Chapter XXIII: Book XXXVII: The Natural History of Precious Stones (2)

Among the smaragdi is also included the precious stone known as “tanos.”[3031] It comes from Persia, and is of an unsightly green, and of a soiled colour within. There is the chalcosmaragdos[3032] also, a native of Cyprus, the face of which is mottled with coppery veins. Theophrastus relates that he had found it stated in the Egyptian histories, that a king of Babylon once sent to the king of Egypt a smaragdus[3033] four cubits in length by three in breadth. He informs us, also, that in a temple of Jupiter in Egypt there was an obelisk made of four smaragdi, forty cubits in length, and four in breadth at one extremity, and two at the other. He says, too, that at the period at which he wrote, there was in the Temple of Hercules at Tyrus a large column made of a single smaragdus;[3034] though very possibly it might only be pseudo-smaragdus, a kind of stone not uncommonly found in Cyprus, where a block had been discovered, composed, one half of smaragdus, and one half of jasper,[3035] and the liquid in which had not as yet been entirely transformed. Apion, surnamed “Plistonices,”[3036] has left a very recent statement, that there was still in existence, in his time, in the Labyrinth of Egypt, a colossal statue of Serapis made of a single smaragdus, nine cubits in height.

CHAP. 20.—BERYLS: EIGHT VARIETIES OF THEM. DEFECTS IN BERYLS.

Beryls, it is thought, are of the same[3037] nature as the smaragdus, or at least closely analogous. India[3038] produces them, and they are rarely to be found elsewhere. The lapidaries cut all beryls of an hexagonal[3039] form; because the colour, which is deadened by a dull uniformity of surface, is heightened by the reflection resulting from the angles. If they are cut in any other way, these stones have no brilliancy whatever. The most esteemed beryls are those which in colour resemble the pure green of the sea;[3040] the chrysoberyl[3041] being next in value, a stone of a somewhat paler colour, but approaching a golden tint. Closely allied to this last in its brilliancy, but of a more pallid colour, and thought by some to constitute a separate genus, is chrysoprasus.[3042] In the fourth rank are reckoned the hyacinthine beryls; and in the fifth, those known as “aëroides.”[3043] Next, we have the wax-coloured beryls, and, after them, the oleaginous beryls, so called from the resemblance of their colour to that of oil. Last of all, there are the stones which closely resemble crystal in appearance; mostly disfigured by spots and filaments, and of a poor, faint, colour as well; all of them so many imperfections in the stone.

The people of India are marvellously fond of beryls of an elongated[3044] form, and say that these are the only precious stones they prefer wearing without the addition of gold: hence it is that, after piercing them, they string them upon the bristles of the elephant. It is generally agreed, however, that those stones should not be perforated which are of the finest quality; and in this case they only enclose the extremities of them in studs of gold. They prefer, too, cutting the beryls in a cylindrical form, instead of setting them as precious stones; an elongated shape being the one that is most highly esteemed. Some are of opinion that beryls are naturally angular,[3045] and that when pierced they become improved in colour; the white substance being thus removed that lies within, and their brilliancy heightened by the reflection of the gold in which they are set; or, at all events, their transparency being increased by this diminution in their thickness. In addition to the defects already[3046] mentioned, and which are pretty nearly the same as those to which the smaragdus is subject, beryls are affected with cloudy spots,[3047] like those on the finger-nails in appearance. In our own part of the world, it is thought that they are sometimes found in the countries that lie in the vicinity of Pontus.[3048] The people of India, by colouring crystal, have found a method of imitating various precious stones, beryls in particular.

CHAP. 21. (6.)—OPALS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF THEM.

Opals[3049] are at once very similar to, and very different from, beryls, and only yield to the smaragdus in value. India, too, is the sole[3050] parent of these precious stones, thus completing her glory as being the great producer of the most costly gems. Of all precious stones, it is opal that presents the greatest difficulties of description, it displaying at once the piercing fire of carbunculus,[3051] the purple brilliancy of amethystos, and the sea-green of smaragdus, the whole blended together and refulgent with a brightness that is quite incredible. Some authors have compared the effect of its refulgence to that of the colour known as Armenian[3052] pigment, while others speak of it as resembling the flame of burning sulphur, or of flame fed with oil. In size, the opal is about as large as a hazel-nut,[3053] and, with reference to it, there is a remarkable historical anecdote related. For there is still in existence a stone of this class, on account of which Antonius proscribed the senator Nonius, son of the Nonius Struma, whom the poet Catullus[3054] was so displeased at seeing in the curule chair, and grandfather of the Servilius Nonianus, who in our own times was consul.[3055] On being thus proscribed, Nonius took to flight, carrying with him, out of all his wealth, nothing but this ring, the value of which, it is well known, was estimated at two millions of sesterces. How marvellous must have been the cruelty, how marvellous the luxurious passion of Antonius, thus to proscribe a man for the possession of a jewel! and no less marvellous must have been the obstinacy of Nonius, who could thus dote upon what had been the cause of his proscription; for we see the very brutes even tear off the portion of their body for the sake of which they know their existence to be imperilled,[3056] and so redeem themselves by parting with it.

CHAP. 22.—DEFECTS IN OPALS: THE MODES OF TESTING THEM.

