Chapter LIII (5)

On the other hand, foremost among those tribes who have been entirely absorbed by the community of the Fúlbe are the Toróde or Torunkáwa, who, although they are considered as the most noble portion of the population in most of the kingdoms founded by the Fúlbe, yet evidently owe their origin to a mixture of the Jolof element with the ruling tribe[41], and in such a manner that, in point of numbers, the former enjoyed full superiority in the amalgamation; but it is quite evident that, even if we do not take into account the Toróde, the Jolof have entered into the formation of the remarkable tribe of the Fúlbe or Fúla, in a very strong proportion, although the languages of these two tribes at present are so distinct, especially as far as regards grammatical structure; and it is highly interesting that Áhmed Bábá (who, by occasional hints, allows us to form a much better idea of the progress of that tribe, in its spreading over tracts so immense, than we were able to obtain before we became acquainted with his history of Súdán) intimates distinctly that he regards the Jolof as belonging to the great stock of the Fullán or Fúlbe[42], although at the present time the terms “Jolof” and “Púllo” seem to be used in opposition, the one meaning a person of black, the other an individual of red complexion.

It is this element of the Toróde in particular which causes such a great variety in the type of the Fúlbe community, the Toróde being in general of tall stature and strong frame, large features, and of very black complexion, while the other sections of that tribe are always distinguished by a tinge of red or copper colour.

But besides the Toróde, who, as I have said, in most cases as well in Fúta as in Sókoto, at present form the ruling aristocracy, there are many other nationalities which have been absorbed in this great conquering nation, and which, on the contrary, are rather degraded. The most interesting among these latter, at least in the more eastern tracts occupied by the Fúlbe, are certainly the Jawámbe, as they are called by the Fúlbe, but rather, as they call themselves, Zoghorán, or as they are named by the Háusa people, Zoromáwa. This tribe, which we find at present quite absorbed by the Féllani, and, at least in the provinces of Háusa and Kébbi, reduced to the occupation of mere brokers, we still find, during the period of the Áskia, that is to say, in the sixteenth century of our era, quite distinct from the community of the Fúlbe or Féllani, as a tribe by themselves, settled to the S.E. of the Great River, where it enters the province of Másina[43]; and it was this tribe which, having been continually persecuted by the Songhay during the height of their sway, at a later period, when that empire had been laid prostrate by the musketeers of Morocco, contributed the most to its ruin, and conquered great part of it, particularly the most fertile provinces, such as Bára and Kármina.

Nearly the same character distinguishes the tribe of the Laúbe on the Senegal, who, in general, at the present time have been reduced to the rank of carpenters, but, nevertheless, at a former period evidently constituted a distinct tribe.[44] It is these degraded tribes—viz. besides those above mentioned, the Mábube or Mábe, considered in general as weavers; the Gergasábe, or shoemakers; the Waílube, or tailors; the Wambaibe, or singing men; the Waúlube, or beggars,—who impart to the community of the Fúlbe the character of a distinction into castes, especially as all of them, in the imaginary pedigree of the Púllo stock, have been carried back to one common progenitor called Só; but we find the same degraded families among the Jolof.[45]

The absorbing of these western tribes, especially the Jolof and Wákoré by the Fulfúlde nation, furnishes at the same time an unquestionable and unmistakable proof that the march of conquest of the latter proceeded from west to east, and not in an opposite direction, as has been the generally-adopted view of those who have touched upon the subject. No doubt it is impossible for us with our faint knowledge of the migration of tribes in general, and of African tribes in particular, to explain how this tribe came to settle in the region along the lower course of the Senegal, as their type is distinguished in so very remarkable a manner from the character of the other tribes settled in that neighbourhood, and evidently bears more resemblance to some nations whose dwelling-places are in the far east, such as the Malays, with whom M. Eichwaldt, in his ingenious but hypothetical essay on the Fúla[46] has endeavoured to connect them by way of Meroë. I myself am of opinion that their origin is to be sought for in the direction of the east; but this refers to an age which for us is enveloped in impenetrable darkness, while what I have said about the progress of their conquest from west to east relates to historical times, comprising the period from the fourteenth century downwards.[47] In this respect the mission of two religious chiefs of this tribe from Melle (where they resided at the time) to Bíri the king of Bórnu, who ruled about the end of the thirteenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century[48], is of the highest interest, as it shows at once that this tribe, even at that early period, was distinguished by its religious learning, and gives a proof of the progress of the tribe from west to east. Some other facts which have come to our knowledge with regard to the progress of this tribe eastward will be mentioned in the chronological tables; here I will only call the reader’s attention to the circumstance, that we find, among the most intimate friends and most stanch supporters of Mohammed el Háj Áskia, a man of the name of ʿAlí Fulánu, while in general it was the policy of the Songhay dynasty, which was begun by that great ruler of Negroland, to keep in check this tribe, the conquering tendency of which could not but become apparent to intelligent rulers, notwithstanding the humble character of “berroróji,” under which they used to immigrate and settle in foreign countries; and this is the acknowledged reason why the Gabéro, a tribe whom we shall meet in the course of our proceedings on the river below Gágho, have entirely forgotten their Fulfúlde idiom, not having been allowed, for a certain period, to use it. Whether it be true, as the Féllani-n-Háusa assert, that Kanta, the founder of the homonymous dynasty of Kébbi in the very beginning of the sixteenth century was originally a slave of a party of Fúlbe settled in the country, a fact which, if confirmed, would prove the early settlement of the tribe in this country, I am unable to decide, although it is certainly true that in the course of the sixteenth century the Fúlbe became strong enough, in the regions on the east side of the Ísa or Kwára, to exercise a great influence in the struggles which ensued between the successors of the first Kanta, while it was a chief of their tribe, the ruler of Danka, or Denga, who, according to Áhmed Bábá[49], first began his predatory incursions into the Songhay territory, laying waste the fertile and once extremely populous region along the Rás el má. It is thus explained how, even in the beginning of the seventeenth century, Fúlbe tribes were settled in several places of Bagírmi.[50]

