Chapter LXXXV: Book IX: The Next Stage in History (5)

Seleucus (s_ĕ_ lū’ kŭs) I, i, 395, 430

Selfishness, i, 423

Selim (sā lēm’), sultan, ii, 126, 618

Seljuks (sel jooks’), ii, 33, 71-72, 106, 114, 121, 615.
(_See also_ Turks)

Semites (and Semitic peoples), i, 148, 153-60, 188
_sqq._, 212, 218-19, 228, 232-233, 237, 242,
264-65, 300, ii, 1, 2, 21, 105, 122, 143, 168, 249

Semitic languages, i, 153-55, 164

Seneca (sen’ ē k_ă_), i, 491

Senegal river, i, 217

Sennacherib (sē năk’ er ib), i, 193-94, 200, 246, 291, ii, 606

Sepulchre, Holy, ii, 61, 64, 74, 78, 118

Sequoias (sē kwoi’ _ă_z), i, 51

Serapeum (ser _ă_ pē’ ŭm), i, 413, 414, ii, 149

Serapis (sē rā’ pis), i, 412-14, 428, 538, 590-91, 602, ii, 611

Serbia (and the Serbs), i, 528, 553, 606,
616, ii, 24, 122, 224, 382, 502, 508-11, 524

Serbian language, i, 168

Serfdom, i, 600

Sergius III, Pope, ii, 63

Serpent in religion, i, 130, 147, ii, 418

Servants, domestic, i, 265

Set, Egyptian god, i, 236

Seton-Karr, Sir H. W., i, 137

Seven Years War, ii, 332, 620

Severus (sē vēr’ ŭs), Septimus, i, 528

Seville, ii, 188

Sex, i, 131

Seyffert, i, 464, 490, 491

Shakespeare, W., i, 173

Shale, i, 7

Shalmaneser (shăl mă nē’ zũr), i, 193, 291

Shamanism, ii, 114, 128, 146

Shamash, i, 245

Shang dynasty, i, 196, 204

Shanghai (shăng hī’), ii, 470

Shang-tung, ii, 469

Sharifian emperors, i, 565

Sharpe, S., i, 249

Shaving the face, i, 391

Sheep in lake dwellings, i, 112

Shekel, i, 220, 265

Sheldonian Theatre, ii, 271

Shell Age, supposed, i, 68

Shellfish, i, 9, 10

Shells as implements, i, 68;
as ornaments, i, 88

Shem, i, 140

Shen-si, i, 632

Sherbro Island, i, 218

Sherman, General, ii, 443

Shi-Hwang-ti, emperor, i, 196, 205, 253, 542-43, 548, 642, ii, 211, 608

Shiites (shē’ īts), ii, 27, 30, 64, 70, 72, 80, 134, 256

Shiloh, i, 284

Shimei, i, 287

Shimonoseki (shē’ m_ŏ_ nō sāk’ _ĕ_), Straits of, ii, 467

Shipbuilding, ii, 66, 388-89

Ships, earliest, i, 209-11

Shishak (shī’ shăk), i, 200, 388

Shrines, i, 234, 313

Siam (and Siamese), i, 203, 640

Siamese language, i, 157

Siberia, i, 100-02, 156-59, 532, 546, 632, ii, 114, 132, 261

Siberian railway, ii, 469, 502

Sicilies, Two, ii, 200, 364

Sicily, i, 213, 217, 303, 308, 382, 447, 449,
451-54, 471, 480, 486, 498, 505, 566,
ii, 62, 64, 69, 78, 83, 86-88, 97, 182,
353, 380, 441, 615

Sickles, earthenware, i, 189

Siddhattha Gautama (sid hät’ t’h_ă_ gou’ t_ă_ m_ă_).
(_See_ Buddha)

Sidon, i, 196, 212, 216, 266, 279, 290, 331, 380

Sieyès (syā yes’), ii, 354

Sign-language, i, 150

Sikhs (sēks), ii, 257, 453

Silbury, i, 110, 135

Silesia, ii, 112, 251

Silk, i, 273, 530, ii, 238

Silver as standard of value, i, 220

Sin, idea of, ii, 190

Sinai, i, 259

Sind, ii, 453

Singan, i, 642, 644, 647, ii, 613

Singer, Dr., i, 403

Singing, i, 115

Sinope (sī nō’ pē), i, 621

Siris, i, 339

Sirius (sir’ i ŭs), a star, i, 238

Sirmium, i, 560

Sistrum, i, 413, 425

Siva, i, 437

Sivapithecus (si v_ă_ pi thē kŭs), i, 67

Siwalik Hills, i, 67

Skins, use of, as clothing, i, 80, 99, 114;
inflated, as boats, i, 209

Skrine, i, 541, ii, 30

Skull, shapes of, i, 100, 142-46

Slate, i, 7

Slavery (and slaves), i, 255-59, 305-09, 352, 363, 455,
489-92, 529, 589, 594, 631, ii, 15, 33, 130,
146, 193, 225, 276, 284-85, 293, 304-05 _sqq._;
American, ii, 342, 619

Slavic tribes, i, 527

Slavonian dialect, i, 168

Slavonic languages, ii, 69

Slavs, i, 616, ii, 24, 49, 57, 61, 69, 128

Sloth, i, 102, 207

Smelting, i, 106, 107

Smerdis, i, 326

Smilodon (smī’ lō don), i, 56

Smith, A. L., ii, 88

Smith, Elliot, i, 69, 84, 146, 147, 189, 207

Smith, Rt. Hon. F. E., ii, 424, 497-99

Smith, John, ii, 280

Smith, Worthington, i, 63, 79, ii, 310

Smithsonian Institution, ii, 392

Smyrna, ii, 79

Snails, i, 28

Sobiesky (sō byes’ ki), John (John III), ii, 249, 620

Social Contract, ii, 296, 310

Social Democrats, ii, 485

Social War, the, i, 503, ii, 609

Socialism, ii, 157, 310, 339-46, 403 _sqq._, 622

Society, beginning of human, i, 178

Socrates (sok’ r_ă_ tēz), i, 114, 350, 355-56, 364, 420, 436

Soddy, Prof., ii, 410

Soderini, ii, 195-96, 618

Soil, protection of, i, 37

Soissons, ii, 47, 48

Solar year, i, 129

Solent, the, i, 137

Solferino (sol fe rē’ nō), battle of, ii, 441, 623

Solis, ensign, ii, 231

Sollas, Prof., i, 63, 69, 84, 100

Solomon, King, i, 200, 287-94, 569, ii, 606

Solon, i, 221, 324-25

Solutré, i, 92, 96, 124

Solutrian Age, i, 96, 97, 317, ii, 189

Somaliland, i, 137, 160, 217

Somalis, language of, i, 154

Somersett, J., ii, 306

Somme, the, i, 137; battle of, ii, 338, 530

Sonnino, Baron, ii, 552

Sonoy, Governor, ii, 231

Soothsayers, i, 305

Sophists, Greek, i, 350

Sophocles (sof’ ō klēz), i, 351, 355

Soudan, tribes of, i, 118

Soul, the, i, 131

South Africa, i, 485, ii, 460, 471, 472, 489, 495, 623-24

South Kensington, Natural History Museum, i, 50

South Sea Islanders, i, 68, 353

Southampton, ii, 180

Soviets (sov’ yets), ii, 410, 526, 539

Sowing, and burial, i, 130;
and human sacrifice, i, 117, 134

Space, i, 3, 4, 15

Spain, i, 37, 93, 106, 108, 146, 161, 196,
213, 217, 299, 446-48, 589, 615, ii, 41, 100, 140, 159, 179, 246;
history (_Carthaginians in_), i, 472-79;
(_Romans in_), i, 480, 485-86, 499-502, 509, 522, 540, 569;
(_Vandals in_), i, 554, 556, ii, 611;
(_under the Goths_), i, 606, ii, 46, 66, 613;
(_Moors in_), i, 565, ii, 24-25, 31, 36-37, 57, 61, 64, 194, 242, 613;
(_15th-16th cent._), ii, 186, 188, 193-95, 197, 200-04;
(_17th-18th cent._), ii, 216, 218, 220, 225,
229, 233, 239, 242-43, 251-52, 279, 292;
(_19th cent._), ii, 362, 378, 445, 506;
overseas dominions, i, 208, ii, 187-94;
colonial expansion, ii, 251-54, 282, 286, 292, 306, 378, 451, 470