Defects in opal are, a colour inclining to that of the flower called heliotropium,[3057] or to that of crystal or of hailstones; salt-like grains intervening; roughness on the surface; or sharp points, presenting themselves to the eye. There is no stone that is imitated by fraudulent dealers with more exactness than this, in glass, the only mode of detecting the imposition being by the light of the sun. For when a false[3058] opal is held between the finger and thumb, and exposed to the rays of that luminary, it presents but one and the same transparent colour throughout, limited to the body of the stone: whereas the genuine opal offers various refulgent tints in succession, and reflects now one hue and now another, as it sheds its luminous brilliancy upon the fingers.

This stone, in consequence of its extraordinary beauty, has been called “pæderos”[3059] by many authors; and some who make a distinct species of it, say that it is the same as the stone that in India is called “sangenon.” These last-mentioned stones, it is said, are found in Egypt also, Arabia, and, of very inferior quality, in Pontus. Galatia, too, is said to produce them, as also Thasos and Cyprus. The finest in quality of them have all the beauty of opal, but they are of a softer brilliancy, and are mostly rough on the surface. Their colour is a mixture of sky-blue and purple, and the green hues of the smaragdus are wanting: those, too, are preferred, which have their brilliancy deepened by a vinous hue, rather than those which have their colours diluted, as it were, with water.

CHAP. 23.—SARDONYX; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS IN THE SARDONYX.

Thus far we have spoken in reference to the stones, which, it is generally agreed, belong to the highest rank; in obedience, more particularly, to a decree[3060] that has been passed by the ladies to that effect. There is less certainty with respect to those upon which the men as well have been left to form a judgment; seeing that the value of each stone depends more particularly upon the caprice of the individual and the rivalry that exists in reference thereto; as, for example, when Claudius Cæsar was so much in the habit of wearing the smaragdus and the sardonyx.[3061] The first Roman who wore a sardonyx, according to Demostratus, was the elder Africanus, since whose time this stone has been held in very high esteem at Rome: for which reason, we shall give it the next place after the opal. By sardonyx, as the name[3062] itself indicates, was formerly understood a sarda with a white ground beneath it, like the flesh beneath the human finger-nail; both parts of the stone being equally transparent. Such, according to Ismenias, Demostratus, Zenothemis, and Sotacus, is the sardonyx of India; the last two giving the name of “blind” sardonyx to all the other stones of this class which are not transparent, and which have now entirely appropriated the name to themselves. For, at the present day, the Arabian sardonyx presents no traces whatever of the Indian sarda,[3063] it being a stone that has been found to be characterized by several different colours of late; black or azure for the base, and vermilion, surrounded with a line of rich white, for the upper part, not without a certain glimpse[3064] of purple as the white passes into the red.[3065]

We learn from Zenothemis that in his time these stones were not held by the people of India in any high esteem, although they are found there of so large a size as to admit of the hilts of swords being made of them. It is well known, too, that in that country they are exposed to view by the mountain-streams, and that in our part of the world they were formerly valued from the fact that they are nearly the only ones[3066] among the engraved precious stones that do not bring away the wax when an impression is made. The consequence is, that our example has at last taught the people of India to set a value upon them, and the lower classes there now pierce them even, to wear them as ornaments for the neck; the great proof, in fact, at the present day, of a sardonyx being of Indian origin. Those of Arabia are remarkable for their marginal line of brilliant white, of considerable breadth, and not glistening in hollow fissures in the stone or upon the sides, but shining upon the very surface, at the margin, and supported by a ground intensely black beneath. In the stones of India, this ground is like wax in colour,[3067] or else like cornel, with a circle also of white around it. In some of these stones, too, there is a play of colours like those of the rainbow, while the surface is redder even than the shell of the sea-locust.[3068]

Those stones which are like honey in appearance, or of a fæculent[3069] colour—such being the name given to one defect in them—are generally disapproved of. They are rejected also when the white zone blends itself with the other colours, and its limits are not definitely marked; or if, in like manner, it is irregularly intersected by any other colour; it being looked upon as an imperfection if the regularity of any one of the colours is interrupted by the interposition of another. The sardonyx of Armenia is held in some esteem, but the zone round it is of a pallid hue.

CHAP. 24.—ONYX: THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT.

We must give some account also of onyx,[3070] because of the name which it partly shares in common with sardonyx. This name, though in some places[3071] given to a marble, is here used to signify a precious stone. Sudines says, that in this stone there is a white portion which resembles the white of the human-finger nail, in addition to the colours of chrysolithos, sarda, and iaspis. According to Zenothemis, there are numerous varieties of the Indian onyx, the fiery-coloured, the black, and the cornel, with white veins encircling them, like an eye as it were, and in some cases running across them obliquely.[3072] Sotacus mentions an Arabian onyx, which differs from the rest; that of India, according to him, presenting small flames,[3073] each surrounded by one or more white zones; in a manner altogether different from the Indian sardonyx, which presents a series of white specks, while in this case it is one continuous circle. The Arabian onyx, on the other hand, is black, he says, with a white zone encircling it.

Satyrus says, that there is an onyx in India of a flesh colour,[3074] partly resembling carbunculus, and partly chrysolithos and amethystos; a variety, however, which he altogether disapproves of. The real onyx, according to him, has numerous veins of variegated colours, interspersed with others of a milk-white hue; the shades of which, as they pass into one another, produce a tint which surpasses all description, and blends itself into one harmonious whole, of a most beautiful appearance.

Not unlike sardonyx, too, is sarda,[3075] a stone which also has, in part, a kindred name with it; but before passing on to it, we must first take some notice of all those precious stones which have a brilliancy like that of flame.

CHAP. 25. (7.)—CARBUNCULUS: TWELVE VARIETIES OF IT.