But just on account of the vastness of the region over which they were scattered, were these people, while pursuing only their own local interest, powerless even in these loosely-connected and almost crumbling kingdoms, where they had found a new home, with the exception of Bághena, where they appear to have formed a nucleus of greater strength, but destitute of any religious impulse.

A new epoch for this wide-spread tribe did not open till the beginning of this century, when, in the year 1802, Báwa the ruler of Góber summoned to his presence the sheikh ʿOthmán, together with the other chiefs of the tribe, and severely reprimanded them on account of the pretensions which they were beginning to put forward. It was then that ʿOthmán, who, being settled in the village Dághel, performed the office of imám to his countrymen, and had begun to give them a new religious impulse, which raised them above their petty interests, filled with indignation at the manner in which he, the great Moslim, was treated by those pagans, was roused to the attempt of making himself and his tribe independent of the will of the native ruler of the country, and having assembled his countrymen, who now conferred upon him the dignity and authority of a sheikh, raised the standard of revolt; but his proceedings, at least as far as regarded Góber and the capital Alkaláwa, were far from proving successful at the beginning, he being vanquished in almost every encounter: but the fanatical zeal of his followers, whom he continually inspired with fresh energy by his religious songs[51], was so great that gradually he overcame all these obstacles, and at length succeeded in laying the foundation of a vast empire, being greatly assisted in his career by his brother ʿAbd Alláhi, who, although his senior, had been the first to pay him homage, and by his son Mohammed Bello. He took up his residence first at Gando, where he was besieged for a long time, and afterwards at Sifáwa, till, as described by Captain Clapperton in the excellent and concise account of this struggle[52] which he has given in the report of his second journey, Othmán ended his life in a sort of fanatical ecstasy or madness.

He was followed by Mohammed Bello, who endeavoured to introduce more order into the empire thus consolidated, and who, on the whole, must rank high among the African princes, being distinguished not less by his great love of learning and science than by his warlike spirit, although his military achievements were far from being always successful. But he has had the misfortune, after enjoying a great name in Europe, for a short time, for the kind and generous spirit in which he received Captain Clapperton on his first journey, to incur the severest condemnation on account of the manner in which he treated that same enterprising traveller on his second journey. No doubt he was a distinguished ruler; but he must not be judged according to European ideas. He had to struggle hard, not less against the native tribes anxious to assert their independence, than against his great rival Mohammed el Kánemí the king of Bórnu, who, just at the time of Clapperton’s second stay, pressed him very closely, and having successfully overrun the eastern provinces of the Fulfúlde or Felláta empire, threatened Kanó. Hence this political position, together with the instigations of the Arabs, who feared for their commerce with Negroland if the road from the south should be opened, will account in some measure for his treatment of the English traveller, who perhaps urged his going to the sheikh of Bórnu with too much energy. However, there is no doubt that Bello’s successor and brother, ʿAtíku, who ruled from the year 1832 till 1837, would have weakened the interest of the European public in the example which Bello gave of an energetic and generous ruler in those distant and out-of-the-way regions, if his career had become known to them; for he seems to have fully belied the expectation, of “a mean prince,”[53] which he raised when still living in his retirement, as a jealous king’s brother, without power and influence. But his reign was too short for consolidating sufficiently the loosely-connected empire, although, as long as he lived, full security is said to have reigned. The spirit of independence broke out more strongly under his successor ʿAlíyu, a son of Bello by a female slave, who, save a well-meaning and cheerful disposition, does not appear to have inherited many of the noble qualities of his father, and least of all his warlike spirit; and hence the lamentable condition in which I found this extensive kingdom, while there is scarcely any hope that affairs will assume a more consolidated character before another more energetic ruler succeeds to ʿAlíyu. Nevertheless the kingdom or empire, even at the present time, still comprises the same provinces which it did at its most flourishing period, with the exception of Khadéja, the governor of which has made himself independent; but the military strength of these provinces, especially as regards cavalry, as well as the amount of revenue, is greatly impaired, although the latter, collected from all the provinces[54] together, certainly exceeds one hundred millions of shells, or about 10,000_l._ sterling, besides an equal value in slaves and native cloth, or articles of foreign produce. The whole strength of the empire, if the distracted state of each province allowed its quota to be withdrawn from thence, would certainly still form an imposing force,—viz., the cavalry of the seat of government, together with the subjected parts of Kébbi and Zánfara, about 5000; the cavalry of Kanó, from 5000 to 7000; that of Baúchi, from 1500 to 2000; that of Zégzeg, 3000; Ádamáwa, 2000; Kátsena and Mésaw, each about 1000; Katágum, 1200; Marmar and Shéra, each 500; Bobéru, 600; Dáura, 400; Kazáure, about 200. But we have seen to what a state Zánfara is at present reduced, while the curious manner in which Kébbi is portioned out between the rulers of Sókoto and Gando[55] cannot fail to cause a great deal of jealousy and controversy between the two courts, at the very centre of power; and as for Ádamáwa, there are still so many hostile elements in the interior of that half-subdued province, that it is impossible to withdraw from thence a particle of its home force; nay, even the province of Kanó is so harassed and distracted by the continual inroads of the governor of Khadéja, that the ruler of that province is scarcely able to send a few hundred horsemen to join the army of his liege lord. We have seen how that same rebel governor of Khadéja repeatedly defeated a numerous host taken from almost all the provinces of the empire, which had been sent against him; and we shall see what were the inglorious manœuvrings of ʿAlíyu himself, when he led out, in person, his army against the enemy during my stay in Wurno, of which I shall now proceed to give a short diary.

