Chapter CXIV: Act 1895: , may be given to a married woman on applying to (3)

ALKMAAR, a town in the province of North Holland, kingdom of Holland, 24 1/2 m. by rail N.N.W. of Amsterdam, connected by steam-tramway with Haarlem and Amsterdam, and on the North Holland canal. Pop. (1900) 18,373. Alkmaar is a typical North Holland town, with tree-lined canals and brightly coloured 17th-century houses. The old city walls have been replaced by pleasant gardens and walks, and there is a park in which stands a fine monument (1876) by J. T. Stracke (1817- 1891), symbolizing Alcmaria victrix, to commemorate the siege by the Spaniards in 1573. The Groote Kerk (1470-1498), dedicated to St Lawrence, is a handsome building and contains the tomb of Floris V., count of Holland (d. 1296), a brass of 1546, and some paintings (1507). In the town hall (1507) are the library and a small museum with two pictures by the 17th century artist Caesar van Everdingen, who with his more celebrated brother Allart van Everdingen (q.v.) was a native of the town. The weigh-house (1582) is a picturesque building with quaint gable and tower. Just outside the town lies the Alkmaar wood, at the entrance to which stands the military cadet school which serves as a preparatory school for the royal military academy at Breda. Alkmaar derives its chief importance from being the centre of the flourishing butter and cheese trade of this region of Holland. It is also a considerable market for horses, cattle and grain, and there is a little boat-building and salt and sail-cloth manufacture. Tramways connect Alkmaar with Egmond and with the pretty summer resort of Bergen, which lies sheltered by woods and dunes.

The name of Alkmaar, which means ``all sea,'' first occurs in the 10th century, and recalls its former situation in the midst of marshlands and lakes. It was probably originally a fishing-village, but with the reclamation of the surrounding morasses, e.g. that of the Schermer in 1685, and their conversion into rich meadow land, Alkmaar gradually acquired an imporiant trade. In 1254 it received a charter from William II., count of Holland, similar to that of Haarlem, but in the 15in century duke Philip the Good of Burgundy made the impoverishment of the town, due to ill-government, the excuse for establishing an oligarchical regime, by charters of 1436 and 1437. As the capital of the ancient district of Kennemerland between den Helder and Haarlem, Alkmaar frequently suffered in the early wars between the Hollanders and the Frisians, and in 1517 was captured by the united Gelderlaiiders and Frisians. In 1573 it successfully sustained a seven-weeks' siege by 16,000 Spaniards under the duke of Alva. In 1799 Alkmaar gave its name to a conxention signed by the duke of York and the French general Brune, in accordance with which the Russo-British army of 23,000 men, which was defeated at Bergen, evacuated Holland. A monument was erected in 1901 to commemorate the Russians who fell.

ALLACCI, LEONE [LEO ALLATIUS] (1586-1669), Greek scholar and theologian, was born in the island or Chios. His early years were passed in Calabria and at Rome, where he finally settled as teacher of Greek at the Greek college, at the same time devoting himself to the study of classics and theology. In 1622, after the capture of Heidelberg by Tilly, the elector Maximilian of Bavaria presented its splendid library composed of 196 cases of MSS. (bibliotheca Palatina) to Pope Gregory XV. Allacci was sent to superintend its removal to Rome, where it was incorporated with the Vatican library. On the death of Gregory, Allacci became librarian to Cardinal Berberini, and subsequently (1661) librarian of the Vatican, which post he held till his death on the 18th (or 19th) of January 1669. It is noteworthy that, although a Greek by birth, he became an ardent Roman Catholic and the bitter enemy of all heretics, including his own countrymen. Allacci was a very industrious and voluminous writer, but his works, although they bear ample testimony to his immense learning, show an absence of the true critical faculty, and are full of intolerance, especially on religious subjects. For a list of these, J. A. Fabricius's Bibliotheca Graeca (xi. 437) should be consulted, where they are divided into four classes: editions, translations and commentaries on ancient authors; works relating to the dogmas and institutions of the Greek and Roman Churches; historical works; miscellaneous works. The number of his unpublished writings is also very large; the majority of them are included in the MSS. of the Vallicellian library.

The main source of our knowledge of Allatius is the incomplete life by Stephanus Gradi, Leonis Allatii vita, published by Cardinal Mai, in Nova Bibliotheca Patrum. A complete enumeration of his works is contained in E. Legrand, Bibliographie hellenique du XVIIeme siecle (Paris, 1895, iii. 435-471). The accounts of C. N. Sathas in Neoellenvike filologia (Athens, 1868), and of the pseudo-prince Demetrius Rhodokanakis, Leonis Allatii Hellas (Athens, 1872, are inaccurate and untrustworthy. For a special account of his share in the foundation of the Vatican Library, see Curzio Mazzi, Leone Allacci e la Palatina di Heidelberg (Bologna, 1893). The theological aspect of his works is best treated by the Assumptionist Father L. Petit in A. Vacant's Dictionnaire de theologie (Paris, 1900, cols. 830-833).

ALLAH, the Arabic name used by Moslems of all nationalities for the one true God. It is compounded of al, the definite article, and ilah, meaning a god. The same word is found in Hebrew and Aramaic as well as in ancient Arabic (Sabaean). The meaning of the root from which it is derived is very doubtful; cf. Lane's Arabic-English Lexicon, p. 82, and the Oxford Hebrew and English Lexicon, pp. 61 ff.