In the first rank among these is carbunculus,[3076] so called from its resemblance to fire; though in reality it is proof against the action of that element:[3077] hence it is that some persons call these stones “acaustoi.”[3078] There are various kinds of carbunculus, the Indian and the Garamantic, for example, which last has been also called the Carchedonian,[3079] in compliment to the former opulence of Great Carthage.[3080] To these are added the Æthiopian and the Alabandic stones, the latter of which are found at Orthosia[3081] in Caria, but are cut and polished at Alabanda.[3082] In addition to this, each kind is subdivided into the male carbunculus and the female, the former of which is of a more striking brilliancy, the brightness of the latter being not so strong. In the male varieties too, we see some in which the fire is clearer than in others; while some, again, are of a darker[3083] hue, or else have their brilliancy more deeply seated, and shine with a more powerful lustre than others when viewed in the sun.

The most highly esteemed, however, is the amethyst-coloured[3084] stone, the fire at the extremity of which closely approaches the violet tint of amethystos: next in value to which, are the stones known as “syrtites,” radiant with a wavy, feathery,[3085] refulgence. They are found more particularly, it is said, where the reflection is most powerful of the rays of the sun. Satyrus says that the carbunculus[3086] of India has no lustre, that it is mostly soiled, and that in all cases its brilliancy is of a tawny complexion. The Æthiopian stones, he says, are dense, emit no lustre, and burn with a concentrated flame. According to Callistratus, the refulgence of this stone should be of a whitish hue, and, when placed upon a table, it should heighten by its lustre other stones placed near it that are clouded at the edge. Hence it is, that many writers speak of this stone as the white carbunculus, while the Indian stone, with its comparatively feeble lustre, is known by the name of “lignyzon.”[3087] The Carchedonian stones, they say, are of much smaller size than the others; but those of India admit of being hollowed out, and making vessels that will hold as much as one sextarius[3088] even.

According to Archelaüs, the Carchedonian carbunculus is of a more swarthy appearance than the others, but, when exposed to the light of the fire or sun, and viewed obliquely, the brilliancy of it is much more intense than that of the rest. He says, too, that this stone, when overshadowed by a roof, has a purple tint; that when viewed in the open air, it is of a flame colour; and that, when exposed to the rays of the sun, it scintillates. He states also that wax, if sealed with these stones, in the shade even, will melt. Many authors have asserted that the Indian stones are paler than the Carchedonian, and that, quite the converse of these last, they are all the less brilliant when viewed obliquely; as also, that in the male Carchedonian stone there are luminous points like stars within, while, in the case of the female stone, the whole of its refulgence is thrown beyond it. The stones of Alabanda too, it is said, are darker than the other kinds, and rough on the surface. In the vicinity also of Miletus, there are stones of this description found in the earth, resembling those of Alabanda in colour, and proof against the action of fire.

According to Theophrastus,[3089] these stones are to be found also at Orchomenus in Arcadia and in the Isle of Chios;[3090] the former[3091] of which are of a darker hue, and are used for making mirrors. He says too, that at Trœzen they are found of various colours and mottled with white spots, those found at Corinth being of a more pallid, whitish, hue. He states also, that they are sometimes imported from Massilia. Bocchus informs us in his writings, that these stones are extracted from the ground at Olisipo;[3092] at the cost of great labour, however, in consequence of the parched, argillaceous, nature of the soil.

CHAP. 26.—DEFECTS IN CARBUNCULUS, AND THE MODE OF TESTING IT.

Nothing is more difficult than to distinguish the several varieties of this stone, so great an opportunity do they afford to artistic skill of compelling them to reflect the colours of substances placed beneath. It is possible, they say, to heighten the brilliancy of dull stones, by steeping them for fourteen days in vinegar, this adventitious lustre being retained by them as many months. They are counterfeited, too, with great exactness in glass; but the difference may be detected with the touchstone; the same being the case also with other artificial stones, as the material is always of a softer nature and comparatively brittle. When thus tested by the stone, hard knots, too, are detected in them; and the weight of the glass counterfeit is always less. In some cases, too, they present small blisters within, which shine like silver.

CHAP. 27.—AHTHRACITIS.[3093]

There is also a fossil stone found in Thesprotia, known as “anthracitis,”[3094] and resembling a burning coal[3095] in appearance. Those who have stated that it is a native also of Liguria, are mistaken, in my opinion, unless perhaps it was to be found there in their time. Some of these stones, they say, are surrounded with a vein of white. Like those which we have mentioned above, they have a fiery colour, but there is this peculiarity in them, that when thrown into the fire they have all the appearance of becoming quenched and deadened; while, on the other hand, if they are drenched with water, they become doubly glowing.[3096]

CHAP. 28.—SANDASTROS. SANDARESOS.

Of a kindred nature, too, is sandastros,[3097] known as “garamantites” by some: it is found in India, at a place of that name, and is a product also of the southern parts of Arabia. The great recommendation of it is, that it has all the appearance of fire placed behind a transparent substance, it burning with star-like scintillations within, that resemble drops of gold, and are always to be seen in the body of the stone, and never upon the surface. There are certain religious associations, too, connected with this stone, in consequence of the affinity which it is supposed to bear with the stars; these scintillations being mostly, in number and arrangement, like the constellations of the Pleiades and Hyades; a circumstance which had led to the use of it by the Chaldæi in the ceremonials which they practise.