Spanish language, i, 151, 564, ii, 160, 190

Sparta, i, 303-07, 332-36, 343, 349-50, 369, 378, 460

Spartacus (spar’ t_ă_ kŭs), i, 505, ii, 609

Spearheads, bone, i, 96

Species, i, 17-22, 25, 29, 138-40

Speech, development of, i, 72, 79, 124-27, 129, 130, 150, 151, 162-63, 223-26

Spelling, need for reform of, i, 282-83

Spence, L., ii, 190

Sphinx, the, i, 238

Spices, Oriental, ii, 257

Spiders, early, i, 28

Spinden, i, 207

Spinnerets of spiders, i, 28

Spoleto (spō lā’ tō), i, 610

Spores, i, 24

Spurrell, H. G. F., i, 63, 98

Spy, i, 72

Stag, i, 94, 101

Stagira (st_ă_ jīr’ _ă_), i, 357

_Stalky and Co._, ii, 423

Stallybrass, Dr. C. O., ii, 154, 543

Stambul (stăm bool’), ii, 126

Stamp Acts, ii, 289

Stamps used for signatures, i, 408

Stars, i, 4; and early man, i, 127, 238, 240

State, the, i, 488 _sqq._, 519, ii, 142, 163, 197, 244, 415

States-General, the, ii, 234, 312, 621

Steam, use of, ii, 386, 392

Steamboat, introduction of the, ii, 387

Steam-engine, invention of, i, 540, ii, 275, 386

Steam-hammer, ii, 388

Steam-power, ii, 275

Steel, i, 273, ii, 388

“Steel Boys,” the, ii, 492

Stegosaurus (steg ō saw’ rŭs), i, 40

Stein, Freiherr von, ii, 364

Steno, ii, 419

Stephenson, G., ii, 386

Stern, Q. B., ii, 433

Stettin, ii, 180

Stilicho (stil’ i kō), i, 554, 561, ii, 611

Stockholm, ii, 526

Stockmar, Baron, ii, 438-39

Stoicism, i, 360, 363, 588

Stone, early use of, i, 171

Stone, Major-Gen., ii, 570

Stone Age, i, 60, 68, 75, 81, 96, 97, 104-13, b197, 213, 274

Stonehenge, i, 109-10, 147, 171, 196, 240, ii, 606

Stopes, Dr. Marie, i, 38

Story-telling, primitive, i, 129

Strabo (strā’ bō), i, 13

Strafford, Earl of, ii, 221-22, 491

Strata, geological, i, 7 _sqq._

Strikes in ancient Rome, i, 457-58, 496

Stuart dynasty, ii, 163, 225-26

Stubbs, Bishop, ii, 54

Sturdee, Admiral, ii, 520

Styria, ii, 200

Subiaco (soo bē ä’ kō), i, 611

Submarine warfare, ii, 520, 527

Subutai, ii, 112

Sudan, the, ii, 471

Sudras, i, 269, 270, 645

Suetonius (swē tō’ ni ŭs), i, 525, 598

Suevi (swē’ vī), i, 554, 606, ii, 46, 611

Suez, i, 156, 160, 195, 218

Suffering, cause of, i, 423

Suffrage, manhood, ii, 297

Sugar, ii, 38

Suleiman (soo lā măn’) the Magnificent, ii, 24, 28, 126, 200, 205, 613

Sulla, i, 503-04, 511, ii, 609

Sulphuric acid, ii, 38

Sulpicius (sŭl pish’ i ŭs), i, 504

Sultan, Turkish, i, 565

Sumatra, i, 635, ii, 120

Sumer (incl. Sumeria and Sumerians), i, 133, 188-96,
203, 208, 210, 212, 218,
227-28, 232, 234, 242-48, 254, 259, 274, 297, 307,
319, 370, 522, ii, 1, 105, 130, 189

Sumerian language and writing, i, 133, 162, 189, 198, 227, 229, 279, 408, 638

Sun, the, i, 3-4, 30, 34;
worship, i, 130, 147, 235-38, 412-13

Sunday, i, 575, 590, ii, 149;
schools, ii, 396

Sung dynasty, i, 634-35, 641, ii, 108, 112-13, 118, 614

Sunnites, ii, 27, 71, 80, 136

“Sunstone,” i, 147

Superior, Lake, i, 225

Surrey, ii, 275

Susa, i, 104, 189, 260, 318, 326-31, 337-38, 364, 385-87, 390

Sussex, i, 70, ii, 40, 275

Suy dynasty, i, 632

Swabians, ii, 47, 63

Swansea, Lord, i, 106

Swastika (swăs’ ti k_ă_, i, 147, 176

Sweden (and the Swedes), i, 102, 553, 605,
ii, 51, 53, 162, 206, 225, 234,
242, 244, 249, 257, 266, 283, 368, 380

Swedish language, i, 168

Swift, Dean, ii, 492, 493

Swift, Fletcher H., i, 297

Swimming-bladder, i, 25, 52, 55

Swine, keeping of, i, 112, ii, 180

Switzerland (including the Swiss), i, 106-09,
113, 115, 171, 186, 564, ii, 69, 198 _sq._,
204, 236, 280, 319, 328, 339, 347, 359, 380, 616, 617

Swords, bronze, i, 132

Sykes, Ella and Percy, i, 548

Sykes, Sir Mark, i, 619, ii, 5, 9, 29-30, 121-23

Syndicalism, ii, 409

Synœcism of gods, i, 483-84

Syracuse, i, 351, 449, 452, 468, 476, 497, 534

Syria (and Syrians), i, 102, 160, 192, 194, 200,
250, 265, 278, 290, 292, 326, 342, 380, 500,
569-70, 587, 598, 604, 617, 619-21,
ii, 1-2, 4, 7, 17-21, 71, 74, 79, 97, 106,
113, 130-32, 149, 359, 440, 500

Syrian language, i, 530, 627, ii, 35

Tabriz, ii, 120

Tabu, i, 113, 125-29

Tachov (tăk’ hov), ii, 152

Tacitus (tăs’ i tŭs), i, 491, ii, 144

Tadpoles, i, 26, 52

Taft, President, ii, 544, 551

Tagus valley, ii, 207

_Tain_, an Irish epic, i, 182

Tai-tsung, i, 634, 642, 647, ii, 106, 612

Talleyrand, ii, 370, 374

Tallien, ii, 336

Tallies, i, 128

Tammany, i, 495

Tancred, ii, 79

Tang dynasty, i, 630-33, 641, ii, 106, 612

Tangier, ii, 484

Tanks, ii, 515-16, 523, 530, 569, 571

Tannenberg, ii, 515, 518

Taoism (tou’ izm), i, 433, 438, 641

Tapir, i, 56

Tarentum, i, 452, 476

Tarim (tä rēm’) valley, i, 201-02, 387, 546, ii, 109, 609

Tarpeian Rock, i, 459

Tarquins, the, i, 450, 456

Tartar language, i, 156, ii, 119

Tartars (and Tartary), i, 388, 542,
545, 627, ii, 109, 112, 119, 129, 244, 260, 267

