Chapter I: Preface (1)

The "Standard Cantatas" is the third of the series in which the "Standard Operas" and "Standard Oratorios" have been its predecessors. Of necessity, therefore, the same method has been followed in the arrangement and presentation of the author's scheme. As in the works above mentioned, short sketches of the music and stories of the cantatas are presented, together with biographies of their composers, some of which are reproduced from the other volumes with slight changes, the repetitions being necessary for the sake of uniformity. The sketches are prefaced by a comprehensive study of the cantata in its various forms, from its early simple recitative or aria style down to its present elaborate construction, which sometimes verges closely upon that of the opera or oratorio.

The word "cantata" is so flexible and covers such a wide area in music, that it has been a work of some difficulty to decide upon the compositions that properly come within the scheme of this volume. During the past two centuries it has been variously applied to songs, like those of the early Italian school; to ballads, like those of the early English composers; to concert arias, like those of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn; to short operettas, dramatic scenas, cycles of ballads, and even to oratorios, whose subjects are more or less dramatic. It is believed, however, that the most important of the modern cantatas are included in the volume, and with them will be found several works, such as the "Damnation of Faust" and the "Romeo and Juliet" vocal symphony and others, which, though not in the strict cantata form, are nevertheless compositions belonging to the concert-stage for voices and orchestra, performed without scenery, costumes, or stage accessories.

The author has paid particular attention to cantatas by American composers, and has selected for description and analysis those which in his estimation rank the highest in musical merit. It would be manifestly impossible to include in a volume of the present size all the compositions by Americans which have been called cantatas, for their number is well-nigh "legion." Those have been selected which are creditable to American musical scholarship and are making a name for American music. It is possible some have been omitted which fulfil these conditions; if so, it is only because they have not come within the author's observation. The Appendix has been a work of great care, labor, and research, and wherever it was practicable the date of each cantata was verified.

Like its two predecessors, the "Standard Cantatas" has been prepared for the general public, which has not the time or opportunity to investigate such matters, rather than for musicians, who are presumed to be familiar with them. On this account the text is made as untechnical as possible, and description takes the place of criticism. The work is intended to answer the purpose of a handbook and guide which shall acquaint the reader with the principal facts and accomplishments in this very interesting form of composition. The favor so generously accorded to the "Standard Operas" and "Standard Oratorios" leads the author to hope that this volume will also be welcome to music-lovers, and will find a place by the side of its companions in their libraries.

G. P. U.

Chicago, September, 1887.

CONTENTS.

PAGE
PREFACE 3
THE CANTATA 13
BACH 29
Ich Hatte viel Bekümmerniss 31
Gottes Zeit 33
Festa Ascensionis Christi 37
Ein' Feste Burg 38
BALFE 44
Mazeppa 45
BEETHOVEN 48
The Ruins of Athens 49
The Glorious Moment 53
BENEDICT 56
St. Cecilia 57
BENNETT 62
The May Queen 64
The Exhibition Ode 66
BERLIOZ 68
Romeo and Juliet 70
The Damnation of Faust 74
BRAHMS 82
Triumphlied 83
BRUCH 86
Frithjof 87
Salamis 92
Fair Ellen 93
Odysseus 95
BUCK 101
Don Munio 103
Centennial Meditation of Columbia 106
The Golden Legend 109
The Voyage of Columbus 114
The Light of Asia 117
CORDER 123
The Bridal of Triermain 124
COWEN 128
The Sleeping Beauty 129
DVORÁK 134
The Spectre's Bride 136
FOOTE 140
Hiawatha 141
GADE 143
Comala 144
Spring Fantasie 146
The Erl King's Daughter 147
The Crusaders 149
GILCHRIST 153
The Forty-sixth Psalm 154
GLEASON 156
The Culprit Fay 157
The Praise Song To Harmony 161
HANDEL 163
Acis and Galatea 166
Alexander's Feast 173
L'Allegro 178
HATTON 186
Robin Hood 187
HAYDN 191
The Seven Words 194
Ariadne 198
HILLER 201
Song of Victory 203
HOFMANN 205
Melusina 206
LESLIE 209
Holyrood 210
LISZT 215
Prometheus 217
The Bells of Strasburg 221
MACFARREN 226
Christmas 228
MACKENZIE 232
The Story of Sayid 233
Jubilee Ode 237
MASSENET 241
Mary Magdalen 242
MENDELSSOHN 246
The Walpurgis Night 248
Antigone 254
Oedipus at Colonos 259
As the Hart Pants 262
The Gutenberg Fest-Cantata 263
Lauda Sion 265
MOZART 268
King Thamos 270
Davidde Penitente 274
The Masonic Cantatas 276
PAINE 280
Oedipus Tyrannus 281
The Nativity 286
The Realm of Fancy 288
Phoebus, Arise 289
PARKER, H. W. 291
King Trojan 292
PARKER, J. C. D. 295
The Redemption Hymn 296
RANDEGGER 298
Fridolin 299
RHEINBERGER 303
Christophorus 304
Toggenburg 306
ROMBERG 308
Lay of the Bell 309
SCHUBERT 313
Miriam's War Song 314
SCHUMANN 317
Advent Hymn 319
The Pilgrimage of the Rose 321
The Minstrel's Curse 322
SINGER 324
The Landing of the Pilgrims 325
SMART 327
The Bride of Dunkerron 328
King René's Daughter 330
SULLIVAN 332
On Shore and Sea 334
The Golden Legend 335
WAGNER 338
Love Feast of the Apostles 340
WEBER 342
Jubilee Cantata 344
Kampf Und Sieg 346
WHITING 348
The Tale of the Viking 349
APPENDIX 353
INDEX 365

THE STANDARD CANTATAS.

THE CANTATA.