ALLAHABAD, a city of British India, the capital of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, giving its name to a district and a division. The city is situated at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna in 25 deg. 26' N. lat. and 81 deg. 50' E. long., 564 m. from Calcutta by rail. Its most conspicuous feature is the fort, which rises directly from the banks of the confluent rivers and completely commands the navigation of both streams. Within the fort are the remains of a splendid palace, erected by the Emperor Akbar, and once a favourite residence of his. A great portion of it has been destroyed, and its hall is converted into an arsenal. Outside the fort the places of most importance are the sarai and gardens of Khasru, the son of the Emperor Jehangir, and the Jama Masjid or Great Mosque. When the town first came into the hands of the English this mosque was used as a residence by the military officer commanding the station, and afterwards as an assembly room. Ultimately it was returned to its former owners, but the Mahommedans considered it desecrated, and it has never since been used as a place of worship. Allahabad (Illahabad) was the name given to the city when Akbar built the great fort. To the Hindus it is still known by its ancient name of Prag or Prayag (``place of sacrifice''), and it remains one of the most noted resorts of Hindu pilgrimage. It owes its sanctity to its being the reputed confluence of three sacred streams--the Ganges, the Jumna and the Saraswati. This last stream, however, actually loses itself in the sands of Sirhind, 400 m. north-west of Allahabad. The Hindus assert that the stream joins the other two rivers underground, and in a subterraneous temple below the fort a little moisture trickling from the rocky walls is pointed out as the waters of the Saraswati. An annual fair is held at Allahabad at the confluence of the streams on the occasion of the great bathing festival at the full moon of the Hindu month of Magh. It is known as the Magh-mela, lasts for a whole month, and is attended by as many as 250,000 persons in ordinary years, either for religious or commercial purposes. Every twelfth year there is a special occasion called the Kumbh-mela, which is attended by a million of devotees at one time. Allahabad was taken by the British in 1765 from the wazir of Oudh, and assigned as a residence to Shah Alam, the titular emperor of Delhi. Upon that prince throwing himself into the hands of the Mahrattas, the place was resumed by the British in 1771 and again transferred to the nawab of Oudh, by whom it was finally ceded together with the district to the British in 1801, in commutation of the subsidy which the wazir had agreed to pay for British protection. During the Mutiny of 1857, Allahabad became the scene of one of the most serious outbreaks and massacres which occurred in the North-Western Provinces. The fort was held by a little garrison of Europeans and loyal Sikhs, until it was relieved by General Neill on June 11th of that year.

The modern buildings of Allahabad include Government House, the High Court, the Mayo memorial and town hall, the Muir central college, the Thornhill and Mayne memorial library and museum, the Naini central jail, and the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals. The Jumna is crossed by a railway bridge and there are two bridges of boats over the Ganges. The military cantonments contain accommodation for all three arms and are the headquarters of a brigade in the 8th division of the eastern army corps. At Allahabad is published the Pioneer, perhaps the best known English paper in India. There is an American mission college. Here is the junction of the great railway system which unites Bengal with Central India and Bombay, and is developing into a great centre of 1nland and export trade. The population in 1901 was 172,032.

The DISTRICT OF ALLAHABAD has an area of 2811 sq. m. In shape it is an irregular oblong, and it is very difficult to define its boundaries, as at one extremity it wanders into Oudh, while on the south the villages of the state of Rewa and those of this district are hopelessly intermingled. The Jumna and the Ganges enclose within their angle a fertile tract well irrigated with tanks and wells. The East Indian railway and the Grand Trunk road afford the principal means of land communication. In 1901 the population was 1,489,358, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due to famine.

The division of Allahabad has an area of 17,270 sq. m. The population in 1901 was 5,540,702, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due to the famine of 1896-1897, which was severely felt throughout the division. It comprises the seven districts of Cawnpore, Fatehpur, Banda, Hamirpur, Allahabad, Jhansi and Jalaun.

ALLAMANDA, named after J. N. S. Allamand (1713-1787), of Leiden, a genus of shrubby, evergreen climbers, belonging to the natural order Apocynaceae, and a native of tropical America. Several species are grown in hot-houses for the beauty of their folliage and flowers; the latter, borne in many-flowered panicles, have a funnel-shaped corolla with a narrow tube, and often yellow in colour. The plants are of comparatively easy culture, and very effective when trained to wires beneath the roof of the house.

ALLAN, DAVID (1744-1796), Scottish historical painter, was born at Alloa. On leaving Foulis's academy of painting at Glasgow (1762), after seven years' successful study, he obtained the patronage of Lord Cathcart and of Erskine of Mar, on whose estate he had been born. The latter furnished him with the means of proceeding to Rome (1764), where he remained for a number of years engaged principally in copying the old masters. Among the original works which he then painted was the ``Origin of Portraiture''--representing a Corinthian maid drawing her lover's shadow--well known through Domenico Cunego's excellent engraving. This gained for him the gold medal given by the Academy of St Luke in the year 1773 for the best specimen of historical composition. Returning from Rome in 1777, he resided for a time in London, and occupied himself in portrait-painting. In 1780 he removed to Edinburgh, where, on the death of Alexander Runciman in 1786, he was appointed director and master of the Academy of Arts. There he painted and etched in aquatint a variety of works, those by which he is best known--as the ``Scotch Wedding,'' the ``Highland Dance,'' the ``Repentance Stool,'' and his ``Illustrations of the Gentle Shepherd''--being remarkable for their comic humour. He was called the ``Scottish Hogarth''; but his drolleries hardly entitle him to this comparison. Allan died at Edinburgh on the 6th of August 1796.