Tashkend, i, 643

Tasmania (and Tasmanians), i, 82, 84, 85, 138, 148, ii, 189, 451;
language, i, 162

Tattooing, i, 147

Taurus mountains, i, 395-97, ii, 21, 28, 34, 42, 122

Taxation, i, 255, 264, 310, ii, 217-18

Taxilla, i, 645

Tayf (tī’ if), ii, 7

Taylor, H. O., ii, 172

Tea, i, 630, ii, 289

Teeth, i, 44, 69-73, 86, 87

Telamon (tel’ _ă_ mon), battle of, i, 471, 475, ii, 608

Telegraph, electric, ii, 387

Tel-el-Amarna (tel el ä mär’ nă), i, 200, 220, 245, 250, 288

Telescope, invention of the, ii, 176

Tell, William, ii, 199

Tempe (tem’ pē), vale of, i, 335

Temples, i, 190, 234-41, 250, 304

Ten Thousand, Retreat of the, ii, 607

Ten Tribes, the, i, 193

Teneriffe, ii, 225

Tennyson, Lord, i, 175, 531, ii, 438

Tertullian (tũr tŭl’ y_ă_n), i, 403

Testament, Old, i, 114, 277, 292, 294;
New, i, 114

Tetrabelodon (tet r_ă_ bel’ ō don), i, 58

Teutonic Knights, ii, 266

Teutonic tribes, i, 299, 509, 527, 552, ii, 611

Texel, ii, 332

Textile fabrics, Arab, ii, 38

Thames, the, i, 59, 137, ii, 182, 226, 512

Thatcher, ii, 37, 51, 377

Thebes (thēbz) and Thebans, i, 252, 274, 303, 336, 343, 370-71, ii, 606

Themistocles (thē mis’ tō klēz), i, 313, 337

Theocrasia, i, 412, 414, 538, 590, 626, ii, 149

Theodora, Empress, i, 615

Theodora, sister of Marozia, ii, 62

Theodore of Tarsus, ii, 50, 613

Theodoric (thē od’ ō rik) the Goth, i, 560, 606, ii, 37, 612

Theodosius (thē ō dō’ shi ŭs), the Great, i, 554, 602, 615, ii, 611

Theodosius II, i, 557-59

Theophrastus (thē ō frăs’ tŭs), i, 13

Theophylact, ii, 62

Theriodont (thē’ ri ō dont) reptiles, i, 54

Theriomorpha, i, 41, 47, 48

Thermopylæ (thũr mop’ i lē), i, 335, 336, 474, 536, ii, 607

Theseus (thē’ sūs), i, 216

Thespians, i, 336

Thessalus (thes’ ă lŭs), i, 375

Thessaly (and Thessalians), i, 335-40, 384, 453, 511

Thibet, i, 432, 628

Thien Shan, i, 546, 643

Thiers (tyâr), ii, 353

Thirty Tyrants, i, 351

Thirty Years’ War, ii, 235, 262, 292, 511

Thomas, Albert, ii, 439

Thompson, R. Campbell, i, 189

Thor, i, 233, ii, 49

Thoth-lunus (thoth’ lū’ nŭs), Egyptian god, i, 239

Thothmes (thoth’ mēz), i, 199, 289, 317, 401, 445, ii, 605

Thought and research, i, 122-35, 352-53, 360-62, ii, 414

Thrace (thrās) and Thracians, i, 303, 328-31, 340, 372, 377, 395, ii, 20, 123

Three Teachings, the, i, 436

Throwing sticks, i, 90

Thucydides (thū sid’ i dēz), i, 344, 360, 399, 460

Thuringians, ii, 51

Tian Shan, i, 549

Tiber, river, i, 447, 448, 454, 458, ii, 41

Tiberius Cæsar, i, 523, 572, 584, ii, 609

Tibet, i, 206, 438, 545-47, 591, 640, ii, 113, 128, 262, 463, 624

Tibetan language, i, 157

Tides, i, 8

Tiger, sabre-toothed, i, 56, 64, 69, 70, 76

Tiglath Pileser (tig’ lăth pi lē’ z_ĕ_r), I, i, 192, 196;
III, i, 193, 200, 246, 290, 318, ii, 606

Tigris, i, 186, 192, 210, 238, 260, 616, ii, 2, 106

Tii, Queen, i, 250

Tille, Dr., ii, 180

Tilly, ii, 235

Tilsit, Treaty of, ii, 363, 622

Timbuktu, i, 565

Time, i, 13-15, 128-29, ii, 605

_Times_, the, ii, 405

Timon (tī’ mon), i, 515

Timurlane, ii, 132-33, 137, 154, 261, 617

Tin, i, 4, 106, 217, 273, ii, 389

Tinstone, i, 106

Tiryns (tī’ rinz), i, 303

Titanothere (tī’ tăn ō thēr), i, 53, 56

Titus, i, 526, 571, ii, 610

Tobacco, i, 170, 219, ii, 281, 284

Toe, great, i, 66

Tolstoy, ii, 367

Tonkin, ii, 467, 470

Torr, Cecil, i, 210, 259

Tortoises, i, 40, 46

Torture, use of, ii, 338

Tory Party, ii, 489

Totila (tot’ i lă), i, 611

Toulon, ii, 333, 349, 351

Tours, ii, 47, 180

Towers of Silence, i, 625

Town life, European, ii, 180 _sqq._

_Town Topics_, ii, 424

Townshend, General, ii, 522

Township, primitive, i, 256

Tracheal tubes, i, 25

Trachodon (trăk’ ō don), i, 42

Trade, early, i, 118, 208-22, 257, 264-65;
routes, ii, 76, 183; sea, ii, 184-85

Trade Unions, i, 487, 536, ii, 407

Tradition, i, 55, 124-29, 230

Trafalgar, battle of, ii, 362, 622

Trajan (trā’ jăn), i, 524, 526, 614, 623, ii, 2, 610

Transmigration of souls, i, 424, 427

Transport, ii, 386, 569

Transubstantiation, ii, 150-51, 171

Transvaal, ii, 424, 460, 623.
(_See also_ South Africa)

Transylvania, i, 526, ii, 112

Trasimene, Lake, i, 475

Travels, early, i, 221, ii, 386

Trebizond, ii, 120

Trees, i, 27, 37

Trench warfare, ii, 515

Trent, Council of, ii, 167, 618

Tresas, i, 336

Trevithick, ii, 386

Trianon, the, ii, 317

Tribal system, i, 177, ii, 128

Trilobites, i, 10, 21-24

Triceratops (trī ser’ ă tops), i, 42

Trieste, ii, 445

Trigonometry, ii, 37

Trinidad, ii, 471

Trinil, i, 68-69

Trinitarians, i, 592-93, 601-02

Trinity, doctrine of the, i, 575, 592, 602, 625-26, ii, 171

Trinity College, Dublin, ii, 492

Tripoli, i, 228, ii, 470, 500, 624;
Treaty of, ii, 294

Trireme, i, 469

Trojans, i, 216, 448, ii, 121

Tröltsch, i, 604

Trotsky, ii, 411

Troy, i, 216, 303, 318, 335, 446

Troyes (trwä), battle of, i, 559, ii, 611

Trumpet, bronze, i, 132

Tsar, title of, i, 565, ii, 129

Tshushima (tsoo shē’ mă), Straits of, ii, 469

Ts’i (dynasty and state), i, 205, 508

Ts’in (dynasty and state), i, 205, 253

Tuaregs, i, 154, 206

Tudor, ii, 287

Tuileries, ii, 319, 322, 328, 329

Tulip tree, i, 51

Tunis, i, 470, ii, 84, 470, 500

Turanian language. (_See_ Ural-Altaic languages)