[Sidenote: Monday, April 4th.]

Having entered my quarters in the dark, I had no idea of their character; and it was not till the following day that I became aware of it. They consisted, as shown in the accompanying wood-cut, of a spacious courtyard containing nothing but a clay building, which comprised two apartments, besides a small granary, built of clay, but which was covered all round with straw at the setting-in of the rainy season, in order to protect it from violent rains. The clay hall had been built by Ábú, the elder brother and the predecessor of the present ghaladíma, who greatly surpassed the latter in warlike energy, and who fell in Zánfara during that unfortunate expedition against the Góberáwa, the preparations for which Mr. Overweg witnessed during his stay in Marádi, in the beginning of the summer of 1851. The principal apartment of this clay hall, supported by two massive columns, with an average temperature of 94°, was an excellent abode during the hottest part of the day, when it felt very cool and pleasant; but it was rather oppressive in the morning and evening, when the air outside was so much cooler. But in the courtyard there was not the slightest shade, all the trees in this quarter of the town, as well as the huts consisting of reed, having been swept away by a great conflagration the preceding year, a young kórna tree, which had been planted at a later period, only just beginning to put forth its foliage. The whole courtyard, also, was in a most filthy state, characteristic of the manners of the natives in their present degraded moral and political situation. The first thing, therefore, that I had to do, in order to make myself tolerably comfortable, was to cleanse out this Augean stable, to build a hut for my servants, and a shady retreat for myself. I was well aware that the latter, which it was not easy to make water-tight, would become useless with the first considerable fall of rain; but I entertained the hope that, before that time, I should be able to set out on my journey.

1. Entrance hut or parlour, furnished with two seats of clay and two couches of the same material.

2. Second hut, without couches.

3. Open courtyard, overgrown with grass.

4. Hut for my chief servant.

5. Clay hall, with a store-room at the back.

6. Small granary.]

It was market-day, there being a market held here every Monday and Friday, although the great market of Sókoto, which is much more important, even in the present reduced condition of that place, still serves to supply the wants of the inhabitants of all the neighbouring towns and villages at large. Sending, therefore, into the market in order to supply my most urgent wants, I found that corn, as well as meat, was even dearer here than in Kátsena,—100 shells scarcely sufficing for the daily maintenance of one horse, and 800 shells buying no more corn than 500 would have done in Kátsena, while an ox for slaughtering cost 7000 shells, and I bought two milking-goats, in order to enjoy the luxury of a little milk for my tea, for 2700 shells. The only article which was at all cheap was onions. The market is held on a natural platform spreading out in front of the north-western gate, and surrounded and fortified by a ditch, as, in the present weak state of the Fúlbe, the market people are liable to be suddenly attacked by the enemy. This place, as well as the whole of the town, I visited the following day, in company with my friend Alháttu, who, in acknowledgment of the present I had given him in Gáwasú, and in expectation of more, took me under his special protection; but in crossing the town, in a westerly direction from our quarters, I was surprised at its neglected and dirty appearance,—a small ravine which intersects the town forming a most disgusting spectacle, even worse than the most filthy places of any of the deserted capitals of Italy. Emerging then by the western gate (the kófa-n-sábuwa), through which leads the road to Sókoto, and which was just being repaired by the people of the ghaladíma, in order to make it capable of withstanding the effects of the rainy season, we turned northwards round the town. In front of each gate, on the slope of the rocky eminence on which the town is built, there is a group of wells, each with a little round clay house, where the proprietor of the well has his usual residence, levying on each jar of water a small contribution of five shells; but there are also a great number of wells facing the north-western gate, close to the market.

