Chapter XXIX: Introduction: Of Postage Stamps

HORTONVILLE, Wis.

When were postage stamps first used, and by what Nation?

P. G. M.

_Answer._—The use of postage stamps, one of the great reforms advocated by Rowland Hill, was introduced into England through his efforts May 6, 1840. They began to be used in this country in 1847.

TIMES THAT TRY MEN’S SOULS.

ROCKFORD, Ill.

Who was the author of the expression, “These are times that try
men’s souls?”

E. D. H.

_Answer._—Thomas Paine, who professed to believe that men had no souls. During the Revolutionary war, soon after the British captured Philadelphia, and when the cause of independence was shrouded in gloom, Paine, who was certainly one of the most spirited, brilliant, and effective knights of the pen that championed independence, wrote in “The American Crisis,” “These are times that try men’s souls.”

WHO BURNED MOSCOW?

ALMA, Wis.

Did Napoleon burn Moscow, or was it burned by the Russians on his
approach?

INQUIRER.

_Answer._—It is not certain that Moscow was set on fire by official order. If so, it was by command of Count Rostoptchin, who claimed that honor after he saw the result, the forced evacuation of the city by Napoleon and the French army, which had taken possession of it on Sept. 14 and 15. Some say that it was fired by Russian fanatics when they knew that Napoleon had taken up his headquarters in the Kremlin, which they regarded as sacred. The French endeavored to extinguish the conflagration, which was ruinous to them, as it was their reliance for winter quarters.

GRADES OF BARLEY.

OOSTBURGH, Wis.

1. What constitutes the difference in grades of barley? 2. Wherein
does the color of barley affect the quality of the grain? 3. How,
except to gouge the farmer, did the custom of making fifty pounds
of barley for the bushel originate, the legal standard being
forty-eight pounds? 4. Are farmers under obligation to conform to
board of trade rules, contrary to law?

QUIZ.

_Answer._—1. The following are the rules governing the State inspection of barley in Chicago: “No. 1 barley shall be plump, bright, clean, and free from other grain. No. 2 barley shall be sound, of healthy color, bright or but slightly stained, not plump enough for No. 1, reasonably clean, and reasonably free from other grain. No. 3 barley shall include slightly shrunken and otherwise slightly damaged barley, not good enough for No. 2. No. 4 barley shall include all barley fit for malting purposes, not good enough for No. 3. No. 5 barley shall include all barley which is badly damaged, or for any cause unfit for malting purposes, except that barley which has been chemically heated shall not be graded at all.” 2. The color of barley is an indication of its age and condition in several respects. 3. The legal bushel by weight is different in different States. In California and Nevada it is 50 pounds; in Wisconsin and most other States it is 48; in Pennsylvania, 47; in Oregon, 46; in Louisiana it is only 32. Boards of trade make rules for themselves, one object being uniformity for the whole country. 4. As a rule, statutes fixing the weight per bushel of various commodities specify that this is to apply only in cases where contracts fail to specify the weight to be given. When grain is sold on ’Change the rules of the board determine the weight to be delivered. Since seller and purchaser are presumed to be acquainted with these rules, it is hard to imagine how either can justly complain of being “gouged.”

HERODOTUS.

CROMWELL, Iowa.

Please give a short sketch of Herodotus, the father of history.

FRANK SMITH.

_Answer._—Herodotus, called the “Father of History,” was born at Halicarnassus, a Dorian city of Asia Minor, B. C. 484. In his youth he became disgusted with the tyrannical rule of Lygdamis, and abandoned his home for the island of Samos, upon which he acquired the Ionic dialect, which he used in writing his history. After remaining there some time he began his famous travels, visiting Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Babylon, and Northern Africa. Returning to his old home he assisted in the expulsion of Lygdamis and the establishment of a new ruler. The latter, however, became nearly as tyrannical as the former, so that Herodotus again looked abroad for a home. Hearing that a colony was about to leave Athens for Italy, he joined it and settled, B. C. 443, at Thurrii in that peninsula. At that place he lived the remainder of his life, writing the history which has been a lasting monument to his name. It is not known in what year he died; but it is supposed that he lived to be a very old man.