Here, too, the male stones are distinguished from the female, by their comparative depth of colour and the vigorousness of the tints which they impart to objects near them: indeed the stones of India, it is said, quite dim the sight by their brilliancy. The flame of the female sandastros is of a more softened nature, and may be pronounced to be lustrous rather than brilliant. Some prefer the stone of Arabia to that of India, and say that this last bears a considerable resemblance to a smoke-coloured chrysolithos. Ismenias asserts that sandastros, in consequence of its extreme softness, will not admit of being polished, a circumstance which makes it sell all[3098] the dearer: other writers, again, call these stones “sandrisitæ.” One point upon which all the authorities are agreed is, that the greater the number of stars upon the stone, the more costly it is in price.

The similarity of the name has sometimes caused this stone to be confounded with that known as “sandaresos,” and which Nicander calls “sandaserion,” and others “sandaseron.” Some, again, call this last-mentioned stone “sandastros,” and the former one “sandaresos.” The stone[3099] that is thus mentioned by Nicander, is a native of India as well as the other, and likewise takes its name from the locality where it is found. The colour of it is that of an apple, or of green oil, and no one sets any value on it.

CHAP. 29.—LYCHNIS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT.

To the same class of flame-coloured stones belongs that known as “lychnis;”[3100] so called from its lustre being heightd by the light of the lamp, under which circumstances its tints are particularly pleasing. It is found in the vicinity of Orthosia, throughout the whole of Caria, and in the neighbouring localities; but the most approved stones are those that come from India. Some writers have given the name of “deadened”[3101] carbunculus to a lychnis of second-rate quality, and similar in colour to the flower known as the “flower of Jove.”[3102] I find other varieties also mentioned, one with a purple radiance, and another of a scarlet[3103] tint. It is asserted, too, that these stones, when heated or rubbed between the fingers, will attract[3104] chaff and filaments of paper.

CHAP. 30.—CARCHEDONIA.

Carchedonia,[3105] too, is said to have the same property, though far inferior in value to the stones already mentioned. It is found in the mountains among the Nasamones,[3106] being produced, the natives think, by showers sent for the purpose from heaven. These stones are found by the light of the moon, more particularly when at full: in former days, Carthage was the entrepôt for them. Archelaüs speaks of a brittle variety being found in the vicinity of Thebes also, in Egypt, full of veins, and similar to dying embers in appearance. I find it stated, too, that in former times, drinking-vessels used to be made of this stone and of lychnis:[3107] all these kinds of stone, however, offer the most obstinate resistance to the graver, and, if used for seals, are apt to bring away a part of the wax.

CHAP. 31.—SARDA: FIVE VARIETIES OF IT.

Sarda,[3108] on the other hand, is remarkably useful for this purpose; a stone which shares its name, in part, with sardonyx. It is a common stone, and was first found at Sardes, but the most esteemed kind is that of the vicinity of Babylon. When certain quarries are being worked, these stones are found, adhering, like a kind of heart, to the interior of the rock. This mineral, however, is said to be now extinct in Persia; though it is to be found in numerous other localities, Paros and Assos, for example.

In India[3109] there are three varieties of this stone; the red sarda, the one known as “pionia,” from its thickness, and a third kind, beneath which they place a ground of silver tinsel. The Indian stones are transparent, those of Arabia being more opaque. There are some found also in the vicinity of Leucas in Epirus, and in Egypt, which have a ground placed beneath them of leaf gold. In the case of this stone, too, the male stone shines with a more attractive brilliancy than the female, which is of a thicker substance, and more opaque. Among the ancients there was no precious stone in more common use than this; at all events, it is this stone that is made so much parade of in the comedies of Menander and Philemon. No one, too, among the transparent stones is tarnished more speedily by exposure to moisture than this; though of all liquids, it is oil that acts the most readily upon it. Those stones which are like honey in colour, are generally disapproved of, and still more so, when they have the complexion of earthenware.[3110]

CHAP. 32. (8.)—TOPAZOS: TWO VARIETIES OF IT.

Topazos[3111] is a stone that is still held in very high estimation for its green tints: indeed, when it was first discovered, it was preferred to every other kind of precious stone. It so happened that some Troglodytic pirates, suffering from tempest and hunger, having landed upon an island off the coast of Arabia known as Cytis,[3112] when digging there for roots and grass, discovered this precious stone: such, at least, is the opinion expressed by Archelaüs. Juba says that there is an island in the Red Sea called “Topazos,”[3113] at a distance of three hundred stadia from the main land; that it is surrounded by fogs, and is often sought by navigators in consequence; and that, owing to this, it received its present name,[3114] the word “topazin” meaning “to seek,” in the language of the Troglodytæ. He states also, that Philon, the king’s præfect, was the first to bring these stones from this island; that, on his presenting them to Queen Berenice, the mother of the second Ptolemæus, she was wonderfully pleased with them; and that, at a later period, a statue, four cubits in height, was made of this stone,[3115] in honour of Arsinoë, the wife of Ptolemæus Philadelphus, it being consecrated in the temple known as the “Golden Temple.”

The most recent writers say that this stone is found also in the vicinity of Alabastrum, a city of Thebais, and they distinguish two varieties of it, the prasoïdes[3116] and the chrysopteron;[3117] which last is similar to chrysoprasus,[3118] all the shades of it tending, more or less, to resemble the colouring principle of the leek. Topazos is the largest of all the precious stones, and is the only one among those of high value that yields to the action of the file, the rest being polished by the aid of stone of Naxos.[3119] It admits, too, of being worn by use.

CHAP. 33.—CALLAINA.