Leaving a small farm, belonging to my friend ʿAbd el Káder the sultan of Ágades, on our left, we then turned round to the north, into the road which leads to Saláme, and crossed once more the “gulbi-n-ríma,” which takes its course towards Sókoto, exhibiting a very uneven bottom, and forming several pools of stagnant water. Here a broad plain spread out, at present almost bare of vegetation, where my poor camels searched in vain for pasture, putting me to a daily expense of 800 shells in order to recruit their strength by means of “haráwa,” or bean-straw, which furnishes the most nourishing food for the camel in these regions, though in general it is regarded as unwholesome for the horse. Having thus fed my camels for some time, I sent them to a greater distance, in the direction of Sókoto, between Dankému and Gída-n-mánomí, where better fodder was to be procured.

After the luxuriant vegetation of other parts of Negroland, I was astonished at the naked appearance of the country around the capital, only a few kúka or monkey-bread trees being seen; but the country presented a very different aspect on my return journey the next year, at the end of the rainy season. Góber is distinguished for its general dryness, and for this very reason is esteemed exceedingly well adapted for cattle-breeding. The frontiers of the three different provinces or territories (viz. Kebbi, Góber, and Ádar) join in this corner; and this is the reason that, while Sókoto is regarded as lying within the borders of the province of Kebbi, Wurno is considered as belonging to the conquered territory of the province of Góber; while just beyond the gulbi-n-ríma, in a northerly direction, the province of Ádar or Tadlar commences.

But, to return to my first promenade round Wurno, having surveyed the broad dry valley of the gulbi, we turned round the precipitous cliffs over which winding paths lead up to the town, and, having skirted for a while a small branch or korámma which further on turns away, we kept along the eastern side of the town, and re-entered the place from the south-eastern corner, through the gate by which we had made our first entrance. On the following page the reader will find a woodcut which will serve to show its situation much better than any description could do.

Meanwhile the town became more and more deserted; and on the 7th of April, Alháttu and ʿOmár, or Ghomáro, the two brothers of the ghaladíma, with numbers of other people, went to join the expedition: but these fighting men, with a few exceptions, care only about their bodily comfort, and for a few “goríye” or Kóla nuts would be willing to sell the whole of their military accoutrements. It was a great matter with these warriors, that, while the old goríye were nearly finished, the new ones, which were just then brought into the market, were sold for the high price of 120 shells each. In scarcely any place of Negroland did I observe so little true military spirit as in Wurno; and almost all the leading men seem to be imbued with the melancholy conviction that their rule in these quarters is drawing to an end.

1. Residence of Alíyu.

2. Market-place.

3. Kófa-n-Sábuwa.

4. K. Serkí-n-Ágades.

5. K. Kásuwa.

6. K. Máleki.

7. K. Kúrremi.

8. K. Ráha.

9. K. Ríma.

10. K. Ghaladámchi.

11. Gída-n-Serkí-n-Ágades.

12. Suburb.]

[Sidenote: Friday, April 8th.]

It was again market-day, and I made sundry purchases, including a small ox, for almsgiving, as I had made it a rule, in every large town where I stayed any considerable time, to distribute alms amongst the poor. I was astonished at the great quantity of cotton which was brought into the market, and which showed what these fine vales are capable of producing, if the inhabitants, instead of being plunged in apathy and exposed to the daily incursions of a relentless enemy, were protected by a strong government. This very day we received the news that the rebellious Kábáwa, or natives of Kebbi[56], had made a foray against Señína, a town situated on the most frequented road between Sókoto and Gando, the two capitals and central seats of the power of the Fúlbe in these quarters. The neighbouring Féllani had come to the rescue of the town, and had prevented the enemy from taking it; but six horses had been carried away. Only a few days later, the news arrived of another attack having been made by the rebels upon the town of Gándi, the residence of Dyang- rúwa, one day’s distance to the south from Bírni-n-Kebbi, although this time they were less fortunate, and were said to have been driven back with the loss of twenty-two horses. Meanwhile the sultan himself, with his sluggish host of cavalry, instead of attacking the Góberáwa, who already, before we left Kátsena, had taken the field with a numerous army, was said to be stationed in Katúru. He had been joined by the governor of Záriya in person, while Kanó had sent only the ghaladíma with the whole of their cavalry.

From Katúru, ʿAlíyu with his army, after some useless delay, betook himself to Káuri-n-Namóda, whence we received news on the 11th, the Góberáwa having meanwhile taken up a strong position in front of him, without being able to induce him to offer them battle. The dread of these effeminate conquerors for the warlike chief of the Góberáwa, the son of Yakúba, is almost incredible. He has ruled since 1836, and, the preceding year, had roused the whole of the indigenous population of the various provinces to a struggle for their national and religious independence against the ruling tribe. This dread of him has been carried so far, that they have quite obliterated his real name, calling him only Mayáki, or “the warrior.” While ʿAlíyu was stationed at Káuri- n-Namóda, and part of his army was in Dankárba, the Ázena made an attack upon Ráya, a town situated at a day’s distance from the former place. But the whole condition of the country, to the west as well as to the east, was most deplorable; and three native merchants, of the Zoromáwa or Zoghorán, when speaking about my projected journey towards the Niger, and beyond that river westward, told me in the most positive manner, “bábo haña,” “there is no road;” that is to say, “the country is closed to you, and you cannot proceed in that direction.” And taking into consideration the low ebb of courage and enterprise among the natives—the weakness and unwarlike spirit of ʿAlíyu—the complete nullity of Khalílu—the vigour of the young and warlike Mádemé the rebel chief of Kebbi, who, starting from his residence Argúngo, distant only a couple of hours’ march from that of Khalílu, was carrying the flame of destruction in every direction—the revolted province of Zabérma, with an equally young and energetic ruler, Dáúd the son of Hammam Jýmma—the province of Déndina in open revolt and cutting off all access to the river,—all these circumstances rendered the prospect of my accomplishing this journey very doubtful. Moreover, besides the weakness of the two rulers of the Fúlbe dominions, there is evidently a feeling of jealousy between the courts of Sókoto and Gando; and here we find the spectacle of two weak powers weakening each other still more, instead of uniting most cordially in an energetic opposition against the common foe. For instance, the young chief of Kebbi, who at present caused them so much trouble, had been previously a prisoner in Wurno; but when Khalílu wanted to take his life, ʿAlíyu procured his liberty, and gave him a splendid charger to boot.