The origin of the cantata is a matter of controversy, but it is clear that it had its birth in Italy. Adami, an old writer, attributes its invention to Giovanni Domenico Poliaschi Romano, a papal chapel-singer, who, it is claimed, wrote several cantatas as early as 1618. The same writer also asserts that the Cavalier da Spoleto, a singer in the same service, published cantatas in 1620. Hawkins asserts in one chapter of his "History of Music" that the invention is due to Carissimi, chapel-master of the Church of St. Apollinare in Rome, who unquestionably did an important service for dramatic music by perfecting recitative and introducing stringed accompaniments; but in a subsequent chapter the historian states that Barbara Strozzi, a Venetian lady contemporary with Carissimi, was the inventor, and assigns the year 1653 as the date when she published certain vocal compositions with the title "Cantate, Ariette e Duetti," prefixed by an advertisement setting forth that having invented this form of music, she had published them as an experiment. Burney takes notice of the claim made for Romano and Da Spoleto, but does not think it valid, and says: "The first time that I have found the term 'cantata' used for a short narrative lyric poem was in the _Musiche varie a voce sola del Signor Benedetto Ferrari da Reggio_, printed at Venice, 1638." This, as will be observed, disposes of the Venetian lady's claim, as it is antedated twenty years, and Burney states his facts from personal investigation. He mentions several cantatas written about this period, among them a burlesque one describing the leap of Marcus Curtius into the gulf. He concedes to Carissimi, however, the transfer of the cantata from the chamber to the church, and on this point nearly all the early writers are agreed.

The cantata in its earliest form was a recitative, which speedily developed into a mixture of recitative and melody for a single voice, and was suggested by the lyric opera. Burney says:--

"The chief events were related in recitative. In like manner they
received several progressive changes during the last century previous
to their perfection. First, they consisted, like opera scenes, of
little more than recitative, with frequent formal closes, at which the
singer, either accompanied by himself or another performer on a single
instrument, was left at liberty to show his taste and talents."

The form then changed to a single air in triple time, independent of the recitative, and repeated to the different verses as in a ballad, the melody being written every time, as the _Da Capo_ was not then in use.[1] Choron defines the cantata as follows:--

"It is a little poem, which, considered in a literary sense, has no
very determinate character, though it is usually the recital of a
simple and interesting fact interspersed with reflections or the
expression of some particular sentiment. It may be in all styles and
all characters, sacred, profane, heroic, comic, and even ludicrous,
representing the action or feeling of either a single or several
persons. It even sometimes assumes the character of the oratorio."

As applied to recitative, the new form was variously called "recitativo," "musica parlante," or "stilo rappresentativo," one of the first works in which style was "The Complaint of Dido," by the Cavalier Sigismondo d'India, printed in Venice in 1623. The mixture of recitative and air was eventually called "ariose cantate;" and with this title several melodies were printed by Sebastian Enno at Venice, 1655.[2]

The seventeenth century witnessed the rapid perfecting of the cantata in its early forms by the Italian composers. The best examples are said to have been those of Carissimi, of whom mention has already been made. Several of them are preserved in the British Museum and at Oxford; among them, one written on the death of Mary Queen of Scots. Burney says:--

"Of twenty-two of his cantatas preserved in the Christ Church
collection, Oxon., there is not one which does not offer something that
is still new, curious, and pleasing; but most particularly in the
recitatives, many of which seem the most expressive, affecting, and
perfect that I have seen. In the airs there are frequently sweet and
graceful passages, which more than a hundred years have not impaired."

Of the thirteenth in this collection the same authority says:--

"This single air, without recitative, seems the archetype of almost all
the _arie di cantabile_, the adagios, and pathetic songs, as well as
instrumental, slow movements, that have since been made."

Fra Marc Antonio Cesti, in his later life a monk in the monastery of Arezzo, and chapel-master of the Emperor Ferdinand III., was a pupil of Carissimi, and devoted much attention to the cantata, the recitative of which he greatly improved. One of his most celebrated compositions of this kind was entitled, "O cara Liberta," and selections from it are given both by Burney and Hawkins. He must have been one of the jolly monks of old, for all his cantatas are secular in character, and he was frequently censured for devoting so much time to theatrical instead of church music. Luigi Rossi was contemporary with Cesti, and has left several cantatas which are conspicuous for length and pedantry rather than for elegance or melodious charm. Giovanni Legrenzi of Bergamo, the master of Lotti and Gasparini, published twenty-four cantatas in Venice between 1674 and 1679, which were great favorites in his time. The celebrated painter Salvator Rosa not only wrote the words for many cantatas by his musical friends, but it is known that he composed both words and music to eight. The texts of these works have preserved for posterity pictures more graphic than any he could paint of his misanthropical character; for when he is not railing against his mistress he is launching satires against Nature and mankind in general. In one of these he complains that the earth is barren and the sun is dark. If he goes out to see a friend, it always rains. If he goes on shipboard, it always storms. If he buys provisions at the market, the bones outweigh the flesh. If he goes to court--

"The attendants at my dress make sport;
Point at my garb, threadbare and shabby,
And shun me, like a leper scabby."

His only wealth is hope, which points to nothing better than "workhouse or a rope." In the heat of summer he has to trudge in winter clothes. He cannot even run away from misfortune. In a word, nothing pleases the poor painter, as is evident from the gloomy moral which "adorns the tale":--

"Then learn from me, ye students all,
Whose wants are great and hopes are small,
That better 'tis at once to die
Than linger thus in penury;
For 'mongst the ills with which we're curst,
To live a beggar is the worst."

