle of the thoracic
region the cross-section is biconvex, the ventral surface being the
more strongly curved. The transverse diameter is about 15 mm. and the
dorso-ventral about 10 mm. The gray columns are close together, the
gray commissure being only about 1 mm. in length, and lying
considerably above the middle of the section. The dorsal cornua are
short and have slightly enlarged ends. The ventral cornua have a
uniform diameter, turn very little outward, and end about 3 mm. from
the ventral surface. (3) The lumbar enlargement is much flattened,
especially dorsally. The transverse diameter is about 22 mm. and the
dorso-ventral 9 to 10 mm. The cornua are very large. The ventral
cornua are thick and rounded and turn sharply outward; they end about
2 mm. from the ventral surface. The dorsal cornua are smaller and
shorter and do not diverge so strongly. The gray commissure is about
in the middle of the section and is about 3 mm. long. In the third
lumbar vertebra the cord is about 3 mm. narrower and thicker, and both
surfaces are about equally convex. The dorsal cornua are smaller,
considerably everted, and constricted in the middle. The ventral
cornua are very short and do not turn outward. (4) In the first sacral
vertebra the cord is almost round and is 5 to 6 mm. in diameter; the
cornua are relatively very large and the commissure has the form of a
high intermediate mass.

The ventral horn contains large cells, the axones of which emerge as
the fibers of the ventral nerve-roots (Fila radicularia). The axones
of many cells cross to the opposite side in the white commissure and
pass out in a ventral root of that side, or enter the white matter and
pass forward and backward, associating various segments of the cord.
Some pass to the ventral horn of the opposite side at the same or at
different levels. Others pass to the periphery of the cord, join the
cerebellospinal fasciculus, and extend to the cerebellum. Scattered
through the gray matter are many smaller cells with axones which
pursue a short course and serve to connect different parts of the gray
matter.

The =white matter= of the spinal cord is divided into three pairs of =columns=. The =dorsal columns= (Funiculi dorsales) lie on either side of the dorsal median septum and extend outward to the dorso-lateral groove and the dorsal gray column. The =ventral columns= (Funiculi ventrales) are situated on either side between the median fissure and the ventral gray columns. They are connected above the fissure by the white commissure. The =lateral columns= (Funiculi laterales) lie external to the gray columns on either side; their limits are indicated superficially by the dorso-lateral groove and the emergence of the ventral root-fibers. The paramedian groove (where present) indicates a subdivision of the dorsal column into two fasciculi or tracts; the inner of these is the =fasciculus gracilis= (Goll’s column); the outer, the =fasciculus cuneatus= (Burdach’s column).

The amounts of gray and white matter vary greatly in different parts of the cord both absolutely and relatively. In cross-section the absolute areas of both are greatest in the enlargements. The relative area of gray matter is smallest in the thoracic region (except at its anterior end), and increases from the lumbar enlargement backward.

Investigations have shown that in man the columns of white matter are
subdivided into fasciculi or tracts, which constitute definite
conducting paths of greater or less length. Our knowledge of the
tracts in the domesticated animals is very limited, and it is quite
unsafe to make inferences from the arrangement in man. As evidence of
this it may be noted that the ventral cerebrospinal or direct
pyramidal tract of man cannot be recognized as such.

The dorsal white columns consist essentially of two sets of axones.
The afferent or sensory axones which come from the cells of the spinal
ganglia enter as the dorsal roots of the spinal nerves and divide into
two branches in the vicinity of the dorsal gray column. The anterior
(ascending) branches form the direct sensory path to the brain and
extend in the fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus gracilis or
corresponding tracts to nuclei in the medulla oblongata. The posterior
(descending) branches extend backward for varying distances and give
off numerous collaterals to cells of the gray column, thus forming
part of the mechanism for the mediation of reflex action. Some
collaterals cross in the white commissure to the opposite side. Many
of these fibers are collected in the comma-shaped tract between the
fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus. The second set of axones arises from
the smaller cells of the gray column. They enter the white matter,
divide into anterior and posterior branches, forming the fasciculi
proprii or ground bundles of the cord. Some branches cross to the
opposite side. The function of this set of axones is chiefly to
associate various levels of the cord.