But a European will achieve what the natives of the country themselves deem impossible; and my friends the Zoromáwa merchants, who wanted to induce me to relinquish my project, had perhaps their own private interests in view. They probably entertained the hope that, in case of my being prevented from penetrating westward, I should be obliged to sell my stock here, which I now kept back as a provision for the road before me. By way of consoling them, I gave them a parcel of beads of the kind called dankasáwa, which I found useless for the countries through which I had to pass, in exchange for some shells I was in want of for the daily expenses of my household.

Meanwhile I collected a good deal of information concerning the topography of the neighbouring provinces, and the remarkable manner in which the province of Kebbi has been portioned out between the two empires of Gando and Sókoto. I also compiled an outline of the history of this country, which began greatly to attract my attention. Meanwhile, in order to preserve my health, I took a ride almost every day, out of the town, and was in particular much interested in an excursion which I made in the afternoon of the 16th, in a northerly direction, on the road to Saláme, which is at the same time the great highroad to Ádar and Ágades. A cheerful aspect was especially exhibited by the village of Fáchi, stretching out to a considerable length from east to west, and skirted by a small watercourse, which inundates and fertilizes the neighbouring grounds during the rainy season, so that the people are able to raise, besides two species of yams, namely gwáza and rógo, a good deal of tobacco and cotton. Beyond, a wide open plain spreads out, covered with the plant “kakma,” which looks very much like aghúl (_Hedysarum Alhaggi_). But the whole of this ground so near the capital is now very unsafe under the weak rule of ʿAlíyu, and exposed to continual inroads of the energetic Góberáwa; and a few days later the village of Saláme itself was ransacked by the enemy, and a good many slaves carried off. The more desperate the condition of the country was, the more remarkable appeared to me the outward show of dominion which was maintained; in proof of this I may state that the very day we received the news of a new outbreak of the general mutiny of the native tribes, the tribute from the provinces of Kanó and Záriya entered the town.

[Sidenote: Wednesday, April 20th.]

A highly interesting and delightful interruption to my protracted and involuntary stay in Wurno was caused by an excursion which I made to Sókoto. The first part of this road I had already become acquainted with on a former ride, which had extended as far as Dankému; but at that period, being more intent upon inhaling the fresh air than upon laying down the country, I had not paid much attention to the extensive cultivation of rice which is going on in this valley, while on this occasion the features of the country, and in particular this branch of cultivation, formed a special object of attraction to me. For it was the first time during my travels in Negroland that I had seen rice cultivated on a large scale; and as we were winding along the foot of the rocky hills to the south-east, crossing the various small channels which descend from them and afterwards join the greater rivulet which we saw at some distance on our right, the country became dotted with small villages, or “rugga,” as they are called by the Fúlbe, some of them of historical renown, such as Dághel or Dággel, the village where ʿOthmán the Reformer had his usual residence before he rose to that great political importance which he attained in after times. But such is the degraded state of these conquerors at the present time, that even this village, which, if they had the slightest ambition or feeling of national honour, ought to be a memorable and venerable place to them for all ages, has been ransacked by the Góberáwa, and lies almost deserted.

It is at Dághel that the valley attains its greatest breadth; but as we advanced, in a south-westerly direction, it was narrower, till, at the village called Gída-n-mánomí, it became greatly contracted, shortly after which, the river turning away to a greater distance, the path ascended the rocks. It is the same path along which Clapperton, on his second journey, went so repeatedly from Sókoto to Magáriya, but which, from the scanty information obtained from his papers in this respect, has been laid down so very erroneously. In general, I cannot praise too highly the zeal and accuracy (allowance being made for his positions of longitude) with which this eminent and successful traveller, who crossed the whole breadth of the African continent between the Mediterranean and the Bight of Benín, has laid down his various journeys. On the other hand, the companion of his former travels, Major Denham, has shown great inaccuracy, both with respect to distances as well as to the direction of his various routes.