In 1703 Giambatista Bassani, of Bologna, published twelve cantatas devoted to the tender passion, and all of them set to a violin accompaniment,--a practice first introduced by Scarlatti, of Naples, who was one of the most prolific writers of his day. The cantata was Scarlatti's favorite form of composition, and hundreds of them came from his busy pen, which were noted for their beauty and originality. The accompaniments were written for the violoncello as well as for the violin; those for the first-named instrument were so difficult and yet so excellent that those who could perform them were often thought to have supernatural assistance.[3] Contemporary with Scarlatti was Francesco Gasparini, a Roman composer and harpsichord player of such eminence that Scarlatti sent his son Domenico, who afterwards became famous by his musical achievements, to study with him. Gasparini wrote twelve cantatas,--not so scholarly but quite as popular as those by Scarlatti. As a return for the compliment which Scarlatti had paid him, Gasparini sent him a cantata, which was the signal for a lively cantata-correspondence between them, each trying to outdo the other. Following Gasparini came Bononcini, whose contentions with Handel in England are familiar to all musical readers. He was the most prolific cantata-writer of all the Italians next to Scarlatti, and dedicated a volume of them, in 1721, to the King of England. He also published in Germany a large number which show great knowledge of instrumentation, according to the musical historians of his time. Antonio Lotti, his contemporary, wrote several which are particularly noticeable for their harmony. His pupil Benedetto Marcello, the illustrious psalm-composer, excelled his master in this form of music. Two of his cantatas, "Il Timoteo" (after Dryden's ode) and "Cassandra," were very celebrated. He was of noble family, and is famous even to this day by his masses, serenades, and sonnets, and by his beautiful poetical and musical paraphrase of the Psalms, which was translated into English, German, and Russian. The Baron d'Astorga, whose "Stabat Mater" is famous, wrote many cantatas, but they do not reach the high standard of that work. Antonio Caldara, for many years composer to the Emperor at Vienna, published a volume of them at Venice in 1699. Porpora, who was a rival of Handel in England as an opera composer, published and dedicated twelve to the Prince of Wales in 1735 as a mark of gratitude for the support which he had given him in his disputes with the testy German.[4] After Pergolesi, who made himself famous by his "Stabat Mater," and published several cantatas at Rome, and Handel, who wrote many, which were eclipsed by his operas and oratorios, and are now hardly known, this style of the cantata languished, and gradually passed into the form of the concert aria, of which fine examples are to be found in the music of Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn. After the death of Pergolesi, Sarti and Paisiello made an attempt to revive it, and in so doing prepared the way for the cantata in its beautiful modern form. In the latter's "Guinone Lucina," written for the churching of Caroline of Austria, Queen of Naples, and in his "Dafne ed Alceo" and "Retour de Persée" the melody is intermixed with choruses for the first time.

Thus far the Italian cantatas have alone been considered; but it must not be supposed that this form of composition was confined to Italy. In France it was also a favorite style in the early part of the eighteenth century. Montclair, Campra, Mouret, Batistin, Clerambault, and Rousseau excelled in it. M. Ginguené, in the "Encyclopædia Methodique," says of these composers and their works:--

"They have left collections in which may be discovered among all the
faults of the age, when Italian music was unknown in France, much art
and knowledge of harmony, happy traits of melody, well-worked basses,
and above all recitatives in which the accent of declamation and the
character of the language are strictly observed."

In Germany, however, the cantata at this time was approximating to its present form. Koch, a celebrated musical scholar of the early part of the present century, says:--

"The cantata is a lyrical poem set to music in different, alternating
compositions, and sung with the accompaniment of instrumental music.
The various melodies of which the whole is composed are the aria, with
its subordinate species, the recitative or accompaniment, and the
arioso, frequently also intermixed with choruses."

Heydenreich, another writer of the same period, says:--

"The cantata is always lyrical. Its distinctive character lies in the
aptitude of the passions and feelings which it contains to be rendered
by music. The cantata ought to be a harmonious whole of ideas
poetically expressed, concurring to paint a main passion or feeling,
susceptible of various kinds and degrees of musical expression. It
sometimes may have the character of the hymn or ode, sometimes that of
the elegy, or of a mixture of these, in which, however, one particular
emotion must predominate."

The church cantata, according to Du Cange, dates back to 1314; but subsequent writers have shown that the term prior to the seventeenth century was used indiscriminately and without reference to any well-defined style of vocal music, and that as applied to church compositions it meant the anthem such as we now have, although not as elaborate. The noblest examples of the sacred cantata are those by Sebastian Bach, three hundred and eighty in all, over a hundred of which have been published under the auspices of the Bach-Gesellschaft. They are written in from four to seven movements for four voices and full orchestra, usually opening with chorus and closing with a chorale, the intermediate movements being in the form of recitatives, arias, and duets. The text of these cantatas is either a literal transcription of the Gospel or of portions of it. In the latter case the Gospel of the Sunday for which the cantata was written is introduced entire in the body of the work as the nucleus around which the great composer grouped the remaining parts. For instance, the cantata for Sexagesima Sunday turns upon the parable of the sower, and this being the Gospel for the day is made its central point. In like manner the cantata for the fourteenth Sunday after Trinity has for its subject the story of the ten lepers, which is introduced in recitative form in the middle of the work. The astonishing industry of Bach is shown by the fact that for nearly five years he produced a new cantata for each Sunday, in addition to his numerous fugues, chorales, motets, magnificats, masses, sanctuses, glorias, and other church music. The artistic sincerity and true genius of the old master also reveal themselves in the skill with which he finished these works for the congregation of St. Thomas,--few of whom, it is to be feared, had any conception of their real merit,--and in the untiring regularity with which he produced them, unrewarded by the world's applause, and little dreaming that long years after he had passed away they would be brought to light again, be published to the world, and command its admiration and astonishment on account of their beauty and scholarship.[5] Before passing to the consideration of the cantata in its present form, the following abridged description of those written by Bach, taken from Bitter's Life of the composer, will be of interest:--