The lateral columns contain some axones of the dorsal nerve-roots,
which (in man) are grouped in the marginal tract of Lissauer, situated
just dorsal to the apex of the dorsal horn. The cerebellospinal
fasciculus (direct cerebellar tract of Flechsig) extends along the
periphery of the lateral column. It contains the axones of the cells
of the nucleus dorsalis (Clarke’s column), which proceed to the
medulla oblongata and enter the cerebellum by the restiform body. The
rubrospinal tract of Monakow appears to take the place of the lateral
cerebrospinal fasciculus or crossed pyramidal tract of man. It lies at
the inner side of the cerebellospinal fasciculus. Its fibers arise in
the nucleus ruber of the mid-brain, cross the median plane
(decussation of Forel), and pass backward in the tegmentum and medulla
oblongata to the lateral column of the cord. It is a path for motor
impulses coming from the cerebral cortex and the cerebellum. The
lateral fasciculus proprius or ground-bundle is deeply situated at the
side of the gray columns. The bulk of its fibers are axones of cells
of the posterior cornu which divide into anterior and posterior
branches. They are intersegmental paths which associate different
levels of the gray matter of the cord. The significance of the
remaining fibers is not yet known.

The ventral white columns do not contain a ventral cerebrospinal or
direct pyramidal tract, as in man. There is a small tract (Fasciculus
intracommissuralis ventralis) above the white commissure, which
separates it from the rest of the ventral column. It extends to the
middle of the thoracic region. It consists of intersegmental fibers,
and contains in the anterior part of the cervical cord in the sheep
and goat both crossed and direct pyramidal fibers. The descending
cerebellospinal fasciculus extends from the cerebellum to the lumbar
region. In the cervical region it occupies a semilunar area which
reaches almost to the surface ventro-laterally. Scattered fibers
belonging to it lie also in the medial part of the ventral column.
Posteriorly it diminishes in size and comes to occupy a position next
to the ventral median fissure, corresponding to the sulco-marginal
fasciculus of man (Dexler).

THE BRAIN

The =brain= or =encephalon= is the part of the central nervous system that is situated in the cranial cavity. It is the enlarged and highly modified cephalic part of the primitive neural tube. It conforms rather closely in size and shape to the cavity in which it lies.

Its average weight without the dura mater is about 23 ounces (ca. 650 gm.), and forms about ⅐ of 1 per cent. of the body-weight.

It is desirable to examine the general external configuration of the brain before studying its various parts in detail.[187]

When divested of its membranes and vessels (Figs. 499, 500), its ventral surface or base presents the median =brain stem=, which is continuous with the spinal cord without any natural line of demarcation; it divides in front into two branches, the cerebral peduncles, each of which disappears into the mass of the corresponding cerebral hemisphere. The brain stem consists of three parts. The =medulla oblongata= is the posterior part which extends forward as the direct continuation of the spinal cord. The =pons= (Varolii) is a transversely elongated mass which appears to turn up on either side into the cerebellum. The =cerebral peduncles= extend forward from the pons and diverge to plunge into the ventral part of the cerebral hemispheres. The area between them is the =interpeduncular= space. It is largely covered by the =pituitary body= or =hypophysis=, a yellowish-brown, discoid structure, which is connected with the base of the cerebrum by a delicate tube called the =infundibulum=.[188] On drawing the pituitary body gently aside, the infundibulum is seen to be attached to a slight gray eminence, the =tuber cinereum=. Behind this is the =mammillary body=, a well-marked round prominence. The posterior part of the space is perforated by numerous openings for the passage of small arteries, and hence is termed the =locus perforatus posticus=. Two large bands of white matter, the =optic tracts=, cross the anterior ends of the cerebral peduncles and unite at the =optic chiasm= or =commissure=, forming the anterior boundary of the interpeduncular space. Above and in front of the chiasm the hemispheres are separated by the median =longitudinal fissure=. In contact with the anterior extremity of each hemisphere is the =olfactory bulb=, an oval enlargement adapted to the ethmoidal fossa of the cranium. This appears as a gray swelling on a wide flat band, the =olfactory peduncle=, which is continued behind by two divergent bands, the =olfactory tracts= or =striæ=. The =internal tract= disappears after a very short course on to the inner surface of the hemisphere. The =external tract= is larger and longer; it runs backward, inclines at first outward and then curves inward and disappears on the concealed or tentorial surface of the hemispheres. It is separated from the lateral cerebral gyri by a distinct groove (Sulcus rhinalis). Along the inner side of the stria are two eminences. The anterior of these is the =trigonum olfactorium=, a gray elevation situated in the angle of divergence of the inner and outer striæ. Behind this is a depression, the =fossa transversa=,[189] which is continued across the external stria and sharply limits the second and much larger eminence, the =pyriform lobe=.