ALLAN, SIR HUGH (1810-1882), Canadian financier, was born on the 29th of September 1810, at Saltcoats, Ayrshire, Scotland, the son of Captain Alexander Allan, a shipmaster. He emigrated to Canada in 1826, and in 1831 entered the employ of the chief shipbuilding and grain-shipping firm of Montreal, of which he became a junior partner in 1835. In 1853 he organized the Allan Line of steamships, plying between Montreal. Liverpool and Glasgow; till his death he was closely associated with the commercial growth and prosperity of Canada, and in 1871 was knighted in recognition of his services. In 1872- 1873 he obtained from the Canadian government a charter for building the Canadian Pacific railway, but the disclosures made with reference to his contributions to the funds of the Conservative party led to the Pacific scandal (see CANADA, History), and that company was soon afterwards dissolved. He died in Edinburgh on the 9th of December 1882.

See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (1881).

ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM (1782-1850), Scottish painter, was born at Edinburgh, and at an early age entered as a pupil in the School of Design established in Edinburgh by the Board of Trustees for Arts and Manufactures, where he had as companions, John Wilkie, John Burnet the engraver, and others who afterward distinguished themselves as artists. Here Allan and Wilkie were placed at the same table, studied the same designs, and contracted a lifelong friendship. Allan continued his studies for some time in London; but his attempt to establish himself there was unsuccessful, and after exhibiting at the Royal Academy (1805) his first picture, ``A Gipsy Boy and Ass,'' an imitation in style of Opie, he determined, in spite of his scanty resources, to seek his fortune abroad. He accordingly set out the same year for Russia, but was carried by stress of weather to Memel, where he remained for some time, supporting himself by his pencil. At last, however, he reached St Petersburg, where the kindness of Sir Alexander Crichton, the court physician, and other friends procured him abundant employment. By excursions into southern Russia, Turkey, the Crimea and Circassia, he filled his portfolio with vivid sketches, of which he made admirable use in his subsequent pictures. In 1814 he returned to Edinburgh, and in the two following years exhibited at the Royal Academy ``The Circassian Captives'' and ``Bashkirs tonducting Convicts to Siberia.'' The former picture remained so long unsold, that, thoroughly disheartened, he threatened to retire to Circassia when, through the kindness of Sir Walter Scott, a subscription of 1000 guineas was obtained for the picture, which fell by lot into the possession of the earl of Wemyss. About the same time the Grand Duke Nicholas, afterwards tsar of Russia, visited Edinburgh, and purchased his ``Siberian Exiles'' and ``Haslan Gheray crossing the River Kuban,'' giving a very favourable turn to the fortunes of the painter, whose pictures were now sought for by collectors. From this time to 1834 he achieved his greatest success and firmly established his fame by the illustration of Scottish history. His most important works of this class were ``Archbishop Sharpe on Magus Moor''; ``John Knox admonishing Mary Queen of Scots'' (1823), engraved by Burnet; ``Mary Queen of Scots signing her Abdication'' (1824); and ``Regent Murray shot by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh.'' The last procured his election as an associate of the Royal Academy (1825). Later Scottish subjects were ``Lord Byron'' (1831), portraits of Scott and ``The Orphan'' (1834), which represented Anne Scott seated near the chair of her deceased father. In 1830 he was compelled, on account of an attack of ophthalmia, to seek a milder climate, and visited Rome, Naples and Constantinople. He returned with a rich store of materials, of which he made excellent use in his ``Constantinople Slave Market'' and other productions. In 1834 he visited Spain and Morocco, and in 1841 went again to St Petersburg, when he undertook, at the request of the tsar, his ``Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of Shipbuilding,'' exhibited in London in 1845, and now in the Winter Palace of St Petersburg. His ``Polish Exiles'' and ``Moorish Love-letter,'' &c., had secured his election as a Royal Academician in 1835; he was appointed president of the Royal Scottish Academy (1838), and royal limner for Scotland, after Wilkie's death (1841); and in 1842 received the honour of knighthood. His later years were occupied with battle-pieces, the last he finished being the second of his two companion pictures of the ``Battle of Waterloo.'' He died on the 22nd of February 1850, leaving a large unfinished picture--``Bruce at Bannockburn.''

ALHAN-DESPREAUX, LOUISE ROSALIE (1810-1856), French actress, was ``discovered'' by Talma at Brussels in 1820, when she played Joas with him in Athalie. At his suggestion she changed her surname, Ross, for her mother's maiden name, and, as Mlle. Despreaux, was engaged for children's parts at the Comedie Francaise. At the same time she studied at the Conservatoire. By 1825 she had taken the second prize for comedy, and was engaged to play inigenue parts at the Comeedie Francaise, where her first appearance in this capacity was as Jenny in L'Argent on the 8th of December 1826. In 1831 the director of the Gymnase succeeded in persuading her to join his company. Her six years at this theatre, during which she married Allan, an actor in the company, were a succession of triumphs. She was then engaged at the French theatre at St Petersburg. Returning to Paris, she brought with her, as Legouve says, a thing she had unearthed, through a Russian translation, a little comedy never acted till she took it up, a production half-forgotten, and esteemed by those who knew it as a pleasing piece of work in the Marivaux style--Un Caprice by Alfred de Musset, which she had played with success in St Petersburg. Her selection of this piece for her reappearance at the Theatre Francaise (1847) laid the corner-stone of Musset's lasting fame as a dramatist. In the following year his comedy Il ne faut jurer de rien was acted at the same theatre, and thus led to the production of his finer plays. Among plays by other authors in which Mme. Allan won special laurels at the Theatre Francaise. were Par droit de conquete, Peril en la demeure, La joie fait peur, and Lady Tartuffe. In the last, with a part of only fifty lines, and playing by the very side of the great Rachel, she yet held her own as an actress of the first rank. Mme. Allan died in Paris, in the height of her popularity, in March 1856.