"The directors who preceded Bach at Leipsic used to choose the cantatas
or motets to be sung in the churches quite arbitrarily, without any
regard to their connection with the rest of the service. But Bach felt
that unless these elaborate pieces of music were really made a means of
edification, they were mere intellectual pastimes suitable for a
concert, but an interruption to divine worship; and he thought that
they could best edify the congregation if their subjects were the
themes to which attention was specially directed in the service and
sermon of the day. He therefore made it a rule to ascertain from the
clergymen of the four churches the texts of the sermons for the
following Sunday, and to choose cantatas on the same or corresponding
texts. As most of the clergy were in the habit of preaching on the
Gospel of the day, the service thus became a harmonious whole, and the
attention of the congregation was not divided between a variety of
subjects. The clergyman of highest standing at Leipsic, Superintendent
Deyling, a preacher of great eloquence and theological learning,
co-operated heartily with Bach in this scheme. A series of cantatas for
every Sunday and festival for five years--about three hundred and
eighty in all--was composed by Bach, chiefly during the first years of
his stay at Leipsic. Unfortunately many of these are lost; but one
hundred and eighty-six for particular days, and thirty-two without any
days specified, still remain. Their music is so completely in character
with the subject of the words as to form a perfect exposition of the
text. In some the orchestral introductions and accompaniments are made
illustrative of the scene of the text; as for instance in one on
Christ's appearing to His disciples in the evening after His
resurrection, the introduction is of a soft, calming character,
representing the peacefulness of evening and of the whole scene.
Another, on the text 'Like as the rain and snow fall from heaven,' is
introduced by a symphony in which the sound of gently-falling rain is
imitated. In others the instrumental parts and some of the voices
express the feelings excited by meditation on the words. Sometimes, in
the midst of a chorus in which the words of the text are repeated, and,
as it were, commented on, a single voice, with the accompaniment of a
few instruments, breaks off into some well-known hymn in a similar
strain of thought or feeling."

Handel in his younger days wrote many cantatas for the church, though they are now but little known. The entire list numbers one hundred and fifty. On his return from England to his post of chapel-master at Hanover in 1711 he composed twelve, known as the Hanover cantatas, for the Princess Caroline, the words written by the Abbé Hortentio Mauro, to which no objection was offered by Handel's master and patron, notwithstanding he was a Lutheran prince. Several written in England are still preserved in the royal collections. On Holy Week of the year 1704, the same week in which Reinhardt Kaiser brought out his famous Passion oratorio, "The Bleeding and Dying Jesus," Handel's Passion cantata was first produced. Kaiser's work had been denounced as secular by the pastors, because it did not contain the words of Holy Scripture. Handel's was founded on the nineteenth chapter of St. John, and thus escaped the pulpit denunciation. This cantata is sometimes called the First Passion Oratorio, the second having been written at Hamburg in 1716.[6] In 1707 Handel was in Florence, where he wrote several cantatas, and thence went to Rome, where he produced some church music in the same form, notably the "Dixit Dominus," for five voices and orchestra; "Nisi Dominus," also for five voices; and "Laudate pueri," for solos and full orchestral accompaniment. The famous anthems written for the private chapel of James Brydges, Duke of Chandos, familiarly known as the Chandos Anthems, are in reality cantatas, as each one is preceded by an overture and in its structural form comprises solos, choruses, and instrumentation for full band and choir. It is also noteworthy that it was during Handel's residence at the Duke's palace at Cannons that he wrote his first English oratorio, the legitimate successor of the Chandos Anthems, and the precursor of the great works destined to immortalize his name.

The cantatas left by Haydn are mainly secular in character; but it may well be imagined that during the days of his early married life, when his fanatical and termagant spouse was forcing him to write so much music for the priests and monks whom she entertained so sumptuously below-stairs while he was laboring above, more than one cantata must have come from his pen, which would have been preserved had he not reluctantly parted company with them to pacify his wife.

The term "cantata," as it is now used, is very elastic, and covers a range of compositions which are too large to be considered as dramatic arias or ballads,--though ballads are sometimes written for various voices and orchestra,--and too small to be called operas or oratorios. It can best be defined, perhaps, as a lyric narrative, sacred, didactic, or dramatic in character, set to music for the concert stage only, being without _dramatis personæ_ in the theatrical acceptation of those words. Its general form is that of the oratorio, being for solo voices, usually the quartet, full chorus, and orchestra, though its shortness as compared with the oratorio adapts it to performance by a small chorus, and sometimes with only piano accompaniment. Among the most perfect forms of the modern cantatas are such works as Mendelssohn's "Walpurgis Night," Sterndale Bennett's "May Queen," Max Bruch's "Odysseus" and "Frithjof's Saga," Cowen's "Sleeping Beauty," Gade's "Comala," Hiller's "Song of Victory," Romberg's somewhat antiquated "Song of the Bell," Sullivan's "Golden Legend," Randegger's "Fridolin," and Dudley Buck's "Don Munio" and "Light of Asia." But besides such as these there are numerous other works, not usually classed as cantatas, which clearly belong to the same musical family; such as Berlioz's "Damnation of Faust," Brahms's "Triumphlied," Mendelssohn's settings of various Psalms, Handel's "Acis and Galatea" and "Alexander's Feast," Hofmann's "Melusina," Liszt's "Prometheus," Rheinberger's "Toggenberg," Schubert's "Song of Miriam," Schumann's ballads and "Advent Hymn," and Weber's "Kampf und Sieg." These and others of the same kin are drawn upon as illustrations and for analysis in the pages which follow.

Considering the possibilities of the cantata, its adaptability to every form of narrative, and the musical inducements it holds out, particularly in these days, when a new opera or oratorio must be of extraordinary merit to suit the public, it is somewhat remarkable that no more of them are written. Mr. Charles Barnard has made this point very aptly and forcibly in a short article printed in the "Century" for January, 1886, in which he urges the cantata form of composition upon our writers, and makes many excellent suggestions.[7] It is certainly an inviting field, especially to American composers, among whom but three or four have as yet produced works of this kind possessing real merit.

[1] Its first use is to be found in the opera of "Enea," performed at
Genoa in 1676. Before 1680 it was universally adopted.