The superficial origins of most of the cranial nerves are visible on the base of the brain.

The =olfactory nerve-fibers= join the convex surface of the olfactory lobe and give it a shaggy appearance in specimens which have been removed intact—a difficult proceeding.

The =second= or =optic nerves= converge to the optic chiasm.

The =third= or =oculomotor nerve= arises from the inner part of the cerebral peduncle.

The =fourth= or =trochlear nerve= may be seen emerging between the pons and the hemisphere, but its connection with the brain is not visible.

The =fifth= or =trigeminal nerve= is connected with the lateral part of the pons.

The =sixth= or =abducent nerve= arises just behind the pons and lateral to the pyramid of the medulla.

The =seventh= or =facial= and the =eighth= or =auditory nerves= arise close together just behind the pons proper on the extremity of the corpus trapezoideum.

The =ninth= or =glosso-pharyngeal=, the =tenth= or =vagus=, and the =eleventh= or =spinal accessory nerves= are connected by a linear series of roots with the lateral aspect of the ventral surface of the medulla. The spinal part of the accessory nerve comes forward along the edge of the medulla to join its medullary root.

The =twelfth= or =hypoglossal nerve= arises from the posterior part of the medulla along the lateral edge of the pyramid.

FIG. 498.—BRAIN OF HORSE, DORSAL VIEW, ABOUT ⁵⁄₇ NATURAL SIZE.

_1_, Entomarginal fissure; _2_, marginal fissure; _3_, ectomarginal
fissure; _4_, suprasylvian fissure.
]

The parts that are visible when the brain is viewed from above are the cerebral hemispheres, the cerebellum, and part of the medulla oblongata. The =cerebral hemispheres= form an ovoid mass, and are separated from each other by the median =longitudinal fissure=, in which the falx cerebri is situated. Their surfaces are marked by thick folds, the =gyri cerebri=, separated by =sulci=. The upturned ends of the =olfactory bulbs= are seen in front of the frontal poles of the hemispheres. The occipital poles of the hemispheres overlie the anterior part of the cerebellum, from which they are separated by the =transverse fissure= and the tentorium cerebelli contained in it. The =cerebellum= is a much smaller rounded mass which conceals the greater part of the medulla oblongata. Its surface is divided into a middle lobe, the =vermis=, and two lateral =hemispheres=. It is marked by numerous gyri and narrow sulci which have in general a transverse direction. The posterior third of the =medulla oblongata= is not covered by the cerebellum.

The brain is developed from the expanded cephalic part of the neural
tube of the embryo. The process comprises a series of thickenings,
flexures, and unequal growth and expansion of various parts of the
tube. In the higher animals the result is that the tubular character
of the brain is not very evident, since the lumen comes to consist of
four irregular cavities, the ventricles, which are connected by narrow
passages. The tube is first subdivided by two constrictions into three
brain vesicles, termed respectively the hind-brain or rhombencephalon,
the mid-brain or mesencephalon, and the fore-brain or prosencephalon.
The hind-brain gives rise to three secondary segments and the
fore-brain to two. The annexed table indicates the origin of the
principal structures of the fully developed brain from the primitive
vesicles. It has become customary to describe the brain with reference
to its embryological relations.

TABLE INDICATING THE DERIVATION OF THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE BRAIN
PRIMARY SEGMENTS.│ Secondary │ DERIVATIVES. │ CAVITIES.
│ SEGMENTS. │ │
Rhombencephalon │ │ │
(posterior │Myelencephalon │Medulla oblongata│Fourth ventricle
vesicle) │ │ │
„ │Metencephalon │Pons │ „
„ │ „ │Cerebellum │ „
│Isthmus │Anterior │
„ │ rhombencephali │ cerebellar │ „
│ │ peduncles │
„ │ „ │Anterior │ „
│ │ medullary velum│
Mesencephalon │ │Corpora │
(middle │Mesencephalon │ quadrigemina │Cerebral aqueduct
vesicle) │ │ │
„ │ „ │Cerebral │ „
│ │ peduncles │
Prosencephalon │ │{Optic thalami │Posterior part of
(anterior │Diencephalon │ } │ third ventricle
vesicle) │ │ │
„ │ „ │{Subthalamic │ „
│ │ tegmenta │
„ │ „ │{Pineal body │ „
│ │ │Anterior part of
│ │ │ third
│ │{Pituitary body │ ventricle.
„ │Telencephalon │ } │ Lateral
│ │ │ ventricles and
│ │ │ olfactory
│ │ │ continuations.
„ │ „ │{Optic nerves and│ „
│ │ retinæ │
„ │ „ │{Cerebral │ „
│ │ hemispheres │
„ │ „ │{Olfactory tracts│ „
│ │ and bulb │