With this stone we must also couple another, which resembles it more closely in appearance than in value, the stone known as “callaina,”[3120] and of a pale green colour. It is found in the countries[3121] that lie at the back of India, among the Phycari, namely, who inhabit Mount Caucasus, the Sacæ, and the Dahæ. It is remarkable for its size, but is covered with holes and full of extraneous matter; that, however, which is found in Carmania is of a finer quality, and far superior. In both cases, however, it is only amid frozen and inaccessible rocks that it is found, protruding from the surface, like an eye in appearance, and slightly adhering to the rock; not as though it formed an integral part of it, but with all the appearance of having been attached to it. People so habituated as they are to riding on horseback, cannot find the energy and dexterity requisite for climbing the rocks to obtain the stones, while, at the same time, they are quite terrified at the danger of doing so. Hence it is, that they attack the stones with slings from a distance, and so bring them down, moss and all. It is with this stone that the people pay their tribute, and this the rich look upon as their most graceful ornament for the neck.[3122] This constitutes the whole of their wealth, with some, and it is their chief glory to recount how many of these stones they have brought down from the mountain heights since the days of their childhood. Their success, however, is extremely variable;[3123] for while some, at the very first throw, have brought down remarkably fine specimens, many have arrived at old age without obtaining any.

Such is the method of procuring these stones; their form being given them by cutting, a thing that is easily effected. The best of them have just the colour of smaragdus, a thing that proves that the most pleasing property in them is one that belongs of right to another stone. Their beauty is heightened by setting them in gold, and there is no stone to which the contrast of the gold is more becoming. The finest of them lose their colour by coming in contact with oil, unguents, or undiluted wine even; whereas those of a poorer quality preserve their colour better. There is no stone, too, that is more easily counterfeited in glass. Some writers say, that this stone is to be found in Arabia also, in the nest of the bird known as the “melancoryphus.”[3124]

CHAP. 34.—PRASIUS; THREE VARIETIES OF IT.

There are numerous other kinds also of green stones. To the more common class belongs prasius;[3125] one variety of which is disfigured with spots[3126] like blood, while another kind is marked with three streaks of white. To all these stones chrysoprasus[3127] is preferred, which is also similar to the colouring matter of the leek, but varies in tint between topazos and gold. This stone is found of so large a size as to admit of drinking-boats[3128] even being made of it, and is cut into cylinders very frequently.

CHAP. 35.—NILION.

India, which produces these stones, produces nilion[3129] also, a stone that differs from the last in its dull, diminished lustre, which, when steadily looked upon, soon fades from the sight. Sudines says that it is to be found also in the Siberus, a river of Attica. In appearance it resembles a smoke-coloured topazos, or, in some cases, a topazos with a tint like honey. According to Juba, Æthiopia produces it, upon the shores of the river known to us as the Nilus; to which circumstance, he says, it owes its name.

CHAP. 36.—MOLOCHITIS.

Molochitis[3130] is not transparent, being of a deeper green, and more opaque than smaragdus; its name is derived from the mallow,[3131] which it resembles in colour. It is highly esteemed for making seals, and it is endowed by Nature with medicinal properties which render it a preservative for infants against certain dangers which menace them. This stone is a native of Arabia.[3132]

CHAP. 37.—IASPIS; FOURTEEN VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS FOUND IN IASPIS.

Iaspis,[3133] too, is green, and often transparent; a stone which, if surpassed by many others, still retains the renown which it acquired in former times. Many countries produce this stone: that of India is like smaragdus in colour; that of Cyprus is hard, and of a full sea-green; and that of Persia is sky-blue, whence its name, “aërizusa.”[3134] Similar to this last is the Caspian iaspis. On the banks of the river Thermodon the iaspis is of an azure colour; in Phrygia, it is purple; and in Cappadocia of an azure purple, sombre, and not refulgent. Amisos[3135] sends us an iaspis like that of India in colour, and Chalcedon,[3136] a stone of a turbid hue.

But it is of less consequence to distinguish the several localities that furnish it, than it is to remark upon the degrees of excellence which they present. The best kind is that which has a shade of purple, the next best being the rose-coloured, and the next the stone with the green colour of the smaragdus; to each of which the Greeks have given names[3137] according to their respective tints. A fourth kind, which is called by them “boria,”[3138] resembles in colour the sky of a morning in autumn; this, too, will be the same that is known as “aërizusa.”[3139] There is an iaspis also which resembles sarda[3140] in appearance, and another with a violet tint. Not less numerous, too, are the other kinds that are left undescribed; but they are all blue to a fault,[3141] or else resemble crystal in appearance, or the tints of the myxa[3142] plum. There is the terebenthine[3143]-coloured iaspis also; improperly so called, in my opinion, as it has all the appearance of being a composition of numerous gems of this description.

The best of these stones are set in an open bezel, the gold of which only embraces the margins of the stone, leaving the upper and lower surfaces uncovered. One great defect in them is a subdued lustre, and a want of refulgence when viewed from a distance. Grains also like salt appear within the stone, and all the other defects which are common[3144] to precious stones in general. Sometimes they are imitated in glass; a fraud, however, which may be easily detected, from the material throwing out its refulgence, instead of concentrating it within itself. To this class also belongs the stone called “sphragis,”[3145] which is only reckoned as belonging to the domain of precious stones, from the circumstance that it is the best of all for making signets.[3146]

(9.) Throughout all the East, it is the custom, it is said, to wear iaspis by way of amulet. The variety of this stone which resembles smaragdus in colour is often found with a white line running transversely through the middle; in which case it is known as “monogrammos:”[3147] when it is streaked with several lines, it is called “polygrammos.”[3148] Here, too, I may take the opportunity of exposing the falsehoods[3149] of the magicians, who pretend that this stone is beneficial for persons when speaking in public. There is a stone also that is formed of iaspis and onyx combined, and is known as “iasponyx.”[3150] Sometimes this stone has a clouded appearance; sometimes it has spots upon the surface like snow;[3151] and sometimes it is stellated with red spots.[3152] One kind resembles salt of Megara[3153] in appearance, and another is known as capnias,[3154] and looks as if it had been smoked. We have seen in our day an iaspis[3155] fifteen inches in length, of which a figure of Nero was made, armed with a cuirass.