The ground was enlivened by the cultivation of “rógo,” which, when attaining a certain growth, contributes greatly to the beauty of the scenery; but kúka or baobab trees were almost the only larger vegetable production which adorned the country during the first part of our ride, sometimes shooting out from between the very blocks of sandstone with which the hills were strewn. Further on, another tree, called “kádasí,” and a few small tamarind trees also appeared, and the tops of the ant- hills, which at times form regular rows, were often adorned with the fine fresh-leaved bush “sérkekí.” The ground, which consists of black argillaceous soil, “láka” or “fírki,” as it is called in Bórnu, not yet fertilized by the rainy season, was cracked and torn asunder, while the white “káli bálbalé” (_Buphaga africana_), which enliven every district of Negroland where cattle are common, were stalking about in the fields, looking out for food. But cattle at the present time were sought for in vain. Here they would have found no pasture, and in consequence were driven to a great distance, as is the general custom with the Fúlbe or Féllani of these quarters, even those settled in the province of Kátsena having at times their herds of cattle pasturing in the far-distant grassy and healthy grounds of Zabérma.

While the cultivation of rice prevails in the north-easternmost part of the valley, more cotton and sorghum were observed towards the village of Gída-n-mánomí, although the state of the fields did not argue a great deal of industry on the part of the inhabitants, being rather obstructed by weeds and thorny bushes. But far more native corn is grown on the other side of Wurno, so that it even forms a mercantile speculation, on a small scale, to carry corn from Wurno to Sókoto; nay, even sheep are transported in this way for a very small profit, being bought in Wurno for 1200 or, when on credit, for 1400 shells, and sold in Sókoto for 1500.

Having ascended the rising ground close beyond a source of limpid water producing a narrow spot of fresh verdure, the rocky surface was soon succeeded by a fertile plain of sand covering the rock to the depth of a foot, while the fields of the various farmers were separated from each other by slabs of sandstone. The labours of the fields, however, had not yet begun; and trees also here were scanty, a small mimosa indicating the halfway or “marárraba” between the two towns, while another village was distinguished by a single deléb palm. Having reached the highest point of the path, from whence we obtained the first sight of Sókoto, we descended into a deeper hollow or irregular valley, adorned by fine green fields of “rógo,” and bordered by living hedges of the _Nux purgans_, the nut being still green, but having just attained its full size.

This was the valley of Bamúrna, which is distinguished on account of its fertility and abundance of water, but for this same reason is rather unhealthy, and, during and shortly after the rainy season, becomes quite impassable for travellers. Close to the source, which rushes forth from the western cliffs, a small market is held, where travellers generally make a short halt; but this spot being very narrow and affording but little comfort for a midday halt, we went on a little further, and halted for an hour or two at the end of the vale, under two fine dúrremi trees a little to the right of the path. Here, where the principal vale is joined by a side branch, and where the greatest amount of moisture is collected, the vegetation is especially rich, and a beautiful limún tree full of fruit adorned the place, besides young offshoots of the plantain. But more interesting still was a small plantation of sugar situated at the foot of the hill, although the stalks were at present only about sixteen or eighteen inches high; and I was not a little surprised when I learned that this piece of ground belonged to a man who not only cultivated, but even prepared sugar: but I did not then make his acquaintance, as he was absent at the time. Meanwhile enjoying our cool shade, we partook of a very moderate but wholesome African luncheon, consisting of a few onions boiled in water, seasoned with some tamarind fruit and a little butter, which forms a very refreshing treat during the hot hours of a tropical climate; for the onions hereabout are of excellent quality and extremely cheap, fifteen being sold for ten kurdí.

Soon after starting in the afternoon, we fell in with a long marriage procession, consisting of a bride and her mother, both mounted on horseback, accompanied by a considerable number of female servants and attendants, carrying the simple household furniture on their heads. At the same time that this interesting procession caused a cheerful intermezzo, a greater variety of vegetation was perceptible at a village on our right. Besides kórna, there were a few dúm and deléb palms; and the fields were adorned with a great number of tamarind trees, but of small growth.

Proceeding thus over the rocky ground, we reached the small rivulet of Sókoto, the “gulbi-n-Rába” or “Búgga,” or, as it is called in its upper course, where I fell in with it on my return journey, gulbi-n-Bakúra. Even at the present season it had a small current of water, but only about ten yards wide and ten inches deep, and just sufficient for us to water our horses. The water is regarded as unwholesome for man; and at this season of the year shallow wells or holes are dug in the gravel at some distance from the stream, in order to supply the poor people. The wealthier classes are believed to be supplied from other quarters, although such a presumption is very often false, the water from this stream being merely sold to them under a more pompous title.

Ascending then the slope of the eminence on which the town is built, and which rises to about one hundred feet, and leaving a spacious “máriná” or dyeing-place on the slope of the hill on our left, we entered the walls of Sókoto by the kófa-n-rími; and although the interior did not at present exhibit that crowded appearance which made such a pleasing impression upon Clapperton, the part nearest the wall being rather thinly inhabited, and the people being evidently reduced to a state of great poverty and misery, it made a cheerful impression on me, on account of the number of dúm palms and kórna trees by which it is adorned.