/NH-CH-NH-CO-NH2 ALLANTOIN, C4H6N4O3 or CO | \NH-CO the diureide of glyoxylic acid. It is found in the allantoic liquid of the cow, and in the urine of sucking calves. It can be obtained by the oxidation of uric acid by means of lead dioxide, manganese dioxide, ozone or potassium permanganate:

C5H4N4O3 + H2O + O = C4H6N4O3 + CO2.

It has been synthesized by E. Grimaux by heating one part of glyoxylic acid with two parts of urea for ten hours at 100 deg. C.: 2CO(NH2)2 + CH(OH)2COOH = 3H2O + C4H6N4O3. It forms glancing prisms of neutral reaction slightly soluble in water. On standing with concentrated potassium hydroxide solution it gives potassium allantoate C4H7N4O4K. On heating with water it undergoes hydrolysis into urea and allanturic acid C3H4O3N2. It is reduced by sodium amalgam to glycouril C4H6N4O2, whilst with hydriodic acid it yields urea and hydantoin C3H4N2O2. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid also decomposes allantoin, with production of ammonia, and carbon monoxide and dioxide. By dry distillation it gives ammonium cyanide.

ALLEGHANY, or THE ALLEGHANIES (a spelling now more common than Allegheny), a name formerly used of all the Appalachian Mountains (q.v.), U.S.A., and now sometimes of all that system lying W. and S. of the Hudson river, being steep and narrow-crested in Pennsylvania (1500-1800 ft.), and in Maryland, Virginia and West Virginia higher (3000 ft.-4473 ft). and with broader crests. Another usage applies to the ridges ( ``the Alleghany Ridges'') parallel to the Blue Ridge; the north-western part of this region is sometimes called the Alleghany Front or the Front of the Alleghany Plateau. The Alleghany Plateau is the north-westernmost division of the Appalachian system; it is an eroded mass of sedimentary rock sloping north-westward to the Prairie and Lake Plains and reaching south-west from the south-western part of New York state through Tennessee and into Alabama.

ALLEGHENY, formerly a city of Allegheny county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Allegheny and Ohio rivers. opposite Pittsburg; since 1907 a part of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 105,287; (1900) 129,896, of whom 30,216 were foreign-born and 3315 were negroes; of the foreign-born 12,022 were from Germany, 5070 from Ireland, 3929 from Austria, and 2177 from England; (1906, estimate) 145,240. Allegheny is served by the Baltimore & Ohio and the Pittsburg & Western railways, by the Pittsburg, Ft. Wayne & Chicago, the Western Pennsylvania, the Buffalo & Allegheny Valley, the Cleveland & Pittsburg, the Erie & Pittsburg, the Pittsburg, Youngstown & Ashtabula, and the Chautauqua divisions of the Pennsylvania railway system, and by Ohio river freight and passenger boats. Extending along the river fronts for about 6 1/2 m. are numerous large manufactories and the headquarters of the shipping interests; farther back are the mercantile quarters and public buildings; and on the hills beyond are the residence districts, commanding extensive views of the valley. Two of the principal thoroughfares, Federal and Ohio streets, intersect at a central square, in which are the city hall, public library, post office and the marketplace; and surrounding the main business section on the E., N. and W. is City Park of 100 acres, with lakes and fountains, and monuments to the memory of Alexander von Humboldt, George Washington and T. A. Armstrong. Farther out is Riverview Park (219 acres), in which is the Allegheny Astronomical Observatory, and elsewhere are a soldiers' monument and a monument (erected by Andrew Carnegie) in memory of Colonel Johnes Anderson. In Allegheny are the following institutions of higher learning:--the Allegheny Theological Seminary (United Presbyterian), opened in 1825; the Western Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, opened in 1827; and the Theological Seminary of the Reformed Presbyterians, opened in 1856. There is a fine Carnegie library with a music-hall. Among penal and charitable institutions are the Riverside State Penitentiary, three hospitals, three homes for orphans, a home for the friendless and an industrial school. Six bridges spanning the river and electric lines crossing them have brought Allegheny into close industrial and social relations with the main part of Pittsburg, and on the hills of Allegheny are beautiful homes of wealthy men. As a manufacturing centre Allegheny was outranked in 1905 by only two cities in the state--Philadelphia and Pittsburg; among the more important of its large variety of manufactures are the products of slaughtering and meat-packing establishments, iron and steel rolling mills, the products of foundries and machine- shops, pickles, preserves and sauces, the products of railway- construction and repair shops, locomotives, structural iron and plumbers' supplies. In 1905 the total value of Allegheny's factory products was $45,830,272; this showed an apparent decrease (exceeded by one city only) of $7,365,106, from the product-value of 1900, but the decrease was partly due to the more careful census of 1905, in which there were not the duplications or certain items which occurred in the 1900 census. But in the live years there was a decrease of 3865 in the average number of wage-earners, and the iron and steel output was much less. In 1905 Allegheny ranked first among the cities of the United States in the manufacture of pickles, preserves and sauces, the product ($6,216,778) being 20.9% of that for the whole country. An important industry is the shipment of coal, especially on barges down the Ohio.