[2] It is noteworthy that in this volume occur for the first time the
musical terms "adagio," "piu adagio," "affetuoso," "presto," and
"allegro." In the "Cantate da Camera a voce sola," published at
Bologna (1677) by Gio. Bat. Mazzaferrata, the terms "vivace,"
"largo," and "ardito" are also found for the first time.

[3] Geminiani used to relate that Franceschelli, a celebrated performer
on the violoncello at the beginning of this century, accompanied one
of these cantatas at Rome so admirably, while Scarlatti was at the
harpsichord, that the company, being good Catholics, and living in a
country where miraculous powers have not yet ceased, were firmly
persuaded it was not Franceschelli who had played the violoncello,
but an angel that had descended and assumed his shape.--_Burney's
History_, vol. iv. p. 169 (1789).

[4] Doctor Arbuthnot, in a humorous pamphlet called out by the operatic
war, entitled "Harmony in an Uproar," calls Handel the Nightingale,
and Porpora the Cuckoo.

[5] It is curious to remember that the sacred cantatas were not composed
for universal fame or for a musical public, but for the use of
congregations who probably looked on them as a necessary part of the
service, and thought little about the merits of their composition. In
those days art-criticism was in its infancy, and they were scarcely
noticed beyond the walls of Leipsic till after the composer's
death.--_Bitter's Life of Bach_.

[6] Handel's Second German Passion, as it is now generally called,
differs entirely from the earlier Passion according to St. John, and
bears no analogy at all to the Passion Music of Sebastian Bach. The
choruses are expressive or vigorous in accordance with the nature of
the words; but none exhibit any very striking form of contrapuntal
development; nor do they ever rise to the grandeur of the Utrecht Te
Deum or Jubilate.--_Rockstro's Life of Handel_.

[7] The following list of cantatas by Americans hardly sustains Mr.
Barnard in his assertion that there are but a few of them: Baker, B.
F., "Burning Ship;" "Storm King."--Bechel, J. C., "Pilgrim's
Progress;" "The Nativity;" "Ruth."--Bradbury, W. B.,
"Esther."--Brandeis, F., "The Ring."--Bristow, G. F., "The Pioneers;"
"No More."--Buck, Dudley, "Don Munio;" "Centennial;" "Easter
Cantatas;" "The Golden Legend;" "Light of Asia;" "Voyage of
Columbus."--Butterfield, J. A., "Belshazzar;" "Ruth."--Chadwick, G.
W., "The Viking's Last Voyage."--Damrosch, Leopold, "Ruth and Naomi;"
"Sulamith."--Foote, A., "Hiawatha."--Gilchrist, W. W., "Forty-sixth
Psalm;" "The Rose."--Gleason, F. G., "God our Deliverer;" "Culprit
Fay;" "Praise of Harmony."--Hamerik, A., "Christmas
Cantata."--Leavitt, W. J. D., "The Lord of the Sea;" "Cambyses; or,
the Pearl of Persia."--Marsh, S. B., "The Saviour;" "King of the
Forest."--Paine, J. K., "Oedipus Tyrannus;" "The Nativity;" "Phoebus,
Arise;" "Realm of Fancy."--Parker, J. G., "Redemption Hymn."--Parker,
H. W., "King Trojan."--Pratt, S. G., "Inca's Downfall."--Root, G. F.,
"Flower Queen;" "Daniel;" "Pilgrim Fathers;" "Belshazzar's Feast;"
"Haymakers;" "Song Tournament;" "David."--Singer, Otto, "Landing of
the Pilgrim Fathers;" "Festival Ode."--Trajetta, Philip, "The
Christian's Joy;" "Prophecy;" "The Nativity;" "Day of
Rest."--Whiting, G. E., "Dream Pictures;" "Tale of the Viking;"
"Lenora;" and many others.

BACH.

Johann Sebastian Bach, the most eminent of the world's organ-players and contrapuntists, was born at Eisenach, March 21, 1685, and was the most illustrious member of a long line of musicians, the Bach family having been famous almost from time immemorial for its skill in music. He first studied the piano with his brother, Johann Christoph, and the organ with Reinecke in Hamburg, and Buxtehude in Lübeck. In 1703 he was court musician in Weimar, and afterwards was engaged as organist in Arnstadt and Mühlhausen. In 1708 he was court organist, and in 1714 concert-master in Weimar. In 1718 he was chapel-master to the Prince von Köthen, and in 1723 was appointed music-director and cantor at the St. Thomas School in Leipsic,--a position which he held during the remainder of his life. He has left for the admiration of posterity an almost endless list of vocal and instrumental works, including cantatas, chorales, motets, magnificats, masses, fugues, sonatas, and fantasies, the "Christmas Oratorio," and several settings of the Passion, of which the most famous are the "St. John" and "St. Matthew," the latter of which Mendelssohn re-introduced to the world in 1829, after it had slumbered an entire century. His most famous instrumental work is the "Well-tempered Clavichord,"--a collection of forty-eight fugues and preludes, which was written for his second wife, Anna Magdalena Bach, to whom he also dedicated a large number of piano pieces and songs. His first wife was his cousin, Maria Barbara Bach, the youngest daughter of Johann Michael Bach, a composer of no common ability. By these two wives he had twenty-one children, of whom the most celebrated were Carl Phillipp Emanuel, born in 1714, known as the "Berlin Bach;" Johann Christoph Friedrich, born in 1732, the "Bücheburger Bach;" and Johann Christian, born in 1735, who became famous as the "London Bach." Large as the family was, it is now extinct. Bach was industrious, simple, honest, and God-fearing, like all his family. He was an incessant and laborious writer from necessity, as his compensation was hardly sufficient to maintain his large family, and nearly all his music was prepared for the service of the church by contract. The prominent characteristics of his work are profound knowledge, the clearest statements of form, strength of logical sequences, imposing breadth, and deep religious sentiment. The latter quality was the outcome of his intense religious nature. Upon everyone of his principal compositions he inscribed "S. D. G.," "to the glory of God alone." He died July 28, 1750, and was buried at Leipsic; but no cross or stone marks the spot where he lies. His last composition was the beautiful chorale, "Wenn wir in höchsten Nöthen sein," freely translated, "When my last hour is close at hand," as it was written in his last illness. The only record of his death is contained in the official register: "A man, aged sixty-seven, M. Johann Sebastian Bach, musical director and singing-master at the St. Thomas School, was carried to his grave in the hearse, July 30, 1750."