A PENSION QUERY.

IOLA, Ill.

Please answer the following: A soldier applies for a pension
because of a disease contracted while in the service, but dies of
said disease before action is taken by the department, leaving no
wife but one child, a daughter, under 16 years of age, who dies
before the claim is allowed; who, if anybody, is entitled to the
pension?

J. ROBINSON.

_Answer._—Section 4,718 of the Revised Statutes of the United States reads as follows: “If any pensioner has died or shall hereafter die; or if any person entitled to a pension, having an application therefor pending, has died or shall hereafter die, his widow, or if there is no widow, the child or children of such person under the age of 16 years shall be entitled to receive the accrued pension to the date of the death of such person. Such accrued pension shall not be considered as a part of the assets of the estate of deceased nor liable to be applied to the payment of the debts of the said estate in any case whatever, but shall inure to the sole and exclusive benefit of the widow or children; and if no widow or child survive no payment whatsoever of accrued pension shall be allowed, except so much as may be necessary to reimburse the person who bore the expenses of the last sickness and burial of the decedent in cases where he did not have sufficient assets to meet such expenses.” According to Section 4,707 pensions may be granted to relatives who were dependent upon the disabled soldier, but these are limited to the mother, father, or orphan brothers and sisters under 16 years of age, named in the order of precedence.

SPORTING FEATS.

CHAMPAIGN, Ill.

Please answer the following questions: 1. What is the fastest time
in which dashes of 100, 150, and 200 yards and one mile have been
made by athletes? 2. What is the greatest record for running long
and running high jumps without weights or spring-boards? 3. What
is the longest base-ball throw on record? 4. What is the longest
foot-ball kick?

S.

_Answer._—The fastest time for a dash of 100 yards was made by George Seward, an American, at Hammersmith, England, Sept. 30, 1844, say 9¼ seconds; the fastest 150 yards was run by George Forbes, at Providence, R. I., Dec. 20, 1869, say 15 seconds; the fastest 220-yard dash was run by L. E. Myers, at New York City, Sept. 15, 1881, say 22½ seconds. The fastest mile run on record was made by William Cummings, at Preston, England, May 14, 1881, say 4 minutes 16⅕ seconds. The fastest mile run in this country was made by W. G. George, at New York City, Nov. 11, 1882. 2. The longest running long jump, without artificial aid, was made by J. Lane, at Dublin, Ireland, June 10, 1874, say 23 feet 1½ inches; the greatest running high jump in Great Britain, 6 feet 3¾ inches, was made by P. Davin, at Carrick-on-Suir, Ireland; the greatest in America, 5 feet 11 inches, was made by E. W. Johnston, Belleville, Ont. 3. The longest base ball throw on record was made by John Hatfield, at Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 18, 1872, say 133 yards 1 foot 7½ inches. 4. The longest foot-ball “place kick,” with a run, is 187 feet 10 inches, made by R. Young, at Glasgow, Scotland, July 2, 1881.

THE COLOSSEUM.

LAMONI, Iowa.

When was the Colosseum at Rome built, and for what purpose? What
were its dimensions; what is its present use, and who owns it?