Turanians, i, 158, 620, 627, ii, 29, 69, 122

Turkestan, i, 153, 159, 206, 273, 317,
386, 387, 388, 428, 433, 546, 548,
549, 603, 618, 620, 627-29, 644,
ii, 17, 24, 33, 71, 109, 113, 121,
127-28, 132, 261, 262, 608, 612

Turkey, ii, 208, 366, 382, 440, 446, 483, 484, 500, 502, 521-22, 531, 623, 624.
(_See also_ Turks)

Turkey, Great, ii, 114

Turkhan Pasha, ii, 554

Turkish fleet, ii, 140;
language and literature, i, 156, 627, ii, 122;
peoples, i, 541, 570, 627, ii, 28, 64, 66-72, 139-40, 261 (_see also_ Turks);
princes, ii, 106, 124

Turko-Finnic language, ii, 70

Turko-Finnish peoples, i, 560, 606

Turkomans, i, 551, ii, 132-33, 261, 471

Turks, i, 388, 545, 618, 627, 629, 644, ii, 24, 34-35, 61, 106, 121-22, 617;
and the Crusades, ii, 78 _sqq._;
Ottoman, i, 615, ii, 121 _sqq._,
138-40, 182-84, 193-94, 197, 200, 204-06, 233,
240, 249, 353, 447, 617, 620;
Seljuk, ii, 34, 39, 70, 114, 121, 615

Turtles, i, 40, 46

Tuscany, ii, 225, 236, 242

Tusculum, i, 473

Tushratta, King, i, 192, 200, 245

Twelve Tables, the, i, 458, 487

Tyler, Wat, ii, 156, 617

Tylor, E. B., i, 131

Tyndale, Bible of, i, 282

Typhon (tī’ fon), Egyptian god, i, 236

Tyrannosaurus (tī răn ō saw’ rŭs), i, 42

Tyrants, i, 308

Tyre, i, 196, 212, 216, 261, 264, 266,
279, 294, 331, 379, 380, 382-84, 401, 468,
569, 571, ii, 144, 244

Tyrol, ii, 283, 564

Uganda, i, 206, ii, 51, 460

Uhud, battle of, ii, 9

Uigurs (wē’ goorz), ii, 109

Uintathere (ū in’ tă thēr), i, 53, 56

Ukraine Cossacks, ii, 260

Ukrainia (and Ukrainians), ii, 128-29, 244

Ulm, ii, 362, 622

Ulster, i, 110, ii, 432, 489-98

Uncleanness, i, 126, 131

“Unionist” party, ii, 495

United Provinces.
(_See_ Holland)

United Service Institution, ii, 567, 571

United States, i, 37, 546, ii, 294, 297 _sqq._;
constitution, i, 225, 520, ii, 293 _sq._, 314, 378, 621;
political and social conditions, i, 268, 308,
493, ii, 292-96, 326, 338, 344, 386-87, 395, 551;
slavery in, ii, 193, 293;
Declaration of Independence, ii, 293, 621;
treaty with Britain, ii, 293-94, 621;
Civil War, ii, 443, 623;
unity of, ii, 476;
modern foreign policy of, ii, 503-07;
in Great War, ii, 527, 583, 560-62.
(_See also_ America)

_Universal History_, the, ii, 418, 419

Universal law, ii, 215

Universals, ii, 174

Universe, ii, 418

Universities, i, 613, ii, 37, 88, 168, 270, 390, 427

University Commission, ii, 437

Unterwalden (oon’ ter val den), ii, 199

Ur, i, 195

Ural mountains, i, 153, 549

Ural-Altaic languages, i, 155, 156, 160, 164, 174, 299, 560;
people, i, 203

Uranus (ūr’ ă nŭs), i, 4

Urban II (pope), ii, 72, 74, 84, 97, 167, 615

Urban VI (pope), ii, 100, 617

Urfa, i, 621

Uri, ii, 199

Urns, i, 115

Uruk, i, 195

Urumiya (ū rū mē’ yă), lake, i, 318

Ussher, Bishop, ii, 418

Usury, i, 265

Utica (ū’ ti k_ă_), i, 212

Utopias, i, 358, ii, 211

Utrecht, ii, 229

Vaisyas (vīs’ yăz), i, 269, 270

Valais, i, 564

Valenciennes, ii, 531

Valens, Emperor, i, 554

Valerian, Emperor, i, 528, 617, ii, 610

Valladolid, ii, 207-09

Valmy, battle of, ii, 330, 621

Valona, ii, 524

Value, i, 219, 220

Van, i, 318

Vandals, i, 540, 553, 556, 564, 606, 615, ii, 22, 611

Varangians (vă răn’ ji ănz), ii, 67

Varennes (vă ren’), ii, 323-25, 621

Varro, i, 476

Vasa (vä’ să), Gustava, ii, 234

Vases, i, 213

Vassalage, ii, 44

Vatican, ii, 57, 84, 100

Vaughan, ii, 310

Vedas (vā’ dăz), i, 173, 182, 417, ii, 257

Vegetarians, i, 182, 416

Vegetation, i, 37, 38

Veii (vē’ yī), i, 450, 459, 483, 485

Vendée, ii, 333, 351

Venetia, ii, 441, 445, 529

Venezuela, ii, 505

Venice (and the Venetians), ii, 76, 80, 81, 97,
117, 120, 126, 139, 180, 182, 184,
257, 351, 380, 529, 616, 621

Venizelos (ven i zē’ los), ii, 522

Venus, goddess, ii, 49

Venus, planet, i, 4, 5

Vera Cruz, ii, 444

Verbal tradition, i, 230

Verde, Cape, ii, 617

Verde, Cape, Islands, ii, 188

Verdun, ii, 329, 330, 509

Verona, ii, 180, 332

Versailles, ii, 238, 242, 248, 312-22, 446, 477, 556;
Peace of, ii, 560 _sqq._, 624

Verulam, Lord.
(_See_ Bacon, Sir Francis)

Vespasian (ves pā’ zhi ăn), i, 526, 535, 571, ii, 609

Vessels of stone, i, 213

Vesuvius, i, 505

Via Flaminia, i, 471

Victims, human, i, 588

Victor Emmanuel, ii, 441, 623

Victoria, Queen of Great Britain, i, 175, 531,
ii, 228, 437, 438, 455, 482, 487, 622, 623

_Victory_, flagship, ii, 362

Vienna, ii, 126, 140, 205, 249, 371, 483, 568, 618, 620;
Congress of, ii, 370, 378, 379, 431, 436, 440, 453, 557, 622

Vigilius, i, 558, 559

Vikings (vik’ ingz), ii, 53, 67

Village, the, i, 109, 256

Vilna, ii, 386, 519

Vimiero (vē mā’ ē roo), ii, 364

Vinci (vin’ chē), Leonardo da, i, 13, 534, ii, 175, 183, 419, 523, 618

Vindhya (vind’ yă) mountains, i, 420

Vinland, ii, 185

Virgil, i, 407, 448, 531

Virginia, ii, 280, 283, 290, 292, 296, 300, 305, 306, 443

Virtue, i, 351

Visé, ii, 512

Vishnu, i, 180, 437

Visigoths, i, 550, 553, 559, 606, ii, 66, 611

Vistula, ii, 112

Vitellus, i, 526, ii, 609

_Vittoria_, ship, ii, 188

Viviparous animals, i, 54-55

Vivisection, i, 403, 404, 490

Vocabulary of man, i, 151

Volga, i, 153, 159, 432, 560, 606, ii, 267

Volscians, i, 458

Volta, ii, 387

Voltaire, F. M. A. de, ii, 238, 240, 264, 421, 620

Votes, ii, 147

Vowels, i, 304

Voyages, i, 217-18, ii, 191

Vulgate, the, i, 307

Wages, i, 258, ii, 156

Wagons, i, 170

Waldenses, ii, 92, 94

Waldo, ii, 92, 94

Wales, i, 209, 605, ii, 40, 178

Waley, Arthur, i, 157

Walid (wa lēd’) I, ii, 28, 613

Walid II, ii, 28, 613

Wallace, William, ii, 178

Wallenstein, ii, 235

Walpole, Sir Robert, ii, 227

Wang Yang Ming, i, 642

War, Great.
(_See_ Great War)