Ich hatte viel Bekümmerniss.

The cantata with the above title, best known in English as "My Heart was full of Heaviness," was the first sacred piece in this form which Bach wrote. Its date is 1714, in which year he was living at Weimar, and its composition grew out of a difficulty which he had with the elders of the Liebfrauenkirche at Halle, touching his application for the position of organist. It occasioned him great sorrow, and it was while in this sad plight that he wrote the cantata. It was composed for the third Sunday after Trinity, June 17, and consists of eleven numbers,--an instrumental prelude, four choruses, three arias, a duet, and two recitatives.

The prelude, which is brief and quiet in character, introduces the opening chorus ("Deep within my Heart was Sorrowing and great Affliction"), which in turn leads to the first aria ("Sighing, Mourning, Sorrow, Tears waste away my troubled Heart"), a tender and beautiful number for soprano, with oboe and string accompaniment. It is followed by the tenor recitative and aria, "Why hast Thou, O my God, in my sore Need so turned Thy Face from me?" in which the feeling of sorrow is intensified in utterance. The chorus, "Why, my Soul, art thou vexed?" a very pathetic number, closes the mournful but beautiful first part of the cantata.

The second part is more tranquil and hopeful. It opens with a duet for soprano and bass, the two parts representing the soul and Christ, and sustaining a most expressive dialogue, leading up to a richly harmonized chorus ("O my Soul, be content and be thou peaceful") in which a chorale is introduced with consummate skill. A graceful tenor aria with a delightful and smoothly flowing accompaniment ("Rejoice, O my Soul, change Weeping to Smiling") follows and leads to the final number, which is based on the same subject as that of the "Hallelujah" in Handel's "Messiah." All the voices give out the words, "The Lamb that for us is slain, to Him will we render Power and Glory," with majestic effect; after which the solo bass utters the theme, "Power and Glory and Praise be unto Him forevermore," introducing the "Hallelujah," which closes the work in a burst of tremendous power, by voices and instruments.

Gottes Zeit.

During the first half of the period in which Bach resided at Weimar, occupying the position of court and chamber musician to Duke Wilhelm Ernst, he wrote three cantatas in the old church form which are notable as being the last he composed before adopting the newer style, and as the most perfect of that kind extant. The first of these, "Nach dir, Herr, verlanget mich," is based upon the first two verses of the Twenty-fifth Psalm. The second, "Aus der Tiefe rufe ich," includes the whole of the One hundred and thirtieth Psalm and two verses of the hymn "Herr Jesu Christ, du höchstes Gut." The third and most famous of the trio, "Gottes Zeit ist die allerbeste Zeit" ("God's time is the best of all"), is generally known as the "Actus Tragicus," and sometimes as the "Mourning Cantata." Of its origin Spitta says:--

"Judging by its contents it was designed for the mourning for some man,
probably of advanced age, to whom the song of Simeon could be suitably
applied. No such death took place in the ducal house at this time, for
Prince Johann Ernst died when a youth, and also when Bach's style of
composition had reached a different stage. Possibly the cantata has
reference to Magister Philipp Grossgebauer, the rector of the Weimar
school before its reorganization, who died in 1711; at least, I can
find no other suitable occasion. The contrast between the spirit of the
Old and New Testaments,--between the wrath of an avenging God and the
atoning love of Christ,--which had already appeared in the One hundred
and thirtieth Psalm, is the germ and root of this cantata to such a
degree that it is evident that Bach had fully realized by this time how
fertile a subject for treatment it was. It contains no chorus of such
depth and force as those of the One hundred and thirtieth Psalm. Its
character is much more entirely individual and personal, and so it has
a depth and intensity of expression which reach the extreme limits of
possibility of representation by music. The arrangement of the poetic
material is most excellent; it does not wholly consist of Scripture
texts and verses of hymns; and in several fit and expressive thoughts,
which are freely interspersed, we can almost recognize Bach's own hand.
If such be the case, the whole arrangement of the poetry may with
reason be ascribed to him."

The introduction to the work is a quiet, tender movement in sonata form, written for two flutes, two viol-da-gambas and figured bass, which gives out some of the themes in the middle of the cantata. The opening chorus ("God's own Time is the best, ever best of all. In Him we live, move, and have our Being, as long as He wills. And in Him we die at His good Time") is very descriptive in character, opening with a slow and solemn movement, then passing to a quick fugue, and closing with phrases of mournful beauty to suit the last sentence of the text. A tenor solo follows, set to the words, "O Lord, incline us to consider that our Days are numbered; make us apply our Hearts unto Wisdom," and accompanied by the flutes, leading into a mournful aria for the bass, which forms the second part of the tenor solo ("Set in order thine House, for thou shalt die and not live"). The choir resumes with a new theme ("It is the old Decree, Man, thou art mortal"), in which the lower voices carry a double fugue, the soprano sings alone ("Yea, come, Lord Jesus"), and the instruments have the melody of the old hymn:--

"I have cast all my care on God,
E'en let Him do what seems Him good;
Whether I die, or whether live,
No more I'll strive.
But all my will to Him will give."