Allegheny was laid out in 1788 on a portion of a tract which the state had previously reserved opposite Pittsburg, with a view to bringing some valuable land into the market for the payment of its soldiers' claims. When ordered by the state to be laid out, it was also named as the site of the county-seat of the newly erected county of Allegheny, but the opposition of Pittsburg was so strong that by a supplementary act in the following year that town was made the county-seat. In 1828 Allegheny was incorporated as a borough and in 1840 it was chartered as a city. The city suffered severely in 1874 from a fire started by a fire-cracker on the 4th of July and from a flood caused by a great rain-storm on the 26th of the same month, but these calamities were followed by years of great prosperity and rapid growth. In 1906 the question of uniting Allegheny with Pittsburg under one municipal government was submitted to a joint vote of the electorate of the two cities, in accordance with an act of the state legislature, which had been passed in February of that year, and a large majority voted for the union; but there was determined opposition in Allegheny, every ward of the city voting in the negative; the constitutionality of the act was challenged; the supreme court of the state on the 11th of March 1907 declared the act valid, and on the 18th of November 1907 this decision was affirmed by the Supreme Court of the United States.

See J. E. Parke, Recollections of Seventy Years and Historical Gleanings of Allegheny, Pennsylvania (Boston, 1886).

ALLEGIANCE (Mid. Eng. ligeaunce; med. Lat. ligeantia, &c.; the al- was probably added through confusion with another legal term, allegeance, an allegation; the Fr. allegeance comes from the English; the word is formed from ``liege,'' of which the derivation is given under that heading; the connexion with Lat. ligare, to bind, is erroneous), the duty which a subject or a citizen owes to the state or to the sovereign of the state to which he belongs. It is often used by English legal commentators in a larger sense, divided by them into natural and local, the latter applying to the deference which even a foreigner must pay to the institutions of the country in which he happens to live; but it is in its proper sense, in which it indicates national character and the subjection due to that character, that the word is important. In that sense it represents the feudal liege homage, which could be due only to one lord, while simple homage might be due to every lord under whom the person in question held land. The English doctrine, which was at one time adopted in the United States, asserted that allegiance was indelible:-- Nemo potest exuere patriam. Accordingly, as the law stood before 1870, every person who by birth or naturalization satisfied the conditions described in the article ALIEN, though he should be removed in infancy to another country where his family resided, owed an allegiance to the British crown which he could never resign or lose, except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of British territory in which he resided. By the Naturalization Act 1870, it was made possible for British subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance, and the ways in which that nationality is lost are defined. So British subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization, unless, in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act, they have declared their desire to remain British subjects within two years from the passing of the act. Persons who from having been born within British territory are British subjects, but who at birth became under the law of any foreign state subjects of such state, and also persons who though born abroad are British subjects by reason of parentage, may by declarations of alienage get rid of British nationality. Emigration to an uncivilized country leaves British nationality unaffected: indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating is one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion.

The doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the United States, and in 1868 congress declared that ``the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people, indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,'' and one of ``the fundamental principles of the republic'' (United States Revised Statutes, sec. 1999). Every citizen of a foreign state in America owes a double allegiance, one to it and one to the United States. He may be guilty of treason against one or both. If the demands of these two sovereigns upon his duty of allegiance come into conflict, those of the United States have the paramount authority in American law.

The oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization. By ancient common law it might be required of all persons above the age of twelve, and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected. In England it was first imposed by statute in the reign of Elizabeth (1558) and its form has more than once been altered since. Up to the time of the revolution the promise was, ``to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour, and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom.'' This was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute non-resistance, and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time--``I do sincerely promise and swear that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to His Majesty . . .'' (see OATH.)

See also the articles CITIZEN, NATURALIZATION: and Salmond on ``Citizenship and Allegiance,'' in the Law Quarterly Review (July 1901, January 1902). (JNO. W.)

ALLEGORY (allos, other, and agoreuein, to speak), a figurative representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition to the literal. It is generally treated as a figure of rhetoric, but the medium of representation is not necessarily language. An allegory may be addressed to the eye, and is often embodied in painting, sculpture or some form of mimetic art. The etymological meaning of the word is wider than that which it bears in actual use. An allegory is distinguished from a metaphor by being longer sustained and more fully carried out in its details, and from an analogy by the fact that the one appeals to the imagination and the other to the reason. The fable or parable is a short allegory with one definite moral. The allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. The Hebrew scriptures present frequent instances of it, one of the most beautiful being the comparison of the history of Israel to the growth of a vine in the 80th psalm. In classical literature one of the best known allegories is the story of the stomach and its members in the speech of Menenius Agrippa (Livy ii. 32); and several occur in Ovid's Metamorphoses. Perhaps the most elaborate and the most successful specimens of allegory are to be found in the works of English authors. Spenser's Faerie Queene, Swift's Tale of a Tub, Addison's Vision of Mirza, and, above all, Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress, are examples that it would be impossible to match in elaboration, beauty and fitness, from the literature of any other nation.