CHAP. 38.—CYANOS; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT.

We must also give a separate account of cyanos,[3156] a name which, until very recently, was given to a species of iaspis, on account of its cærulean colour. The best kind is that of Scythia,[3157] the next best being the produce of Cyprus, and, last of all, that of Egypt. An artificial[3158] kind is much in use, that is prepared by dyeing other substances; and this invention is looked upon as one of the great glories of the kings of Egypt, the name of the king who first discovered it being still preserved in their annals. This stone, too, is divided into male and female, and sometimes it has the appearance of being powdered with a golden dust, in much the same way as sapphiros.

CHAP. 39.—SAPPHIROS.

For sapphiros,[3159] too, is refulgent with spots[3160] like gold. It is also of an azure colour, though sometimes, but rarely, it is purple; the best kind being that which comes from Media. In no case, however, is this stone diaphanous; in addition to which, it is not suited for engraving when intersected with hard particles of a crystalline[3161] nature. Those among them that have the colour of cyanos are generally thought to be the male stones.

CHAP. 40.—AMETHYSTOS; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. SOCONDION. SAPENOS. PHARANITIS. APHRODITES BLEPHARON, ANTEROS, OR PÆDEROS.

We will now commence with another class of precious stones, those of a purple colour, or whose tints are derived from purple. To the first rank belongs the amethystos[3162] of India; a stone which is also found in the part of Arabia that adjoins Syria and is known as Petra, as also in Lesser Armenia, Egypt, and Galatia; the very worst of all, and the least valued, being those of Thasos and Cyprus. The name which these stones bear, originates, it is said, in the peculiar tint of their brilliancy, which, after closely approaching the colour of wine, passes off into a violet without being fully pronounced; or else, according to some authorities, in the fact that in their purple there is something that falls short of a fiery colour, the tints fading off and inclining to the colour of wine.

All these stones are transparent and of an agreeable violet colour, and are easy[3163] to engrave. Those of India have in perfection the very richest shades of purple, and it is to attain this colour that the dyers[3164] in purple direct all their endeavours; it presenting a fine mellowed appearance to the eye, and not dazzling the sight, as in the case with the colours of the carbunculus. Another variety approaches more nearly the hyacinth in colour: the people of India call this tint “socon,” and the stone itself “socondion.” A third stone of this class is of a more diluted colour, and is known as “sapenos,” being identical with “pharanitis,” so called from a country[3165] on the frontiers of Arabia that produces it. Of a fourth kind, the colour is like that of wine; and in a fifth it borders very closely upon that of crystal, the purple gradually passing off into white. This last kind is but little valued; for a fine amethyst should always have, when viewed sideways[3166] and held up to the light, a certain purple refulgence, like that of carbunculus, slightly inclining to a tint of rose.

Some prefer giving these stones the name of “pæderos”[3167] or of “anteros,”[3168] while to many they are known as “Venus’[3169] eyelid,” a name which would seem to be particularly appropriate to the colour and general appearance of the gem. The falsehoods of the magicians would persuade us that these stones are preventive of inebriety, and that it is from this that they have derived[3170] their name. They tell us also, that if we inscribe the names of the sun and moon upon this stone, and then wear it suspended from the neck, with some hair of the cynocephalus[3171] and feathers of the swallow, it will act as a preservative against all noxious spells. It is said too, that worn in any manner, this stone will ensure access to the presence of kings; and that it will avert hail and the attacks of locusts, if a certain prayer is also repeated which they mention. They make similar promises, too, in reference to the smaragdus, if graven with the figure of an eagle or of a scarabæus: statements which, in my opinion, they cannot have committed to writing without a feeling of contempt and derision for the rest of mankind.

CHAP. 41.—HYACINTHOS.

Very different from this stone is hyacinthos,[3172] though partaking of a colour that closely borders upon it. The great difference between them is, that the brilliant violet which is so refulgent in the amethystos, is diluted in the other stone. Though pleasing at first sight, its beauty fades before the eye is satiated; indeed, so far is it from satisfying the sight, that it almost wholly fails to attract the eye, its lustre disappearing more rapidly than the tints of the flower[3173] known by the same name.

CHAP. 42.—CHRYSOLITHOS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF IT.

Æthiopia, which produces hyacinthos, produces chrysolithos[3174] also, a transparent stone with a refulgence like that of gold. The stones of India are the most highly esteemed, as also those found among the Tibareni,[3175] provided these last are not of a mottled hue. The worst in quality are those of Arabia, the colour of them being turbid and mottled, and their brilliancy interrupted by cloudy spots: even too, when they happen to be limpid, they have all the appearance of being full, as it were, of a peculiar dust. The best stones are those which, when placed by the side of gold, impart to it a sort of whitish hue, and so give it the appearance of silver. When this is the case, they are set in a bezel that is open on either side; but when the stone is of inferior quality, a ground of aurichalcum[3176] is placed beneath.