Of this effective movement and its successor Spitta says:--

"The design is clear. The curse of death has been changed into blessing
by the coming of Christ, and that which mankind dreaded before, they
now stretch out entreating hands to; the bliss of the new condition of
things shines out in supernatural glory against the dark background of
a dispensation that has been done away. This is the idea of the
concerted vocal parts; and the fact that thousands upon thousands have
agreed in the joy of this faith is shown by the chorale tune now
introduced; for to the understanding listener its worldless sounds
convey the whole import of the hymn which speaks so sweetly of comfort
in the hour of death, sounds which must recall to every pious heart all
the feelings they had stirred when, among the chances and changes of
life, this hymn had been heard,--feelings of sympathy with another's
grief or of balm to the heart's own anxiety."

The alto voice follows with the words spoken on the cross ("Into Thy Hands my Spirit I commend"), to which the bass replies in an arioso ("Thou shalt be with Me to-day in Paradise"). The next number is a chorale ("In Joy and Peace I pass away whenever God willeth") sung by the alto, the bass continuing its solo at the same time through a portion of the chorale. The final chorus is the so-called fifth Gloria:--

"All glory, praise, and majesty
To Father, Son, and Spirit be,
The holy, blessed Trinity;
Whose power to us
Gives victory
Through Jesus Christ. Amen."

The "Actus Tragicus" was one of the youthful compositions of Bach, but it has always attracted the notice of the best musical critics. It was a great favorite with Mendelssohn. Spitta says:--

"It is a work of art well rounded off and firm in its formation, and
warmed by the deepest intensity of feeling even in the smallest
details."

Hauptmann writes to Jahn:--

"Yesterday, at the Euterpe concert, Bach's 'Gottes Zeit' was given.
What a marvellous intensity pervades it, without a bar of
conventionality! Of the cantatas known to me, I know none in which such
design and regard are had to the musical import and its expression."

Festa Ascensionis Christi.

The cantata beginning with the words, "Wer da glaubet und getauft wird" ("Whoso believeth and is baptized"), commonly known as the Ascension cantata, was written for four voices, with accompaniment of two oboes, two violins, viola, and "continuo,"--the latter word implying a bass part, the harmonies indicated by figures from which the organist built up his own accompaniment. The original score has been lost; but it has been reconstructed from the parts, which are preserved in the Royal Library at Berlin.

The cantata is in five numbers. A short prelude of a quiet and cheerful character introduces the stately opening chorus ("Who believeth and obeyeth will be blest forever"). Another brief prelude prepares the way for the brilliant tenor aria ("Of Love, Faith is the Pledge and Token"), which leads up to the chorale, "Lord God, my Father, holy One," based upon the old chorale, "Wie schön leucht uns der Morgenstern" ("How brightly shines the Morning Star"), which has always been a favorite in the church service, and which more than one composer has chosen for the embellishment of his themes. The chorale is not employed in its original form, but is elaborated with all the contrapuntal skill for which Bach was so famous. The next number is a short recitative for the bass voice ("Ye Mortals, hear, all ye who would behold the Face of God"), and leads to a stately bass aria ("Through Faith the Soul has Eagle's Pinions"). The cantata closes, after the customary manner of Bach, with a strong, earnest chorale ("Oh, give me Faith, my Father!"), in plain, solid harmony, for the use of the congregation, thus forming an effective devotional climax to the work.

Ein' Feste Burg.

"A safe stronghold our God is still,
A trusty shield and weapon;
He'll help us clear from all the ill
That hath us now o'ertaken.
The ancient Prince of Hell
Hath risen with purpose fell;
Strong mail of craft and power
He weareth in this hour.
On Earth is not his fellow.

* * * * *

"And were this world all devils o'er,
And watching to devour us,
We lay it not to heart so sore,
Not they can overpower us.
And let the Prince of Ill
Look grim as e'er he will,
He harms us not a whit;
For why? His doom is writ,
A word shall quickly slay him."

There is now but little question that Martin Luther not only wrote the words but the music of the grand old hymn, the first and third stanzas of which, taken from Carlyle's free and rugged translation, are given above. Sleidan, a contemporary historian, indeed says that "Luther made a tune for it singularly suited to the words and adapted to stir the heart." The date of its composition is a matter of controversy; but it is clear that it must have been either in 1529 or 1530, and most writers agree that it was just before the Diet at Augsburg, where it was sung. Niederer, in a work published at Nuremberg, 1759, fixes the date as 1530, and finds it in Preussen's psalm-book, printed in 1537. Winterfeld observes it for the first time in the "Gesangbuch" of the composer Walther, a friend of Luther. Its usual title is, "Der XLVI. Psalm: Deus noster Refugium et virtus, pp. D., Martin Luther." It matters little, however, the exact year in which the sturdy old Reformer wrote the hymn which has stirred the human heart more than any other. It is indissolubly connected with his name, and every line of it is a reflex of his indomitable and God-fearing nature. Heine and Carlyle have paid it noble tributes. The German poet says:--

"The hymn which he composed on his way to Worms,[8] and which he and
his companions chanted as they entered that city, is a regular
war-song. The old cathedral trembled when it heard these novel sounds.
The very rooks flew from their nests in the towers. That hymn, the
Marseillaise of the Reformation, has preserved to this day its potent
spell over German hearts."

Carlyle still more forcibly says:--

"With words he had now learned to make music; it was by deeds of love
or heroic valor that he spoke freely. Nevertheless, though in imperfect
articulation, the same voice, if we listen well, is to be heard also in
his writings, in his poems. The one entitled 'Ein' feste Burg,'
universally regarded as the best, jars upon our ears; yet there is
something in it like the sound of Alpine avalanches, or the first
murmur of earthquakes, in the very vastness of which dissonance a
higher unison is revealed to us. Luther wrote this song in times of
blackest threatenings, which, however, could in no sense become a time
of despair. In these tones, rugged and broken as they are, do we hear
the accents of that summoned man, who answered his friends' warning not
to enter Worms, in this wise: 'Were there as many devils in Worms as
these tile roofs, I would on.'"

