Chapter M: J. S

_Answer._—The following table embraces the chief rulers of the world:

Crowned or
Countries. Rulers. inaugurated

Great Britain Queen Victoria 1837
Germany Emperor William I 1871
France President Grevy 1879
Denmark Christian IX 1863
Sweden Oscar II 1872
Spain Alphonso XI 1875
Portugal Luis II 1861
Russia Alexander III 1881
Turkey Abdul Hamid 1876
Austria-Hungary Francis Joseph 1848
United States Chester A. Arthur 1881

PASSION FLOWER.

BURLINGTON, Iowa.

Why is the passion flower so called?

FLORA.

_Answer._—It was called by this name by the Spanish settlers of the West Indies and South America, its native region, because they fancied it to be a representative of Christ’s passion or sacrificial death. According to this fancy, the leaf symbolizes the spear that pierced the Savior’s side; the anthers, the marks of the five wounds made by the spear; the tendrils, the cords or whips with which He was secured; the column of the ovary, the upright of the cross; the stamens, the hammers; the three styles, the nails; the filamentous processes, the crown of thorns; the calyx, the glory or halo; the white tinge, purity; the blue tint, heaven; and the fact that it remains open three days typifies his three years’ ministry.

ASBESTOS.

ABERDEEN, D. T.

What is asbestos, where is it found, and what valuable properties
has it?

H. T. MCLANE.

_Answer._—Asbestos is a fibrous, white, gray, or green mineral, not easily fusible. The most beautiful specimens come from Corsica and Savoy, though some are found in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Ural Mountains, and in North America and New South Wales, while commoner varieties, such as mountain cork and mountain wood, are found in Lanarkshire, Tyrol, Dauphiny and parts of Scotland. Its chief value is its infusibility, and though it possesses little consistency, it was by the ancients woven into garments, towels, and handkerchiefs, and has in later times become useful as fireproof roofing, flooring, and packing in safes, journal boxes, and around steam pipes. Paper has been made of it, but though at red heat the paper remains uninjured, the writing disappears. As cloth it is desirable, needing only to be thrown into the fire to be cleansed. It is said that Charlemagne had a table cloth of asbestos, which he was wont to throw into the fire at the close of the meal for the amusement of his guests.

HOW TO USE AN INCUBATOR.

ELK GROVE, Wis.

Our Curiosity Shop has explained how to make an artificial
incubator; how do you use one after it is made?

“I.”

_Answer._—Mrs. P. G. Gilman, Paola, Kan.; Mrs. L. R. Stanley, Cameron, Neb.; C. D., Kalamazoo, Mich., make substantially the same inquiry.

In the first place be sure to get fresh eggs, which have not been chilled to death in the nest, and sort out all unfertile ones. After the eggs have been in the incubator two, or at most three days, you can tell every egg that is not fertile. By placing the small end to the eye, looking toward the sun, and moving the head up and down, you will see a dark spot floating on the top of every fertile egg. Any egg that remains perfectly clear after being in the incubator until the fourth day may as well be taken out for use or for market, since it will never hatch. Some persons recommend the use of a cheap egg-tester, which can be got by writing to the Secretary of the National American Poultry Association, New Concord, Ohio, but others think this is not needed. The eggs must be kept at a regular heat of between 102 and 105 degs. After the third day take out the egg-drawer once a day and let the eggs cool down to about 70 or 80 degs., but not below 65 degs. Turn the eggs every four or five hours during the day, by moving the muslin frame on which the eggs rest backward or forward a couple of inches, as indicated in the instructions for making the incubator. It is all done in a trice; it will be well to do this once during the night, and see that the temperature is up to proper grade. Be careful that it does not rise above 105 degs., as there is even more danger of killing the eggs by over-heating than by letting the temperature run a little low. After the third day set two or more soup-plates or tin pie-pans on the sawdust in the ventilator, under the eggs to moisten them; and from the ninth to the twelfth day sprinkle a little tepid water on the eggs by hand, in addition to the evaporation from the water in the pans. From the twelfth to the fifteenth day hand-sprinkle them twice a day, and thereafter three times a day until they hatch. The water acts on the lime of the shells to make it brittle. Perhaps it is best not to have any fire in the incubator-room, which may be a cellar, wood shed, or unoccupied room in the house. A writer in the _American Agriculturist_ says: “If any one doubts that pine sawdust in an incubator will kill his eggs let him try it.” There may be something in this warning, but it is doubtful. Study your lamps to learn about how high to turn the wicks, in order to keep the temperature just right, and observe the thermometers in the front and back of your egg drawer frequently. See that the escape pipes in the heater do not slip down so close to the zinc as to check the draft. Better keep them from one to two inches above the zinc. Keep the ventilators open.