ALLEGRI, GREGORIO, Italian priest and musical composer, probably of the Correggio family, was born at Rome either in 1560 or in 1585. He studied music under G. Maria Nanini, the intimate friend of Palestrina. Being intended for the church, he obtained a benefice in the cathedral of Fermo. Here he composed a large number of motets and sacred pieces, which, being brought under the notice of Pope Urban VIII., obtained for him an appointment in the choir of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. He held this from December 1629 till his death on the 18th of February 1652. His character seems to have been singularly pure and benevolent. Among the musical compositions of Allegri were two volumes of concerti, published in 1618 and 1619; two volumes of motets, published in 1620 and 1621; besides a number of works still in manuscript. He was one of the earliest composers for stringed instruments, and Kircher has given one specimen of this class of his works in the Musurgia. But the most celebrated composition of Allegri is the Miserere, still annually performed in the Sistine Chapel at Rome. It is written for two choirs, the one of five and the other of four voices, and has obtained a celebrity which, if not entirely factitious, is certainly not due to its intrinsic merits alone. The mystery in which the composition was long enshrouded, no single copy being allowed to reach the public, the place and circumstances of the performance, and the added embellishments of the singers, account to a great degree for much of the impressive effect of which all who have heard the music speak. This view is confirmed by the fact that, when the music was performed at Venice by permission of the pope, it produced so little effect that the emperor Leopold I., at whose request the manuscript had been sent, thought that something else had been substituted. In spite of the precautions of the popes, the Miserere has long been public property. In 1769 Mozart (q.v.) heard it and wrote it down, and in 1771 a copy was procured and published in England by Dr Burney. The entire music performed at Rome in Holy Week, Allegri's Miserere included, has been issued at Leipzig by Breitkopf and Hartel. Interesting accounts of the impression produced by the performance at Rome may be found in the first volume of Mendelssohn's letters and in Miss Taylor's Letters from Italy.

ALLEGRO (an Italian word, meaning ``cheerful,'' as in Milton's poem), a term in music to indicate quick or lively time, coming between andante and presto; it is frequently modified by the addition of qualifying words. It is also used of a separate piece of music, or of a movement in a sonata, symphony, &c.

ALLEINE, JOSEPH (1634-1668), English Nonconformist divine, belonged to a family originally settled in Suffolk. As early as 1430 some of them--sprung of Alan, lord of Buckenhall --settled in the neighbourhood of Calne and Devizes, whence descended the immediate ancestors of ``worthy Mr Tobie Alleine of Devizes,'' father of Joseph, who, the fourth of a large family, was born at Devizes early in 1634. 1645 is marked in the title-page of a quaint old tractate, by an eye-witness, as the year of his setting forth in the Christian race. His elder brother Edward had been a clergyman, but in this year died; and Joseph entreated his father that he might be educated to succeed his brother in the ministry. In April 1649 he entered Lincoln College, Oxford, and on the 3rd of November 1651 he became scholar of Corpus Christi College. On the 6th of July 1653 he took the degree of B.D., and became a tutor and chaplain of Corpus Christi, preferring this to a fellowship. In 1654 he had offers of high preferment in the state, which he declined; but in 1655 George Newton, of the great church of St Mary Magdalene, Taunton, sought him for assistant and Alleine accepted the invitation. Almost coincident with his ordination as associate pastor came his marriage with Theodosia Alleine, daughter of Richard Alleine. Friendships among ``gentle and simple''--of the former, with Lady Farewell, grand-daughter of the protector Somerset--bear witness to the attraction of Alleine's private life. His public life was a model of pastoral devotion. This is all the more remarkable as he found time to continue his studies, one monument of which was his Theologia Philosophica (a lost MS.), a learned attempt to harmonize revelation and nature, which drew forth the wonder of Baxter. Alleine was no mere scholar or divine, but a man who associated on equal terms with the founders of the Royal Society. These scientific studies were, however, kept in subordination to his proper work. The extent of his influence was, in so young a man, unique, resting on the earnestness and force of his nature. The year 1662 found senior and junior pastors like-minded, and both were among the two thousand ejected ministers. Alleine, with John Wesley (grandfather of the celebrated John Wesley), also ejected, then travelled about, preaching wherever opportunity was found. For this he was cast into prison, indicted at sessions, bullied and fined. His Letters from Prison were an earlier Cardiphonia than John Newton's. He was released on the 26th of May 1664; and in spite of the Conventicle, or Five Mile Act, he resumed his preaching. He found himself again in prison, and again and again a sufferer. His remaining years were full of troubles and persecutions nobly borne, till at last, worn out by them, he died on the 17th of November 1668; and the mourners, remembering their beloved minister's words while yet with them, ``If I should die fifty miles away, let me be buried at Taunton,'' found a grave for him in St Mary's chancel. No Puritan nonconformist name is so affectionately cherished as is that of Joseph Alleine. His chief literary work was An Alarm to the Unconverted (1672), otherwise known as The Sure Guide to Heaven, which had an enormous circulation. His Remains appeared in 1674.

See Life, edited by Baxter; Joseph Alleine: his Companions and Times, by Charles Stanford (1861); Wood's Athenae, iii. 819; Palmer's Nonc. Mem. iii. 208.