CHAP. 43.—CHRYSELECTRUM.

Though it has now altogether gone out of use for jewellery, there is a precious stone known as “chryselectrum,”[3177] the colour of which inclines to that of amber;[3178] but only when viewed by a morning[3179] light. The stones of Pontus are known by their lightness. Some of them are hard and reddish, while others, again, are soft and of a soiled appearance. According to Bocchus, these stones are found in Spain as well; in a spot where, according to him, fossil crystal has been discovered, in sinking to the water-level for wells.[3180] He tells us also that he once saw a chrysolithos twelve[3181] pounds in weight.

CHAP. 44.—LEUCOCHRYSOS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT.

There is also a stone known as “leucochrysos,”[3182] with a white vein running across it. To this class, too, belongs capnias;[3183] a stone also which resembles glass in appearance; and another which reflects a tint like that of saffron. These stones are imitated in glass, to such a degree of perfection, that it is impossible to distinguish them by the eye. The touch, however, detects the difference, the imitation being not so cold as the real stone.

CHAP. 45.—MELICHRYSOS. XUTHON.

To this class also belongs melichrysos,[3184] a stone which has all the appearance of pure honey, seen through transparent gold. India produces these stones, and, although hard, they are very brittle, but not unpleasing to the sight. The same country, too, produces xuthon,[3185] a stone much used by the lower classes there.

CHAP. 46.—PÆDEROS, SANGENON, OR TENITES.

At the very head of the white stones is pæderos;[3186] though it may still be questionable to which of the colours it in reality belongs. As to the name, it has been so much bandied about among other precious stones of conspicuous beauty, that it has quite assumed the privilege of being a synonymous term[3187] for all that is charming to the eye. Still, however, there is one[3188] stone in particular which fully merits all the commendation that might be expected for a stone with so prepossessing a name: for in itself it reunites the transparency of crystal, the peculiar green of the sky, the deep tints of purple, and a sort of bright reflex, like that of a golden-coloured wine; a reflex, indeed, that is always the last to meet the eye, but is always crowned with the lustrous hues of purple. The stone, in fact, has all the appearance of having been bathed in each of these tints, individually, and yet in the whole of them at once. There is no precious stone either that has a clearer water than this, or that presents a more pleasing sweetness to the eye.

Pæderos of the finest quality comes from India, where it is known as “sangenon;” the next best being that of Egypt, called “tenites.” That of third-rate quality is found in Arabia, but it is rough upon the surface. Next, we have the stone of Pontus, the radiance of which is softer than in that of Thasos, which, in its turn, is of a more mellowed colour than the stones of Galatia, Thrace, and Cyprus. The defects commonly found in these stones are, a want of brilliancy, a confusion with colours which do not properly belong to them, and the other imperfections which are found in stones in general.[3189]

CHAP. 47.—ASTERIA.

Next among the white stones is “asteria,”[3190] a gem which holds its high rank on account of a certain peculiarity in its nature, it having a light enclosed within, in the pupil of an eye as it were. This light, which has all the appearance of moving within the stone, it transmits according to the angle of inclination at which it is held; now in one direction, and now in another. When held facing the sun, it emits white rays like those of a star, and to this, in fact, it owes its name.[3191] The stones of India are very difficult to engrave, those of Carmania being preferred.

CHAP. 48.—ASTRION.

Of a similar white radiance is the stone that is known as “astrion,”[3192] closely resembling crystal in its nature, and found in India and upon the coasts of Pallene.[3193] In the centre of it there shines internally a brilliant star, with a refulgence like that of the moon when full. Some will have it that this stone receives its name from the fact that, when held opposite to the stars, it absorbs the light they emit and then returns it. The finest stones, they say, are those of Carmania, there being none more entirely free from all defects. They add, also, that a stone of inferior quality is known as “ceraunia,”[3194] and that, in the worst of all, the light is very similar to that given by a lamp.

CHAP. 49.—ASTRIOTES.

Astriotes,[3195] too, is a stone that is highly esteemed, and Zoroaster, they say, has sung its wondrous praises as an adjunct of the magic art.

CHAP. 50.—ASTROBOLOS.

Sudines says, that astrobolos[3196] resembles the eye of a fish in appearance, and that it has a radiant white refulgence when viewed in the sun.

CHAP. 51.—CERAUNIA; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT.

Among the white stones also, there is one known as “ceraunia,”[3197] which absorbs the brilliancy of the stars. It is of a crystalline formation, of a lustrous azure colour, and is a native of Carmania. Zenothemis admits that it is white, but asserts that it has the figure of a blazing star within. Some of them, he says, are dull, in which case it is the custom to steep them for some days in a mixture of nitre and vinegar; at the end of which period the star makes its appearance, but gradually dies away by the end of as many months.

Sotacus mentions also two other varieties of ceraunia, one black and the other red; and he says that they resemble axes in shape. Those which are black and round,[3198] he says, are looked upon as sacred, and by their assistance cities and fleets are attacked and taken: the name given to them is “bætyli,” those of an elongated form being known as “cerauniæ.”[3199] They make out also that there is another kind, rarely to be met with, and much in request for the practices of magic, it never being found in any place but one that has been struck by lightning.[3200]

CHAP. 52.—IRIS; TWO VARIETIES OF IT.