THE RHOMBENCEPHALON

THE MEDULLA OBLONGATA

The =medulla oblongata= lies on the basilar part of the occipital bone. It is quadrilateral in outline, but much wider in front than behind, and compressed dorso-ventrally. Its length, measured from the root of the first cervical nerve to the pons, is about two inches (ca. 5 cm.).

Its =ventral surface= is convex in the transverse direction. It is marked by a =median fissure= (Fissura mediana ventralis) which is continuous behind with the similar fissure of the spinal cord. The posterior part of the fissure is faintly marked, but in front it becomes deeper and ends in a small depression (Foramen cæcum) behind the central part of a transverse band, the =corpus trapezoideum=. On either side of the fissure is a rounded tract, the =pyramid= (Pyramis), which is bounded externally by a faint lateral groove (Sulcus intermedius ventralis). The pyramids join the pons in front; behind they become narrower and disappear into the substance of the medulla, in which their fibers intercross, forming the =decussation of the pyramids= (Decussatio pyramidum).[190]

The superficial origin of the =sixth cranial nerve= (N. oculomotorius) is just lateral to the anterior end of the pyramid. The =corpus trapezoideum= is a transverse band which extends across the surface immediately behind the pons. It is crossed by the pyramids, which cut off a small central part. The lateral part extends out to the roots of the seventh and eighth nerves on either side. Behind the outer part of the corpus trapezoideum there is a variably developed rounded eminence, the =tuberculum faciale=. The root-fibers of the twelfth or hypoglossal nerve form an oblique linear series lateral to the posterior part of the pyramid.

FIG. 499.—BASE OF BRAIN OF HORSE, NATURAL SIZE.
]

The =dorsal surface= is largely concealed by the cerebellum and forms the greater part of the floor of the fourth ventricle. The =dorsal median fissure= (Fissura mediana dorsalis), the direct continuation of the corresponding groove of the spinal cord, extends forward to about the middle of the surface. Here the =restiform bodies=, which constitute the lips of the fissure, diverge to form the lateral boundaries of a triangular depression; this is the posterior part of the rhomboid fossa or floor of the fourth ventricle of the brain. The dorso-lateral fissure winds outward and forward to the lateral aspect of the medulla, where it presents the roots of the =ninth=, =tenth=, and =eleventh cranial nerves=. External to it is a distinct oval eminence on the anterior part of the lateral column, termed the =tuberculum cinereum=. The central canal of the cord is continued in the posterior part of the medulla, inclines dorsally, and opens in the posterior angle of the fourth ventricle. Hence it is customary to distinguish a closed and an open part of the medulla. The dorsal aspect of the latter, which is concealed at present, will be considered later in the description of the fourth ventricle.

FIG. 500.—LINE DRAWING OF BASE OF BRAIN OF HORSE. (KEY TO FIG. 499.)
]

The lateral surface is narrow behind, wider and rounded in front. From it the root-fibers of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh cranial nerves arise in a linear series, and alongside of it the spinal part of the eleventh nerve passes forward to join the medullary root. Close inspection reveals the presence of striæ which curve obliquely downward and backward from the surface of the restiform body toward the hypoglossal root-fibers; these are the =external arcuate fibers= (Fibræ arcuatæ externæ). The recess between the lateral aspect of the medulla and the cerebellum is occupied by an irregular mass of villous projections of the pia mater, containing tufts of vessels; this is the =chorioid plexus of the fourth ventricle=, and is the lateral edge of the =tela chorioidea= of the ventricle. On raising the chorioid plexus it is seen that the tela chorioidea is attached to the dorsal aspect of the medulla, and reinforces here the wall of the fourth ventricle; also that the restiform body terminates in front by entering the base of the cerebellum, forming its posterior peduncle.