E. B. T.

_Answer._—The Colosseum, or Coliseum, as it is sometimes spelled, was a colossal amphitheater constructed by the Emperors Vespasian and Titus. It was in the form of an oval, the longer diameter being 612 feet, the shorter diameter 515 feet, and the height of the walls from 160 to 180 feet. It contained seats for 87,000 persons, and standing room for 15,000 more. The arena, or oval in the center, where the gladiators fought and the deadly conflicts with wild beasts took place, was 281 feet by 176. The walls were of marble, the external face consisting of four stages, or offsets, adorned with engaged columns of the three orders of Grecian architecture, Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The lowest three were arcaded, having each eighty columns and as many arches. Statues, sculptures, figures of chariots, metal shields, and other embellishments adorned the niches and salient points. What was the internal structure of this vast building is not fully understood. The tiers of seats above referred to only rose to one-half the height of the stupendous walls. Whether there were hanging galleries above these marble seats is now only a matter of conjecture. Over 2,000 wild beasts were killed in the dedicatory service. There were means by which, when the combats were ended, the immense arena could be filled with water for the exhibition of sea fights. During the various persecutions of the early Christians, many of these were thrown to the wild beasts in this amphitheater. One of the first of these was St. Ignatius, who was torn to pieces by lions. In the sixth century, when Christianity gained the ascendency, the church put an end to the use of the Colosseum. It still stood entire in the eighth century, but subsequently large quantities of the marble was used in the construction of public and private buildings. Pope Benedict XIV., in commemoration of the martyrs who had suffered within its walls, consecrated the Colosseum as a monument to them, erected crosses and oratorios within it, and so put an end to the process of destruction. Ever since it has been regarded as sacred to the martyrs and subject to the church.

WARMING ARCTIC DWELLINGS.

JOHNSONVILLE, Ill.

Do inhabitants of the Arctic regions use fire as a means of heating
their ice or snow-block houses, and for cooking? If so, what kind
of fuel do they use?

H. E. T.

_Answer._—The ordinary means of lighting and warming Esquimaux igloos, or winter huts, is a large basin of oil furnished with moss wick. These basins are scolloped from soapstone or similar material. The oil is the product of the whale, seal, or other fish, or of the white bear, but usually the former. Igloos are huts usually a half or more underground, and finished above ground with stones, bones, turf, and moss, and finally with ice and snow. Sometimes they are constructed of blocks of ice and compact snow, with transparent ice windows. The igloo is reached by a long tunnel-like entrance, is unventilated, and soon after the great lamp is lit the heat from this and the warmth from the bodies of the inmates render the mephitic air almost suffocating. These people, generally, eat their food raw or but half cooked.

GOTHAM.

CHICAGO, Ill.

Why is New York City called “Gotham?” What is the origin and
meaning of Gotham?

J. C. STARR.

_Answer._—In “Salmagundi,” a humorous work written by Washington Irving, his brother William, and James K. Paulding, this name is applied to New York, to suit the purpose of the authors in representing the inhabitants as given to undue pretensions to wisdom. Of course, the allusion is to the inhabitants of Gotham, a parish in Nottinghamshire, England, who were as remarkable for their stupidity as for their conceit. All the follies of English wiseacres were attributed to them. Fuller says: “The proverb of ‘as wise as a man of Gotham’ passeth publicly for the periphrasis of a fool; and a hundred fopperies are forged and fathered on the townsfolk of Gotham.” It was said that when King John was about to pass through Gotham toward Nottingham he was prevented by the inhabitants, who thought that the ground over which a king passed became forever a public road. When the King sent to punish them they resorted to an expedient to avert their sovereign’s wrath. According to this, when the avengers arrived they found the people each engaged in some foolish occupation or other, so that the King’s messengers returned to court and reported that Gotham was a village of fools. In time a book appeared, entitled “Certain Merry Tales of the Mad Men of Gotham,” compiled in the reign of Henry VIII., by Andrew Borde, a sort of traveling quack, from whom the occupation of the “Merry Andrew” is said to be derived. Among these tales is the story of “The Three Wise Men of Gotham,” who went to sea in a bowl. The book had a wonderful sale. Walpole attributed it to Lucas de Heere, a Flemish painter, resident in England in the time of Queen Elizabeth, but the weight of evidence is in favor of Borde’s being the author, or compiler, it being mostly a compilation of popular legends even then from four to five hundred years old.

ST. PETER’S AND COLOGNE CATHEDRAL.

FOX LAKE, Wis.

Which is larger, St. Peter’s Cathedral or the cathedral at Cologne?
Please give the dimensions of both.

ELLA LYLE.