The next name mentioned by these authors is that of the stone called “iris;”[3201] which is found, in a fossil state, in a certain island of the Red Sea, forty miles distant from the city of Berenice. It is partly composed of crystal, and hence it is that some have called it “root of crystal.” It takes its name “iris” from the properties which it possesses; for, when struck by the rays of the sun in a covered spot, it projects upon the nearest walls the form and diversified colours of the rainbow; continually changing its tints, and exciting admiration by the great variety of colours which it presents. That it is hexahedral in form, like crystal, is generally agreed; but some say that it is rough on the sides and of unequal angles; and that, when exposed to a full sun, it disperses the rays that are thrown upon it, while at the same time, by throwing out a certain brightness[3202] before it, it illumines all objects that may happen to be adjacent. The stone, however, as already stated, only presents these colours when under cover; not as though they were in the body of the stone itself, but, to all appearance, as if they were the result of the reflected light upon the surface of the wall. The best kind is the one that produces the largest arcs, with the closest resemblance to the rainbow.

“Iritis” is the name of another stone, similar to the last in all other respects, but remarkable for its extreme hardness. Horus says, in his writings, that this stone, calcined and triturated, is a remedy for the bite of the ichneumon, and that it is a native of Persia.

CHAP. 53.—LEROS.

The stone called “leros”[3203] is similar in appearance, but does not produce the same effects. It is a crystal, with streaks of white and black running across it.

CHAP. 54.—ACHATES; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. ACOPOS; THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. ALABASTRITIS; THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. ALECTORIA. ANDRODAMAS. ARGYRODAMAS. ANTIPATHES. ARABICA. AROMATITIS. ASBESTOS. ASPISATIS. ATIZÖE. AUGETIS. AMPHIDANES OR CHRYSOCOLLA. APHRODISIACA. APSYCTOS. ÆGYPTILLA.

Having now described the principal precious stones, classified according to their respective colours, I shall proceed to mention the rest of them in their alphabetical order.

(10.) Achates[3204] was a stone formerly in high esteem, but now held in none. It was first found in Sicily, near a river of that name; but has since been discovered in numerous other localities. In size it exceeds any other stones of this class, and the varieties of it are numerous, the name varying accordingly. Thus, for example, we have iaspachates,[3205] cerachates,[3206] smaragdachates,[3207] hæmachates,[3208] leucachates,[3209] dendrachates,[3210] marked with small shrubs, as it were; autachates,[3211] which when burnt has a smell like that of myrrh; and coralloachates,[3212] spotted all over, like sapphiros, with drops of gold, and commonly found in Crete, where it is also known as “sacred” achates. This last, it is thought, is good for wounds inflicted by spiders and scorpions; a property which I could really believe to belong to the stones of Sicily, for, the moment they breathe the air of that province, scorpions lose their venom.

The stones, too, that are found in India are possessed of similar properties, and of other great and marvellous properties as well; for they present the appearance in them of rivers,[3213] woods,[3214] beasts of burden, and forms even, like ivy[3215] and the trappings of horses. Medical men, too, make grinding-hones[3216] of these stones, and indeed the very sight of them is beneficial for the eyes: held in the mouth, they allay thirst. Those found in Phrygia have no green in them, and those of Thebes in Egypt are destitute of red and white veins. These last are good as a counterpoison to the venom of the scorpion, and the stones of Cyprus are held in similar repute. Some persons set the highest value upon those stones which present a transparency like that of glass. They are found also in Trachinia, in the vicinity of Mount Œta, upon Mount Parnassus, in the Isle of Lesbos, in Messene, where they resemble the flowers that grow in the hedges, and at Rhodes.

The magicians make other distinctions in reference to these stones: those, they tell us, which have spots upon them like the spots on the lion’s skin, are efficacious as a protection against scorpions; and in Persia, they say, these stones are used, by way of fumigation, for arresting tempests and hurricanes, and for stopping the course of rivers, the proof of their efficacy being their turning the water cold, if thrown into a boiling cauldron. To be duly efficacious, they must be attached to the body with hairs from a lion’s mane. The hair, however, of the hyæna is held in abomination for this purpose, as being a promoter of discord in families. The stone that is of an uniform colour renders athletes invincible, they say: the way of testing it is to throw it, along with colouring matter, into a pot full of oil; after being kept for a couple of hours gently on the boil, if genuine, it will impart an uniform colour of vermilion to the mixture.

Acopos[3217] is a stone like nitre[3218] in appearance, porous, and starred with drops of gold: gently boiled with oil and applied as an unguent, it relieves lassitude, if we choose to believe it. Alabastritis[3219] is a stone which comes from Alabastron in Egypt and Damascus in Syria: it is of a white colour, spotted with various other tints. Calcined with fossil salt and pulverized, it is a cure for affections of the mouth and teeth, it is said. Alectoria[3220] is the name given to a stone that is found in the crop of poultry, like crystal in appearance, and about as large as a bean in size: Milo[3221] of Crotona, some will have it, was thought to be in the habit of carrying this stone about him, a thing that rendered him invincible in his athletic contests. Androdamas[3222] has the shining colour of silver, like adamas;[3223] it is always quadrangular, like small cubes in shape. The magicians are of opinion that it was thus named from the fact that it subdues anger and violence in man. Whether argyrodamas[3224] is the same stone or not, authors do not inform us. Antipathes[3225] is a black stone, and not transparent: the mode of testing it, is by boiling it in milk, to which, if genuine, it imparts a colour like that of myrrh. A person might probably expect to find some extraordinary virtues in this stone, seeing that, among so many other substances possessed of antipathetic properties, it is the only one that bears this name. The magicians will have it that it possesses the power of counteracting fascinations.