Orders having been sent beforehand, I was quartered without delay in the house of the ghaladíma—a clay dwelling in tolerable repair, but full of white ants, so that I was glad to find there a “gadó” or couch of reeds, where I was able to rest myself and put away my small effects, without being continually exposed to the insidious attacks of these voracious insects. Having thus made myself comfortable, my first visit the following morning was to Módibo ʿAlí, who had already testified his friendship for me by sending me a fat sheep to Wurno. Differing entirely from the present generation of beggars, whose ignoble habits make a long stay in Wurno or Sókoto intolerable, he is a cheerful old man of noble demeanour, and with pure Fúlbe features, with which his middle height and rather spare growth exactly corresponded. He was simply but neatly dressed in a white shirt and a shawl of the same colour. Módibo ʿAlí is the oldest member of the family of the Reformer still alive, being the son of ʿAlí an elder brother of ʿOthmán the Jehádi, and about seventy- five years of age. He was seated in the antechamber of his house, before the door of which his little herd of milch cows were assembled; and he received me with unaffected kindness. I immediately saluted him as an old friend and acquaintance, and we had a very pleasant and cheerful conversation, after which I delivered to him my present, consisting of a heláli bernús, a piece of white muslin, a high red cap or “mátri,” a small flask of “ʿottár” of roses, two razors, a pound of cloves, a loaf of sugar, and a looking-glass; and he was particularly delighted with some of these articles, which, on account of the insecurity of the road at the present time, are imported more rarely even from Kanó. In former times a great many Arabs used to visit this place, partly for purposes of trade, partly in order to obtain a present from the sultan; but the danger of the communication in the present reduced state of the empire is so great, that not a single Arab merchant visits the town. This circumstance cannot fail to render the conquering tribe more favourably disposed towards opening an intercourse with the English, or Europeans in general, by way of the Niger. At present almost the whole traffic in foreign merchandise is in the hands of the people of Ghát and Ágades, especially in those of Mohammed Bóro, my friend the fugger of Ágades, who, being a native of Ádar, and having a numerous host of full-grown sons, exercises a great influence upon commercial and even political affairs in these quarters.

Having thus commenced an acquaintance with the most respectable man in the town, I made a longer promenade through its interior, when I found the chief quarter, which had been the residence of Bello, greatly dilapidated, and the royal mansion itself in a state of the utmost decay. No doubt a considerable proportion of the inhabitants of the town, especially the males, had joined the expedition of ʿAlíyu to Zánfara: but as the greater part of the population consists of Zoromáwa or Zoghorán, or, as they are called further westward, Jawámbe, a peculiar tribe which I have mentioned before and about which I shall say more in another place, mixed here with the Imóshagh of Ádar, who do not join the army, the war could not exercise so great an influence upon the desolate appearance of the place. The Zoromáwa, in fact, are the artisans of the town, and the small tradesmen and brokers, and exercise a sort of monopoly in the art of working in leather, in which they are very expert, having probably learned it from the Emgedesíye.

In endeavouring to survey the town, I first paid a visit to the market, which is situated at its north-eastern corner, on the brink of the rugged slope which descends into the valley. It was empty at the present time,—only a few slight sheds being made ready for the following day, when the great market was to be held; and the prospect over the broad flat valley to the north and north-west, in the direction of Dúnday, was uninterrupted, presenting at this season a scorched-up savanna, while the deep rill of the river was scarcely to be distinguished. A number of blind women, leaning on their staves or led by young children, were seen carrying pitchers of water up the cliff, affording a sad proof of the unhealthiness of the situation of the town, where blindness is very frequent. Turning then westwards from the market, I reached the house of the late king ʿAtíku, where at present his son Hámedu resides, who formerly had his residence at Bakúra, till that place was taken by the Góberáwa. The house is in good repair, and the quarter adjacent is tolerably well inhabited—at least, better than any other part of the town; for Hámedu is the chief of the Sissílbe or Syllebáwa[57], who form the principal stock of the population of the neighbouring hamlets or rugga of Sókoto. The different nationality of these Syllebáwa, causing a diversity of interests and pursuits, is stated to be one of the reasons why ʿAlíyu, who has been made sultan chiefly through the influence of the Tórobe, does not like to reside at Sókoto as well as at Wurnó, although his residence at the latter place is greatly needed in the present reduced state of his power, in consequence of the continual danger from the Góberáwa, who, if the sultan should stay in Sókoto, would endanger the safety of all the people living in the open villages and hamlets between the former and the present residence; and it was on this account that Bello built the town of Magáriya (the site of which, a little to the north-east of the latter, I have indicated on a former occasion), which, however, was soon abandoned for Wurnó.

The chief, Hámedu, was at present absent; but I have mentioned already that I sent him a present immediately on my arrival in Gáwasú, on account of his influential position, although I thought it politic afterwards to keep out of his way as much as possible, in order not to excite any jealousy, Hámedu being one of the nearest, if not the very nearest, to the succession, but opposed by the greater part of the present courtiers. Passing, then, along the well-frequented road which leads out of the town, we emerged from the kófa-n-ʿAtíku, in order to obtain a first glimpse of the country which I was to traverse on my road to Gando.

It was an open level tract, at present without many signs of vegetation; but that part nearest the town was agreeably enlivened by a thriving suburb extending as far as the kófa-n-Tarámnia, and buried in a thicket of shady trees and hedges, thus presenting altogether a more animated spectacle than the interior of the town itself. Keeping along the machicolated wall, here only about twelve feet high and surrounded by a ditch, and following the path between it and the suburb, we entered the town, and turned our steps to the house of the gedádo, where Captain Clapperton closed his meritorious career as an African explorer.