It was the battle-song of the Reformation, stirring men to valiant deeds; and it did equal service in sustaining and consoling the Reformers in their darkest hours. "Come, Philip, let us sing the Forty-sixth Psalm," was Luther's customary greeting to Melanchthon, when the gentler spirit quailed before approaching danger, or success seemed doubtful. In music it has frequently served an important purpose. Not only Bach, but other composers of his time arranged it. Mendelssohn uses it with powerful effect in his Reformation symphony. Nicolai employs it in his Fest overture. Meyerbeer more than once puts it in the mouth of Marcel the Huguenot, when dangers gather about his master, though the Huguenots were not Lutherans but Calvinists; and Wagner introduces it with overwhelming power in his triumphal Kaiser March.

Bitter, in his Life of Bach, says:--

"The bicentenary Reformation Festival was celebrated in October and
November, 1717, and at Weimar especially it was, as an old chronicle
tells us, a great jubilee. Bach composed his cantata, 'Ein' feste
Burg,' for the occasion. In this piece it is clear that he had passed
through his first phase of development and reached a higher stage of
perfection."

Winterfeld is inclined to the same belief; but Spitta, in his exhaustive biography of Bach, argues that it must have been written either for the Reformation Festival of 1730, or for the two hundredth anniversary of Protestantism in Saxony, May 17, 1739. The former date would bring its composition a year after the completion of his great Passions music, and four years before his still more famous "Christmas Oratorio,"--a period when he was at the height of his productive power; which favors the argument of Spitta, that in 1717 a chorus like the opening one in the cantata was beyond his capacity.[9] In the year 1730 Bach wrote three Jubilee cantatas, rearranged from earlier works, and Spitta claims that it was only about this period that he resorted to this practice. Further, he adds that "the Chorale Chorus [the opening number], in its grand proportions and vigorous flow, is the natural and highest outcome of Bach's progressive development, and he never wrote anything more stupendous."

The cantata has eight numbers, three choruses and five solos. The solo numbers are rearranged from an earlier cantata, "Alles was von Gott geboren" ("All that is of God's creation"), written for the third Sunday in Lent, March 15, 1716. The opening number is a colossal fugue based upon a variation on the old melody and set to the first verse of the Luther hymn. It is followed by a duet for soprano and bass, including the second verse of the hymn and an interpolated verse by Franck,[10] who prepared the text. The third and fourth numbers are a bass recitative and soprano aria, the words also by Franck, leading up to the second great chorale chorus set to the words of the third stanza of the hymn,

"And were the world all devils o'er,"

of which Spitta says:--

"The whole chorus sings the _Cantus firmus_ in unison, while the
orchestra plays a whirl of grotesque and wildly leaping figures,
through which the chorus makes its way undistracted and never misled,
an illustration of the third verse, as grandiose and characteristic as
it is possible to conceive."

The sixth number is a recitative for tenor followed by a duet for alto and tenor ("How blessed then are they who still on God are calling"). The work closes with a repetition of the chorale, set to the last verse of the hymn, sung without accompaniment. The cantata is colossal in its proportions, and is characterized throughout by the stirring spirit and bold vigorous feeling of the Reformation days whose memories it celebrated.

[8] This assumption, repeated by others, grows out of the similarity of
sentiment in the third stanza to that of Luther's famous reply when
he was urged not to attend the Diet of Worms.

[9] There is yet a fourth rearrangement, which we may assign to 1730. The
assertion is no doubt well founded that in this year the celebration
of the Reformation Festival was considered of special importance, and
kept accordingly; and it is evident that the cantata "Ein' feste
Burg" must have been intended for some such extraordinary
solemnity.--_Spitta_, vol. ii. p. 470.

The Reformation Festival had no doubt a very distinct poetical
sentiment of its own; and when any special occasion took the
precedence, as in 1730 and 1739, the years of Jubilee, it would be
misleading to seek for any close connection between the sermon and
the cantata. Thus the cantata, "Ein' feste Burg," may very well have
been connected with the sermon in 1730; still, it is possible that it
was not written till 1739.--_Ibid._, vol. iii. p. 283.

[10] Salomo Franck, a poet of more than ordinary ability, was born at
Weimar, March 6, 1759. He published several volumes of sacred lyrics.

BALFE.

Michael William Balfe was born at Dublin, Ireland, May 15, 1808. Of all the English opera-composers, his career was the most versatile, as his success, for a time at least, was the most remarkable. At seven years of age he scored a polacca of his own for a band. In his eighth year he appeared as a violinist, and in his tenth was composing ballads. At sixteen he was playing in the Drury Lane orchestra, and about this time began taking lessons in composition. In 1825, aided by the generosity of a patron, he went to Italy, where for three years he studied singing and counterpoint. In his twentieth year he met Rossini, who offered him an engagement as first barytone at the Italian opera in Paris. He made his début with success in 1828, and at the close of his engagement returned to Italy, where he appeared again on the stage. About this time (1829-1830) he began writing Italian operas, and before he left the country had produced three which met with considerable success. In 1835 he returned to England; and it was in this year that his first English opera, "The Siege of Rochelle," was brought out. It was played continuously at Drury Lane for over three months. In 1835 appeared his "Maid of Artois;" in 1837, "Catharine Grey" and "Joan of Arc;" and in 1838, "Falstaff." During these years he was still singing in concerts and opera, and in 1840 undertook the management of the Lyceum. His finest works were produced after this date,--"The Bohemian Girl," in 1843; "The Enchantress," in 1844; "The Rose of Castile," "La Zingara," and "Satanella," in 1858; and "The Puritan's Daughter" in 1861. His last opera was "The Knight of the Leopard," known in Italian as "Il Talismano," which has also been performed in English as "The Talisman." He married Mademoiselle Rosen, a German singer, whom he met in Italy in 1835. His daughter Victoire, who subsequently married Sir John Crampton, and afterwards the Duc de Frias, also appeared as a singer in 1856. Balfe died Oct. 20, 1870, upon his own estate in Hertfordshire.

Mazeppa.