ALLEINE, RICHARD (1611-1681), English Puritan divine, was born at Ditcheat, Somerset, where his father was rector. He was a younger brother of William Alleine, the saintly vicar of Blandford. Richard was educated at St Alban's Hall, Oxford, where he was entered commoner in 1627, and whence, having taken the degree of B.A., he transferred himself to New Inn, continuing there until he proceeded M.A. On being ordained he became assistant to his father, and immediately stirred the entire county by his burning eloquence. In March 1641 he succeeded the many-sided Richard Bernard as rector of Batcomb (Somerset). He declared himself on the side of the Puritans by subscribing ``The testimony of the ministers in Somersetshire to the truth of Jesus Christ,'' and ``The Solemn League and Covenant,'' and assisted the commissioners of the parliament in their work of ejecting unsatisfactory ministers. Alleine continued for twenty years rector of Batcomb and was one of the two thousand ministers ejected in 1662. The Five Mile Act drove him to Frome Selwood, and in that neighbourhood he preached until his death on the 22nd of December 1681. His works are all of a deeply spiritual character. His Vindiciae Pietatis (which first appeared in 1660) was refused licence by Archbishop Sheldon, and was published, in common with other nonconformist books, without it. It was rapidly bought up and ``did much to mend this bad world.'' Roger Norton, the king's printer, caused a large part of the first impression to be seized on the ground of its not being licensed and to be sent to the royal kitchen. Glancing over its pages, however, it seemed to him a sin that a book so holy--and so saleable--should be destroyed. He therefore bought back the sheets, says Calamy, for an old song, bound them and sold them in his own shop. This in turn was complained of, and he had to beg pardon on his knees before the council-table; and the remaining copies were sentenced to be ``bisked,'' or rubbed over with an inky brush, and sent back to the kitchen for lighting fires. Such ``bisked'' copies occasionally occur still. The book was not killed. It was often reissued with additions, The Godly Man's Portion in 1663, Heaven Opened in 1666, The World Conquered in 1668. He also published a book of sermons Godly Fear, in 1664, and other less noticeable devotional compilations.

See Calamy, s.v.; Palmer's Nonconf: Mem. iii. 167-168; C. Stanford's Joseph Ailleine; Researches at Batcomb and Frome Selwood; Wood's Athenae (Bliss), iv. 13.

ALLEMANDE (Fr. for danse allemande, or German dance), a name for two kinds of dance, one a German national dance, in 2-4 time, the other somewhat resembling a waltz. The movement in a suite following the prelude, and preceding the courante (q.v.), with which it is contrasted in rhythm, is also called an allemande, but has no connexion with the dance. The name, however, is given to pieces of music based on the dance movement, examples of which are found in Beethoven's German dances for the orchestra.

ALLEN, ETHAN (1739--1789), American soldier, was born at Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 10th of January 1739. He removed, probably in 1769, to the ``New Hampshire Grants,'' where he took up lands, and eventually became a leader of those who refused to recognize the jurisdiction of New York, and contended for the organization of the ``Grants'' into a separate province. About 1771 he was placed at the head of the ``Green Mountain Boys,'' an irregular force organized for resistance to the ``Yorkers.'' On the 10th of May 1775, soon after the outbreak of the War of American Independence, in command of a force, which he had assisted some members of the Connecticut assembly to raise for the purpose, he captured Ticonderoga from its British garrison, calling upon its commanding officer --according to the unverified account of Allen himself-- to surrender ``in the name of the great Jehovah and the Continental Congress.'' Seth Warner being elected colonel of the ``Green Mountain Boys'' in July 1775, Allen, piqued, joined General Philip Schuyler, and later with a small command, but without rank, accompanied General Richard Montgomery's expedition against Canada. On the 25th of September 1775 near Montreal he was captured by the British, and until exchanged on the 6th of May 1778 remained a prisoner at Falmouth, England, at Halifax, Nova Scotia, and in New York. Upon his release he was brevetted colonel by the Continental Congress. He then, as brigadier-general of the militia of Vermont, resumed his opposition to New York, and from 1779 to 1783, acting with his brother, Ira Allen, and several others, carried on negotiations, indirectly, with Governor Frederick Haldimand of Canada, who hoped to win the Vermonters over to the British cause. He seems to have assured Haldimand's agent that ``I shall do everything in my power to make this state a British province.'' In March 1781 he wrote to Congress, with characteristic bluster, ``I am as resolutely determined to defend the independence of Vermont as congress that of the United States, and rather than fail will retire with the hardy Green Mountain Boys into the desolate caverns of the mountains and wage war with human nature at large.'' He removed to Burlington, Vermont, in 1787, and died there on the 11th of February 1789. He was, says Tyler, ``a blustering frontier hero--an able-minded ignoramus of rough and ready humour, of boundless self-confidence, and of a shrewdness in thought and action equal to almost any emergency.'' Allen wrote a Narrative of Colonel Ethan Allen's Captivity (1779), the most celebrated book in the ``prison literature'' of the American revolution; A Vindication of the Inhabitants of Vermont to the Government of New York and their Right to term an Independent Slate (1779); and Reason, the Only Oracle of Man; or A Compendious System of Natural Religion, Alternately adorned with Confutations of a Variety of Doctrines incompatible with it (1784).

Ethan's youngest brother, IRA ALLEN (1751--1814), born on the 21st of April 1751 at Cornwall, Connecticut, also removed to the New Hampshire Grants, where he became one of the most influential political leaders. In 1775 he took part in the capture of Ticonderoga and the invasion of Canada. He was a member of the convention which met at Winchester, Vermont, and in January 1777 declared the independence of the New Hampshire Grants; served (1776-1786) as a member of the Vermont council of safety; conducted negotiations, on behalf of Vermont, for a truce with the British and for an exchange of prisoners, in 1781; served for eight terms in the general assembly, and was state treasurer from 1778 to 1786 and surveyor-general from 1778 to 1787. In 1789, by a gift of L. 4000, he made possible the establishment of the university of Vermont, of which institution, chartered in 1791 and built at Burlington in deference to his wishes, he was thus virtually the founder. In 1795, on behalf of the state, he purchased from the French government arms for the Vermont militia, of which he was then the ranking major-general, but he was captured by a British cruiser west of Ireland on his return journey, was charged with attempting to furnish insurrectionary Irish with arms, and after prolonged litigation in the British courts, the case not being finally decided until 1504, returned to Vermont in 1801. During his absence he had been dispossessed of his large holdings of land through the operation of tax laws, and to escape imprisonment for debt, he removed to Philadelphia, where on the 4th of January 1814 he died. He published a dull and biassed, but useful Natural and Political History of Vermont (1798), reissued (1870) in vol. i. of the Collections of the Vermont Historical Society.