The house is still in tolerable repair, ʿAbdú, the son of the gedádo, who, although not very energetic, and still less warlike, is a man of cheerful disposition and good principles, having too great a veneration for his father, who did so much towards embellishing and adorning this town, to allow his residence to go to ruin. The old gedádo had long outlived his master, Bello; and if I had proceeded to Sókoto directly from Ágades, I should still have found him alive; for he only died during my presence in Kanó, in February 1851. I will here only mention that it was believed for a moment in England that Clapperton died from the effects of poison; but the amount of fatigue, privations, and sickness to which this most eminent of African travellers was exposed on his circuitous journey, by way of Núpe and Kanó, from the coast as far as this place, explains fully how he was unable to withstand the effects of the shock which mental disappointment exercised upon him: nay, it is wonderful how he bore up so long, if his own hints with regard to the state of his health are taken into account.

M. & N. Hanhart, lith. et impt.

MARKET OF SÓKOTO.

April 22nd. 1853.]

In the evening, my old friend Módibo ʿAlí, and the mother of Ábú, the elder and more warlike brother of the present ghaladíma, who was slain by the Góberáwa two years before my visit to this place, treated me hospitably, and I sent a present to Sʿaídu, a younger son of Bello, who resides in Sókoto, and is considered as a sort of mayor.

[Sidenote: Friday, April 22nd.]

It was the great market-day, which was of some importance to me, as I had to buy a good many things, so that I was obliged to send there a sum of 70,000 shells; but the market did not become well-frequented or well- stocked till between two and three o’clock in the afternoon, when I myself proceeded thither. I had taken a ride in the morning through the south-eastern quarter of the town, proceeding through the kófa-n-ʿAtíku, thence along the wall, towards the west, and re-entered the town by the kófa-n-ʿAlí Jédu, where the whole quarter is very desolate, even the wall being in a state of decay, and the fine mosque, built by the gedádo during Clapperton’s stay here, fallen entirely to ruins. But, even in the present reduced condition of the place, the market still presented a very interesting sight, the numerous groups of people, buyers as well as sellers, and the animals of various descriptions, being picturesquely scattered over the rocky slope, as I have endeavoured to represent in the plate opposite. The market was tolerably well attended, and well supplied, there being about thirty horses, three hundred head of cattle for slaughtering, fifty takérkere, or oxen of burden, and a great quantity of leather articles (this being the most celebrated branch of manufacture in Sókoto), especially leather bags, cushions, and similar articles, the leather dressed and prepared here being very soft and beautiful. There were more than a hundred bridles for sale, the workmanship of which is very famous throughout all this part of Negroland; but especially a large quantity of iron was exposed for sale, the iron of Sókoto being of excellent quality and much sought for, while that of Kanó is of bad quality. A good many slaves were exhibited, and fetched a higher price than might be supposed,—a lad of very indifferent appearance being sold for 33,000 shells; I myself bought a pony for 30,000. It being just about the period when the salt-caravan visits these parts, dates also, which usually form a small addition to the principal merchandise of those traders of the desert, were to be had; and I filled a leather bag, for some 2000 shells, in order to give a little more variety to my food on the long road which lay before me.

[Sidenote: April 23rd.]

I took another interesting ride through the kófa-n-Dúnday, not following the direct road to that village, which lies close to the junction of the gulbi-n-Ríma with the gulbi-n-Rába, but not far from the decayed northern wall, and thus crossed a considerable channel, a branch of the river, full of water, being even at the present time about fifteen yards wide, and a foot and a half in depth, and then, keeping away from the village, reached the other branch, which was narrower but more richly bordered by bushes, and, following it up in an easterly direction, reached the point of junction, or “megangámu.”

The whole valley here formed one uninterrupted rice-field; and how different was the aspect of the country from what it exhibited on my home journey, at the end of the rainy season of the following year! A number of small boats were lying here, at the side of the narrow channel, but all of them separated into two halves, which had to be sewn together when their services were required for the rainy season. From this point I crossed over to the road leading to the village of Koré, where, two days later, a party of Kél-geres made a foray; and returning along this road towards the town, at a distance of about five hundred yards from the wall, we crossed another small arm of the river, which during the rainy season forms an extensive swamp. Leaving then the kófa- n-Koré on our right, we turned round the north-eastern corner of the wall, and ascended towards the kófa-n-Marké, which has received this name from a tree of the marké kind, although at present none are to be seen here. On the next page is a sketch of a ground-plan of the town.

1. Market-place.

2. House of Gedádo, at present ʿAbdú.

3. House of Bello, now of ʿAlíyu, very much in decay.

4. House of ʿAtíku, at present Hámedu, and close to it the mosque built by Gedádo, now in ruins.

5. Kófa-n-Koré.

6. Kófa-n-Dúnday.

7. Kófa-n-Kadé.

8. Kófa-n-ʿAlí Jédu.

9. Kófa-n-ʿAtíku.

10. Kófa-n-Tarámnia.

11. Kófa-n-Rími.

12. Kófa-n-Marké.

13. Suburb.]