War and warfare, i, 171, 254, 256, 306, 370-72, ii, 234, 424, 475-76, 481, 513 _sqq._, 567-70

War of American Independence, ii, 291 _sqq._

Warsaw, ii, 382

Warwick, Lord, ii, 222

Washington, i, 520, ii, 279, 301, 357, 392, 443

Washington, George, ii, 292, 301, 303, 307, 353

Water, i, 23, ii, 275

Waterloo, ii, 371, 624

Watt, James, ii, 275, 386, 392

Watters, i, 541, 642, 645

Wealden Valley, i, 73

Weale, Putnam, ii, 461

Weapons, i, 78, 108, 114, 196, 205

Weaving, i, 105

Wedmore, Treaty of, ii, 52, 54

Wei dynasty, later, i, 633

Wei-hai-wei (wā hī wā’), ii, 462, 469

Wellesley, Marquis.
(_See_ Mornington, Lord)

Wellesley, Sir Arthur.
(_See_ Wellington, Duke of)

Wellington, Duke of, ii, 364, 371

Wells, J., i, 458, 467, 470

Welsh, the, ii, 244

Welsh language, i, 168

Wends, the, ii, 80

Were-wolf, i, 124

Wessex, ii, 40, 51, 614

Western civilization, i, 636

Westminster, i, 463, 489, ii, 159, 182, 222, 225, 228

Westphalia, Peace of, ii, 232, 236, 280

Weyl, ii, 543

Whales, i, 41

Wheat, i, 113, 184, 186

Wheeler, B. I., i, 359, 362, 367

Whigs, ii, 288-89, 332

Whistles, i, 115

White Man’s Burthen, ii, 462

Whitehall, ii, 222, 224, 568

Wilberforce, Bishop, ii, 420

Wilhelm I, German Emperor, ii, 482

Wilhelm II, German Emperor, ii, 59, 60, 482-86, 623

Wilhelm, Crown Prince of Germany, ii, 486

Will and obedience, ii, 142-48

William I, etc., Emperors of Germany.
(_See_ Wilhelm)

William the Conqueror, i, 408, ii, 54, 66, 150, 615

William III, Prince of Orange, ii, 226, 491-92, 620

William IV, King of England, ii, 228

William the Silent, ii, 229

Williams, Harold, ii, 71

Williams, S. Wells, i, 541

Wilson, W., President of U. S. A., ii, 221, 284, 543-46, 550-57, 564-67

Wiltshire, i, 110, 135

Winckler, H., i, 192, 195, 246, 342

Windsor, ii, 222

Wine, ii, 281

Wiriath, ii, 311, 326

Wisby, ii, 180

Witchcraft, i, 126, 374

Withington, E. T., i, 403

Wittenberg, ii, 156, 203, 618

Woden, ii, 144

Wolfe, General, ii, 254, 620

Wolsey, Cardinal, ii, 202

Wolves, i, 69, 448

Women, i, 95, 99, 181, 232, 251, 309, ii, 13, 297

Wood, i, 76

Wood Age, i, 68

Wood blocks, for printing, ii, 159

Woodruff, Prof. L. L., i, 7

Woodward, G. M., i, 50

Woodward, Smith, i, 72

Woolf, L. S., ii, 377, 543

Woollen industry, ii, 275

Workmen, ii, 404-407

World (geographical), i, 341, 405, 406, ii, 187, 188, 191, 605;
(political), i, 397, 399, 400, ii, 278, 381, 385, 431, 449

World, Old, nursery of mankind, i, 103

World dominion (and unity), i, 374, 397,
399, ii, 72, 90, 211, 243, 246, 252,
261-262

Worms, town, ii, 60

Worms, Diet of, ii, 203, 618

Worship, i, 130

Wörth (vũrt), ii, 445

Wright, W. B., i, 30, 63, 78, 96, 100, 101, 120

Writing, i, 174, 176, 189, 197, 198, 207-208,
214, 223-31, 296, 421, 639, ii, 59

Written word, i, 293

Wu Ti, i, 548, ii, 609

Wu Wang, i, 204

Württemberg, i, 102, ii, 445

Wycliffe, John, and his followers, ii, 96,
100, 150-53, 160, 171, 174, 202, 270, 272, 617

Xavier (zā’ vi ũr), Francis, ii, 465

Xenophanes (ze nof’ _ă_ nēz), i, 13

Xenophon, i, 342, 351, 357, 363, 399

Xerxes (zũrk’ sēz), i, 334-42, 362, 385, 542, ii, 122, 607

Yanbu, i, 634

Yang-chow, ii, 119

Yang-tse valley, i, 205, 542

Yang-tse-kiang (yäng tsē kyäng’), i, 201, 641

Yarkand, i, 628, 643, ii, 610

Yarmuk, ii, 18, 613

Year, Moslem, ii, 8; solar, i, 129

Yeast, i, 172

Yedo bay, ii, 466

Yeliu Chutsai, ii, 110

Yemen, i, 618, 624, ii, 3-4

York, i, 529, ii, 221

Yorkshire, ii, 154

Yorktown, ii, 292

Ypres (ē’ pr), ii, 229, 515, 516

Yuan Chwang, i, 541, 642 _sqq._, ii, 22, 34, 106, 118, 612-13

Yuan dynasty, ii, 114, 117, 127, 617

Yucatan, i, 308, ii, 190

Yueh-Chi, i, 548, 628, 643, ii, 618

Yugo-Slavia (and Yugo-Slavs), i, 616, ii, 122, 380 _sq._, 484, 564, 566

Yule, i, 541

Yuste (yoos’ tā), ii, 207-09

Zadok, i, 287

Zaid (zā’ id), ii, 12

Zainib, ii, 12

Zama (zā’ m_ă_), i, 476-80, 482, ii, 608

Zanzibar, ii, 187

Zara, ii, 81

Zarathustra (zā ră thoos’ tr_ă_).
(_See_ Zoroaster)

Zebedee, i, 580

Zeid (zīd), a slave, ii, 6

Zend Avesta, i, 624

Zenobia, i, 535, 617, ii, 610

Zeppelin raids, ii, 519

Zeus (zūs), i, 396, 412

Zeuxis (zūk’ sis), i, 369

Zimbabwe (zēm băb’ wā), ii, 459

Zimmern, i, 305, 310, 343

Zinc, i, 106

Ziska, ii, 152

Zodiac, i, 240

Zollverein (tsol’ fer īn), ii, 488

Zoroaster (zō rō ăs’ tũr) and Zoroastrianism,
i, 533, 538, 617, 618, 624, 625,
626, 627, ii, 4, 14, 16, 29, 137

Zoroastrian language, i, 626

Zosimus (zōs’ i mŭs), i, 599

Zulus, i, 219, 370

Zyp, the, ii, 230

Printed in the United States of America.

* * * * *

FOOTNOTES:

[1] See upon this an excellent pamphlet by F. J. Gould, _History, the Supreme in the Instruction of the Young_ (Watts & Co.).

[2] A compact and inspiring book to be noted here is Fairgrieve’s _Geography and World Power_. Another very suggestive book is Andrew Reid Cowan’s _Master Clues in World History_.

[3] For a convenient recent discussion of the origin of the earth and its early history before the seas were precipitated and sedimentation began, the student should consult Professor Burrell’s contribution to the Yale lectures, _The Evolution of the Earth and Its Inhabitants_ (1918), edited by President Lull.