There is no adequate biography of Ethan Allen, but Henry Hall's Ethan Allen (New York, 1892) may be consulted. The best literary estimate may be found in M. C. Tyler's Literary History of the American Revolution (2 vols., New York, 1897).

ALLEN, GRANT [CHARLES GRANT BLAIRFINDIE], (1848--1899), English author, son of a clergyman of Irish descent, was born at Kingston, Ontario, Canada, on the 24th of February 1848. He was educated partly in America and France, and in England at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and afterwards at Merton, Oxford. He was for a few years a schoolmaster in Jamaica, but then made his home in England, where he became prominent as a writer. He died at his house on Hindhead, Haslemere, on the 24th of October 1899. Grant Allen was a voluminous author. He was full of interesting scientific knowledge and had a gift for expression both in biological exposition and in fiction. His more purely scientific books (such as Physiological Aesthetics, 1877; The Evolutionist at Large, 1881; The Evolution of the Idea of God, 1897) contain much original matter, popularly expressed, and he was a cultured exponent of the evolutionary idea in various aspects of biology and anthropology. He first attracted attention as a novelist with a sensational story, The Devil's Die (1888), though this was by no means his first attempt at fiction; and The Woman who Did (1895), which had a succes de scandale on account of its treatment of the sexual problem, had for the moment a number of cheap imitators. Other volumes flowed from his pen, and his name became well known in contemporary literature. But his reputation was essentially contemporary and characteristic of the vogue peculiar to the journalistic type.

ALLEN, JAMES LANE (1850- ), American novelist, was born near Lexington, Rentucky, on the 21st of December 1850. He graduated at Kentucky University, Lexington, in 1872, taught at Fort Spring, Kentucky, at Richmond and at Lexington, Missouri, and from 1877 to 1879 at the academy of Kentucky University, where he was principal and taught modern languages; in 1880 he was professor of Latin and English at Bethany College, Bethany, West Virginia; and then became head of a private school at Lexington, Kentucky. Subsequently he gave up teaching, went to New York City, where he secured commissions for sketches of the ``Blue Grass'' region, and thereafter devoted himself to literature. His Choir Invisible, coming after other successful stories, made his name well known in England as well as America. His published works include: With Flute and Violin (1891), The Blue Grass Region (1892), John Gray (1893), A Kentucky Cardinal (1894), Aftermath (1895), A Summer in Arcady (1896), The Choir Invisible (1897), The Reign of Law' (1900), The Mettle of the Pasture (1903), and The Bride of the Mistleloe (1909.)

ALLEN, JOHN (1476--1534), English divine, after studying at both Oxford and Cambridge, was sent by Archbishop Warham on an ecclesiastical mission to Rome. On his return he held a number of livings in succession, and in 1516 was rector of South Ockendon, Essex, and prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. In the suppression of the minor monasteries in 1524--1525 he gave Wolsey much assistance, and became prebendary of Nottingham in 1526 and of St Paul's, London, in 1527. These prebends he resigned in 1528 on his election as archbishop of Dublin. For four years he was chancellor of Ireland but his career was full of trouble. In 1531 he was fined under the Statutes of Provisors and Praemunire, and in 1534 met a violent death at the hands of Lord Thomas Fitzgerald's followers.

ALLEN, or ALLEYN, THOMAS (1542-1632), English mathematician, was born at Uttoxeter in Staffordshire on the 21st of December 1542. He was admitted scholar of Trinity College, Oxford, in 1561; and graduated as M.A. in 1567. In 1580 he quitted his college and fellowship, retired to Gloucester Hall, and became famous for his knowledge of antiquity, philosophy and mathematics. Having received an invitation from Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, a great friend and patron of men of science, he spent some time at the earl's house, where he became acquainted with Thomas Harriot, John Dee and other famous mathematicians. He was also intimate with Sir Robert Cotton, William Camden, and their antiquarian associates. Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, had a particular esteem for Allen, and would have conferred a bishopric upon him, but his love of solitude made him decline the offer. His great skill in mathematics and astrology earned him the credit of being a magician; and the author of Leicester's Commonwealth accuses him of employing the art of ``figuring'' to further the earl of Leicester's unlawful designs, and of endeavouring by the black art to bring about a match between his patron and Queen Elizabeth. Allen was indefatigable in collecting scattered manuscripts relating to history, antiquity, astronomy, philosophy and mathematics. A considerable part of his collection was presented to the Bodleian library by Sir Kenelm Digby. He died on the 30th of September 1632 at Gloucester Hall. He published in Latin the second and third books of Claudius Ptolemy of Pelusium, Concerning the Judgment of the Stars, or, as it is commonly called, of the Quadripartite Construction, with an Exposition. He also wrote notes on John Bale's De Scriptoribus M. Britanniae.