When the eggs are hatched keep the chicks in the incubator till dried, anywhere from twelve to eighteen hours, but not longer. Put them in the brooder, or “artificial mother,” which will be described hereafter. Give them their first food when they are about 18 or 20 hours old. Use bread crumbs wet with milk, or corn meal thoroughly soaked, or hard-boiled eggs, and feed regularly at intervals of three or four hours from 5 o’clock a. m. to 9 o’clock p. m. Do not over-feed; give them only what they will eat clean. When old enough give them dry grain.

CERTAIN LUMBER GRADES.

DOWS, Iowa.

Please give the inspection rules for grading flooring,
fence-boards, siding, and six-inch, half-round, live cedar posts.

H. H. OBERTON.

_Answer._—There are different inspection rules at nearly all the great centers of the lumber trade. There are the “Albany Inspection,” governing the lumber product of Northern New York, the “Maine survey,” the “Boston inspection,” the “Saginaw inspection,” the “Chicago cargo inspection,” “Chicago yard grading,” “St. Louis inspection,” “Minneapolis inspection,” and several others. The differences at the several Western centers do not differ very greatly. The following grading is according to the rules of Chicago yard grading:

Flooring—A, or firsts, should have one face nearly clear, with but one or two small, sound knots; the other side may have more knots or sap. B, or seconds, may have two to four sound, medium knots, and bright sap equal to 1 or 1¼ inches width. C, or thirds, will allow of three to six small, sound knots, or 1½ to 2 inches of bright sap.

Fencing flooring is good common flooring from selected fence boards, and may have a large number of small, sound knots, but the general character of the piece must be such as to make a good, tight floor, practically free from “shake” and loose knots.

Fencing—No. 1, or common, contains sound knots only, not to weaken the piece, and may have considerable sap, bright, dull, or stained. No. 2 contains black sap, coarse knots, and boards shaky or otherwise defective, provided they are not unfit for coarse fencing.

Strips and Siding—First and second clear, No. 1, must be perfect in thickness, width, and quality, as clear lumber, free from knots and sap. No. 2 will admit of a narrow, bright sap on one side, or one or two knots. A, or first common, if free from knots, may have two or three small sound knots, or bright sap, one-half or three-quarters of an inch wide. B, or second common, may have three or four medium-sized sound knots, or bright sap of 1 to 1½ inches wide. C, or third common, may have two to six medium knots, 2 to 3 inches of sap, or both sap and knots to equal these. Six-inch half-round live cedar posts must be of trees alive when felled, free from rot or decay of any kind, and not less than six inches at small end.

The St. Louis inspection rules for white pine lumber are almost identical with those of Chicago. Minneapolis rules allow 1 inch sap and three small knots, but no other imperfections in first flooring; six small knots and 1½-inch sap in second flooring; 1-inch sap on thin edge, but no other imperfections in first siding, dressed; three small knots and 1-inch sap on either side in second siding. Grading in the Upper Mississippi River towns is influenced strongly by the Minneapolis rules.

HOMESTEAD RIGHTS OF WOMEN.

FORT COLLINS, Col.

1. Does the homestead law allow single men and women to leave their
claims to earn their living? 2. If a woman holding land under the
homestead and timber-culture laws marries a man holding land in the
same way, does she forfeit her right to either claim?