[4] Here in this history of life we are doing our best to give only known and established facts in the broadest way, and to reduce to a minimum the speculative element that must necessarily enter into our account. The reader who is curious upon this question of life’s beginning will find a very good summary of current suggestions done by Professor L. L. Woodruff in President Lull’s excellent compilation _The Evolution of the Earth_ (Yale University Press). Professor H. F. Osborn’s _Origin and Evolution of Life_ is also a very vigorous and suggestive book upon this subject, but it demands a fair knowledge of physics and chemistry. Two very stimulating essays _for the student_ are A. H. Church’s _Botanical Memoirs_. No 183, Ox. Univ. Press.

[5] Theophrastus, quoting Xenophanes.

[6] There is a discussion of fossils in the Holkham Hall Leonardo MS.

[7] An admirable recent book, short and written in a style intelligible to the general reader, is Arthur Holmes, _The Age of the Earth_. He gives a good summary of this most interesting discussion, and sustains the maximum estimate of 1600 million years.

[8] It might be called with more exactness the _Survival of the Fitter_.

[9] See Evans, The Sudden Appearance of the Cambrian Fauna. (_Proc. of XIe Congrès Geolog. Inst., 1910_) for a discussion of this.

[10] Phanerogams.

[11] Deciduous trees.

[12] This, says Mr. R. I. Pocock, has to be qualified. There were Carboniferous spiders with spinnerets, though they may have used the silk only for egg cases. And he thinks that the Carboniferous myriapods point to _ground_ beneath the trees.

[13] See Sir R. Ball’s _Causes of the Great Ice Age_, and Dr. Croll’s _Climate and Time_. These are sound books to read still, but the reader will find many of their conclusions modified in Wright’s _The Quaternary Ice Age_, which is a quarter of a century more recent.

[14] Dr. Marie Stopes, _Monograph on the Constitution of Coal_.

[15] See article “Cephalopoda” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_ for its anatomy.

[16] And here the genius of a great humorous artist (E. T. Reed) obliges us to add a footnote to clear away a common misconception. He was the creator of a series of fantastic pictures, _Prehistoric Peeps_, which have had a deserved and immense vogue, and it was his whim to represent primitive men as engaged in an unending wild struggle with great Plesiosaurs and the like. His fantasy has become a common belief. As we shall see, millions of years elapsed between the vanishing of the last great Mesozoic reptile and the first appearance of man upon this earth. Early man had as contemporaries some monstrous animals, as we shall note, but not these extreme monsters.

In these opening six chapters we have been much indebted, in addition to the books already named in the text or in footnotes, to Ray Lankester’s _Extinct Animals_, Osborne’s _Age of Mammals_, Jukes Browne’s, Lyell’s and Pirsson and Schuchert’s textbooks of geology, and the collections and catalogues of the Natural History Museum at South Kensington. H. R. Knipe’s _From Nebula to Man_ and his _Evolution in the Past_ have also been very useful and suggestive. These two books are full of admirable illustrations of extinct monsters by Miss G. M. Woodward and Mr. Bucknall. There are good figures also in _Extinct Monsters_ and _Creatures of Other Days_ by H. N. Hutchinson.

[17] They secrete a nutritive fluid on which the young feeds from glands scattered over the skin. But the glands are not gathered together into mammæ with nipples for suckling. The stuff oozes out, the mother lies on her back, and the young browse upon her moist skin.

[18] _Die Alpen in Eiszeitalters_, vol. iii.

[19] “Graphic Projection of the Pleistocene,” “Climatic Oscillations,” in _Bulletin of Geological Soc. Am._, vol. xxvi.

[20] In this and the next chapters the writer has used Osborn’s _Men of the Stone Age_, Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_, Dr. Keith’s _Antiquity of Man_, W. B. Wright’s _The Quaternary Ice Age_, Worthington Smith’s _Man, the Primeval Savage_, F. Wood Jones’ _Arboreal Man_, H. G. F. Spurrell’s _Modern Man and his Forerunners_, O. T. Mason’s _Origins of Invention_, Parkyn’s _History of Prehistoric Art_, Salomon Reinach’s _Repertoire de l’Art Quaternaire_, and various of the papers in Ray Lankester’s _Science from an Easy Chair_.

[21] Darwin’s _Descent of Man_.

[22] In _Conquest_ for February, 1920, Mr. R. I. Pocock published a very useful criticism of this section as it stood in the first version of the _Outline_. It has been carefully modified in accordance with his views. In addition, we take the liberty of quoting the following:

“It was formerly held, I believe, that, so far as habits are concerned, the transitional steps in man’s descent were to be traced from an active arboreal monkey to the equally active arboreal gibbon, and thence to the less active, but still mainly arboreal, orang-utang; from the latter to the half arboreal, half terrestrial chimpanzee, thence, through the mainly terrestrial gorilla, to wholly terrestrial man. In other words, the stages of man’s evolution were a series of structural modifications resulting from the gradual dropping of the ancestral habit of living in trees in favour of life on the ground. But such a conception leaves unexplained the great differences between monkeys and gibbons in arboreal and terrestrial activity. Were it correct, we should expect the gibbons to show a transition between monkeys and other apes in their method of moving through trees and on the ground. They show no such transition. It is necessary, therefore, to formulate another theory.

“Since all the active climbing monkeys have well-developed tails, and since the tail tends to shorten or disappear in species of less active habits which live, like the monkey of Gibraltar, on rocky hillsides, the absence of the tail in apes suggests very forcibly that their ancestor had to a great extent given up living in trees. Moreover, the short broad foot of the apes, their ability to stand and walk erect, their peculiar way of climbing, all point to the conclusion that they are descended, not from a truly arboreal ape, but from an ape which had already taken to terrestrial life, with partly bipedal, partly quadrupedal progression; an ape which, while still retaining the power to ascend trees for purposes of feeding and escaping from carnivorous foes, was, at best, probably a slow, inactive climber, certainly not an arboreal leaper like a monkey. A large ape of that mode of life, with hands and feet not very different from those of a chimpanzee or gorilla, but with stronger legs and shorter arms, is my conception of the ancestor of existing apes and of man. And the progenitor of that hypothetical ancestor was probably a big ground monkey.”

[23] Among the earlier pioneers of the latter view was Mr. Harrison, a grocer of Ightham in Kent, one of those modest and devoted observers to whom British geology owes so much. At first his “Eoliths” were flouted and derided by archæologists, but to-day he has the scientific world with him in the recognition of the quasi-human origin of many of his specimens. With him we must honour Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, a jeweller of St. Leonards, whose intimate knowledge of stone structure has been of the utmost value in these discussions. See “Occ. Papers,” No. 4, of the Royal Anthropl. Inst., for a description by Sir E. R. Lankester of one of the better formed of these early implements.

[24] Some writers suppose that a Wood and Shell age preceded the earliest Stone Age. South Sea Islanders, Negroes, and Bushmen still make use of wood and the sharp-edged shells of land and water molluscs as implements.

[25] For some interesting suggestions on the origin of flint implements see Elliot Smith’s presidential address to the Anthropl. Sect. of the Brit. Assn., 1912.

[26] Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_, p. 40.

[27] We follow Penck.

[28] For sixpence and postage the reader can get from the British Museum, South Kensington, a very fully illustrated pamphlet _A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man_, showing the Piltdown material in great detail.

[29] Three phases of human history before the knowledge and use of metals are often distinguished. First there is the so-called Eolithic Age (dawn of stone implements), then the Palæolithic Age (old stone implements), and finally an age in which the implements are skilfully made and frequently well finished and polished (Neolithic Age). The Palæolithic period is further divided into an earlier (sub-human) and a later (fully human) period. We shall comment on these divisions later.

[30] From Chelles and Le Moustier in France.

[31] Osmond Fisher, quoted in Wright’s _Quaternary Ice Age_.

[32] _Social Origins_, by Andrew Lang, and _Primal Law_, by J. J. Atkinson. (Longmans, 1903.)

[33] This first origin of fire was suggested by Sir John Lubbock (_Prehistoric Times_), and Ludwig Hopf, in _The Human Species_, says that “Flints and pieces of pyrites are found in close proximity in palæolithic settlements near the remains of mammoths.”

[34] But compare Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_. Elliot Smith (_Primitive Man_, Proceedings Brit. Acad., vol. vii) says they approach the Neanderthal type.

[35] What is known of the Tasmanian Old Stone men is to be found in Roth and Butler’s _Aborigines of Tasmania_. See also footnote on the Tasmanian language to Chapter XIII.

[36] The opinion that the Neanderthal race (_Homo Neanderthalensis_) is an extinct species which did not interbreed with the true men (_Homo sapiens_) is held by Professor Osborn, and it is the view to which the writer inclines and to which he has pointed in the treatment of this section; but it is only fair to the reader to note that many writers do not share this view. They write and speak of living “Neanderthalers” in contemporary populations. One observer has written in the past of such types in the west of Ireland; another has observed them in Greece. These so-called “living Neanderthalers” have neither the peculiarities of neck, thumb, nor teeth that distinguish the Neanderthal race of pro-men. The cheek teeth of true men, for instance, have what we call fangs, long fangs; the Neanderthaler’s cheek tooth is a _more complicated and specialized_ cheek tooth, a long tooth with short fangs, and his canine teeth were _less_ marked, _less_ like dog-teeth, than ours. Nothing could show more clearly that he was on a different line of development. We must remember that so far only western Europe has been properly explored for Palæolithic remains, and that practically all we know of the Neanderthal species comes from that area (see Map, p. 89). No doubt the ancestor of _Homo sapiens_ (which species includes the Tasmanians) was a very similar and parallel creature to _Homo Neanderthalensis_. And we are not so far from that ancestor as to have eliminated not indeed “Neanderthal,” but “Neanderthaloid” types. The existence of such types no more proves that the Neanderthal species, the makers of the Chellean and Mousterian implements, interbred with _Homo sapiens_ in the European area than do monkey-faced people testify to an interbreeding with monkeys; or people with faces like horses, that there is an equine strain in our population.

[37] R. I. Pocock.

[38] See Osborn in his _Men of the Old Stone Age_. But see Wright’s _Quaternary Ice Age_ for a different view of the Magdalenian Age.

[39] See, for example, H. G. F. Spurrell, _Modern Man and His Forerunners_, end of Chapter III.

[40] Upon this question W. J. Sollas’ _Ancient Hunters_ is very full and suggestive.

[41] From the cave of Mas d’Azil.

[42] But our domestic cattle are derived from some form of aurochs--probably from some lesser Central Asiatic variety.--H. H. J.

[43] “The various finds of human remains in North America for which the geological antiquity has been claimed have been thus briefly passed under review. In every instance where enough of the bones is preserved for comparison, the evidence bears witness against the geological antiquity of the remains and for their close affinity to or identity with the modern Indians.” (Smithsonian Institute, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 33. Dr. Hrdlicka.)

But J. Deniker quotes evidence to show that eoliths and early palæoliths have been found in America. See his compact but full summary of the evidence and views for and against in his _Races of Man_, pp. 510, 511.

[44] “Questioned by some authorities,” says J. Deniker in _The Races of Man_.

[45] A good account of Palæolithic and Neolithic man is to be found in Rice Holmes’ _Ancient Britain_, 1907. Otis T. Mason’s _Origins of Invention_ also illuminates this period.

[46] The deposits at Susa show neolithic remains perhaps more than 20,000 years old. See Montelius _Congrès Internat. d’Anthrop. Prehist._, 1906, p. 32. Sir Arthur Evans says the neolithic age began in Crete more than 14,000 years ago.--G. Wh.

[47] See Peisker, _Cambridge Medieval History_, Vol. I, for some interesting views upon domestication.--E. B.

[48] Native copper is still found to-day in Italy, Hungary, Cornwall, and many other places.

[49] This view of the origin of bronze is that of Dr. Gowland, _The Metals Antiquity_ (Huxley Lecture, 1912). But Lord Avebury quotes the verbal opinion of the late Lord Swansea against this view, and sets it aside without further argument.

[50] Ridgeway (_Early Age of Greece_) says a lump of tin has been found in the Swiss pile-dwelling deposits.

[51] Tin was known as a foreign import in Egypt under the XVIIIth Dynasty; there is (rare) Mycenæan tin, and there are (probably later, but not clearly dated) tin objects in the Caucasus. But it is very difficult to distinguish tin from antimony. There is a good deal of Cyprus bronze which contains antimony; a good deal which seems to be tin is antimony--the ancients trying to get tin, but actually getting antimony and thinking it was tin.--J. L. M.

[52] In connection with iron, note the distinction of ornamental and useful iron. Ornamental iron, a rarity, perhaps meteoric, as jewellery or magical stuff, occurs in east Europe sporadically in the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty. This must be distinguished from the copious useful iron which appears in Greece much later from the North.--J. L. M.

[53] People were probably healthier and longer lived in the Bronze than in the Neolithic age. The disparity of stature between male and female was much less.--G. Wh.

[54] Lord Avebury. For a good account of Avebury, Stonehenge, and the traces of a well-developed social system in England before the coming of the Keltic peoples, see Hippesley Cox, _The Green Roads of England_.

[55] Caesar _de Bello Gallico_ says the Britons tabooed hare, fowl and goose.--G. Wh.

[56] All Old World peoples who had entered upon the Neolithic stage grew and ate wheat, but the American Indians must have developed agriculture independently in America after their separation from the Old World populations. They never had wheat. Their cultivation was maize, Indian corn, a new-world grain.

[57] Poultry and hens’ eggs were late additions to the human cuisine, in spite of the large part they now play in our dietary. The hen is not mentioned in the Old Testament (but note the allusion to an egg, Job vi, 6) nor by Homer. Up to about 1300 B.C. the only fowls in the world were jungle denizens in India and Burmah. The crowing of jungle cocks is noted by Glasfurd in his admirable accounts of tiger shooting as the invariable preliminary of dawn in the Indian jungle. Probably poultry were first domesticated in Burmah. They got to China, according to the records, only about 1100 B.C. They reached Greece via Persia before the time of Socrates. In the New Testament the crowing of the cock reproaches Peter for his desertion of the Master.

[58] Later Palæolithic bone whistles are known. One may guess that reed pipes were an early invention.

[59] In addition to authorities already cited, we have used for this and the following chapters Lord Avebury’s _Prehistoric Times_, Schrader and Jevons’ _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, and A. H. Keane’s _Man Past and Present_.

[60] Among other books we have used Jukes Browne’s _Building of the British Isles_.

[61] _The Quaternary Ice Age._

[62] Our treatment of this chapter is written for the general reader and is broad and general. But the student who wishes to go more thoroughly into the development of the civilized mentality out of the elements of the primitive human mind should read and study very carefully that very illuminating book, Jung’s _Psychology of the Unconscious_ (English translation by Beatrice M. Hinckle), and especially the opening two chapters. That book is a most important contribution to the mental history of mankind.

[63] J. J. Atkinson’s _Primal Law_.

[64] See Sir J. G. Frazer, _Belief in Immortality_.

[65] Glasfurd’s _Rifle and Romance in the Indian Jungle_, 1915.

[66] For some interesting suggestions here see Sigismund Freud, _Totem and Taboo, Resemblances between the Psychic Life of Savages and Neurotics_.

[67] Ludwig Hopf, in _The Human Species_, calls the later Palæolithic art “masculine” and the Neolithic “feminine.” The pottery was made by women, he says, and that accounts for it. But the arrowheads were made by men, and there was nothing to prevent Neolithic men from taking scraps of bone or slabs of rock and carving them--had they dared. We suggest they did not dare to do so.

[68] But Cicero says relegere, “_to read over_,” and the “binding” by those who accept _religare_ is often written of as being merely the binding of a vow.

[69] Bateman, _Ten Years’ Digging in Celtic and Saxon Gravehills_, quoted by Lord Avebury in _Prehistoric Times_, p. 176.

[70] Cabot in _Labrador_, by Grenfell and others. Macmillan, New York.

[71] Quoted in _Ency. Brit._, vol. ix, p. 850.

[72] This is not a good name, and may perhaps drop out of use later. Blumenbach chose a particular skull as the “type” of this race and it happened to be a skull from the Caucasus.--G. S.

[73] The skull shape of the Lombards, says Flinders Petrie, changed from dolichocephalic to brachycephalic in a few hundred years. See his Huxley Lecture for 1906, _Migrations_, published by the _Anthropological Institute_. Ripley is the great authority on the other side.

[74] _My Diaries_, under date of July 25, 1894.

[75] “Sunstone” culture because of the sun worship and the megaliths. This is not a very happily chosen term. It suggests a division equivalent to palæolithic (old stone) and neolithic (new stone), whereas it is a development of the Neolithic culture.

[76] Megalithic monuments have been made quite recently by primitive Indian peoples.

[77] For some interesting suggestions in this matter, see W. H. R. Rivers, “_Sun Cult and Megaliths in Oceana_” (_American Anthropologist_ (N.S.), vol. xvii). Hose and MacDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_, contains some very interesting parallelisms between the culture of modern Borneo and the prehistoric culture of southern Europe. See also Dr. W. Warde Fowler’s “Ancient Italy and Modern Borneo” in the _Journal of Roman Studies_ (1916).

[78] Sir Arthur Evans suggests that in America sign-language arose before speech, because the sign-language is common to all Indians in North America, whereas the languages are different. See his _Anthropology and the Classics_.--G. M.

Samuel Butler (_Note Books_) suggests that language was “originally confined to a few scholars.”--G. Wh.

[79] See article “Grammar” in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.

[80] Sir H. H. Johnston gives this estimate in his _Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.

[81] Greek--ox-ford.

[82] Ratsel (quoted in the _Ency. Brit._, art. “Caspian”).

[83] _Encyclopædia Britannica_, article “Japan.”

[84] The four characters indicating “Affairs, query, imperative, old,” placed in that order, for example, represent “Why walk in the ancient ways?” The Chinaman gives the bare cores of his meaning; the Englishman gets to it by a bold metaphor. He may be talking of conservatism in cooking or in bookbinding, but he will say: “Why walk in the ancient ways?” Mr. Arthur Waley, in the interesting essay on Chinese thought and poetry which precedes his book, _170 Chinese Poems_ (Constable, 1918), makes it clear how in these fields Chinese thought is kept practical and restricted by the limitations upon metaphor the linguistic structure of Chinese imposes. See also Hirst, _Ancient History of China_, ch. vii.

[85] See Farrand, _The American Nation_, and E. S. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, and note footnote to § 1 of this chapter.

[86] These are discussed compactly, but with very special knowledge, by Sir Harry Johnston in his little book on _The Opening up of Africa_, in the Home University Library. The student who finds this subject of philological history interesting, should read the introduction to the same writer’s _Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages_.

[87] The Polynesians appear to be a later eastward extension of the dark whites or brown peoples. See again § 4 of chap. xiii.

[88] “The Keltic group of languages, of which it has been said that they combined an Aryan vocabulary with a Berber (or Iberian) grammar.” Sir Harry Johnston. See also Sir John Rhys, The Welsh People, Mac Neilh’s _Phases in Irish History_, and various articles by Prof. Stewart Macalister in the _Irish Monthly_ (1917-1919).

[89] See Schrader (translated by Jevons), _Prehistoric Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples_, p. 404. But though the word Aryan was undoubtedly in its original application the name only of the Indo-Iranian people, it has been used in modern discussion for more than half a century in the wider sense. A word was badly wanted for that purpose, and “Aryan” was taken; failing “Aryan” we should be obliged to fall back on “Indo-Germanic” or “Indo-European,” terms equally open to objection and ugly and clumsy to employ.

[90] But these may have been an originally Semitic people who learnt an Aryan speech.

[91] On this point see Perry, _An Ethnological Study of Warfare_, vol. lxi., Mem. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., and also published separately 1917.--G. Wh.

[92] Fools, I think, were not wits, but deformed idiots, whom the company teased and laughed at. Certainly so in Roman and mediæval times. They do not occur in the Hellenic Age, except at courts in Asia Minor; but they must have been present in pre-Hellenic kingdoms; cf. end of _Iliad I._, where the gods laugh consumedly not at Hephaestus’ wit, but at his lameness. The idealized Fool of Shakespeare is, like the idealized Hermit of the romances, the invention of later days.--G. M

[93] The Aryans developed their languages and their ballads and epics between 10,000 B.C. and the historical period. Very much later in time, probably within the last 3,000 years, the nomadic Mongolian peoples of Asia began to develop their Ural-Altaic speech, under similar conditions, by similar poetic uses. Later we shall note the presence of bards at the court of Attila the Hun.

[94] It is suggested in the text that blind men became bards: Myres says that bards were (artificially) blinded to stop them from going elsewhere--the tribe wanted to keep them. The poetic touch is that “the Muses” blind the poet. Not a bit of it. (Homer, being a blind bard, describes things by sound--the twanging arrow, the far-thundering sea, the noise of the chariot going through the gate. He is audile, not visual.)--E. B.

But in this matter note the adjectives in the passage quoted here from the _Iliad_; they are all visual.--G. H. M.

Mr. L. Lloyd, of the experimental station at Cheshunt, tells me he has seen in Rhodesia the musician and singer of a troupe of native dancers who had been blinded by his chief to prevent him leaving the village.--H. G. W.

[95] G.M.

[96] The _Iliad_ describes what Chadwick calls a Heroic Age: _i.e._ a time when the barbarians or nomads are breaking up an old civilization. Men are led by chiefs who live by plunder and conquest and make themselves kingdoms. The tribe is broken up; instead comes the comitatus of casual men who attach themselves to a particular chief, as Phœnix or Patroclus to Achilles. Religion is broken up, being by origin local. Hence there is almost no religion in the _Iliad_ or the _Nibelungenlied_. Almost no magic. No family life. Tremendous booty, and _la carrière ouverte aux talents_ with a vengeance.--G. M.

[97] _Some Aspects of Hindu Life in India._ Paper read to the Royal Society of Arts, Nov. 28, 1918.

[98] No Greek heroes, in Homer or the heroic tradition, ever get drunk. In the comic tradition they do, and of course centaurs and barbarians do.--G. M.

[99] Babylonian expedition of the University of Pennsylvania.

[100] H. R. Hall, _Ancient History of the Near East_, says it has been found in Palestine.--S. H.

The late Mr. Aaron Aaronson found a real wild wheat upon the slopes of Mt. Hermon. See Bulletin 274, Plant Indus. Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture; and Stapf in Suppl. to the _Jour. of the Board of Agri., Lond._, vol. xvii, No. 3.--E. J. R.

[101] We shall use “Mesopotamia” here loosely for the Euphrates-Tigris country generally. Strictly, of course, as its name indicates, Mesopotamia (mid rivers) means only the country _between_ those two great rivers. That country in the fork was probably very marshy and unhealthy in early times (Sayce), until it was drained by man, and the early cities grew up west of the Euphrates and east of the Tigris. Probably these rivers then flowed separately into the Persian Gulf.