_Answer._—The dimensions of St. Peter’s at Rome, the largest cathedral in the world, are as follows: Length of the interior, 613½ English feet; of transept, 446½ feet; height of nave, 152½ feet; and the diameter of cupola, 193 feet. The height of the dome from the pavement to the top of the cross is 448 feet. Cologne cathedral is 511 feet long, and 231 feet broad. The towers are 511 feet high. This famous building, founded by Archbishop Conrad, designed by Architect Gerhard von Riehl, and commenced Aug. 15, 1248, was not completed until Aug. 14, 1880. It was solemnly opened with august ceremonies, Oct. 15, of the same year.

ORIGIN OF CHESS.

FARMINGTON, Minn.

Please state the origin of the game of chess.

O. H. BAKER.

_Answer._—Chess is such an ancient game that its origin is unknown. Many of the most learned Oriental scholars have written upon the subject, appealing to history and philology to support their theories. It has been ascribed to a Chinese mandarin by the name of Han-Sing, who, it is said, invented it as an amusement for his soldiers when in winter quarters, about 174 B. C. They call it “the play of the science of war.” Sir William Jones, the great Sanscrit scholar, claimed that Hindu traditions, the names of the pieces, and other particulars indicate that chess was played in India in the earliest times. He writes that a learned Brahmin assured him that it was mentioned in several of the oldest books of India, where it was declared that it was invented by the wife of one of the most ancient kings of Ceylon to amuse that monarch while Rama was besieging his metropolis. This, by their reckoning, was 2,000 to 3,000 years before the commencement of our era. On the other hand, several later scholars of Sanscrit think it was invented in India by Buddhists some time between the third and ninth centuries, A. D., a theory inconsistent with the unwarlike nature of Buddhism and the fact that the Hindu name of the game, “chaturanga,” is a military name, signifying the game of armies, corresponding with the Chinese name for chess, given above. Others have ascribed this game to the Babylonians, Persians, Scythians, Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, or Romans, according to their several theories, but the weight of evidence is in favor of its being of Indian or Chinese origin, and this is now the generally accepted belief.

STATE SECRETARIES.

CHICAGO, Ill.

Oblige us with a list of the names of Secretaries of State for the
principal Western States.

B.

_Answer._—Since the names of the Secretaries of State for Texas, Oregon, and Washington Territory are called for by another correspondent, and such information is not within convenient reach of most persons, we give below a full list of Secretaries of all the States and Territories. Persons wishing information in regard to State inducements to immigration, State resources, taxation, etc., can usually obtain it by writing to the Secretary of State, who will transmit the question to the proper officer for the reply called for.

Alabama—Ellis Phelan.
Arkansas—Jacob Frolich.
California—T. L. Thompson.
Colorado—Melvin Edwards.
Connecticut—D. Ward Northrop.
Delaware—William F. Cansey.
Florida—John L. Crawford.
Georgia—N. C. Barrett.
Illinois—Henry D. Dement.
Indiana—William R. Meyers.
Iowa—John A. T. Hull.
Kansas—James Smith.
Kentucky—James Blackburn.
Louisiana—William A. Strong.
Maine—Joseph O. Smith.
Maryland—James T. Briscoe.
Massachusetts—Henry B. Pierce.
Michigan—Henry A. Conant.
Minnesota—F. Von Baumbach.
Mississippi—Henry C. Meyers.
Missouri—Michael K. McGrath.
Nebraska—Edward P. Roggen.
Nevada—J. M. Dormer.
New Hampshire—A. B. Thompson.
New Jersey—Henry C. Kelsey.
New York—Joseph B. Carr.
North Carolina—Wm. L. Saunders.
Ohio—Sames W. Newman.
Oregon—R. P. Earhart.
Pennsylvania—Wm. S. Stenger.
Rhode Island—J. M. Addeman.
South Carolina—R. M. Sims.
Tennessee— ——.
Texas—Thomas H. Bowman.
Vermont—George Nichols.
Virginia—Wm. C. Elam.
West Virginia—Randolph Stalkner, Jr.
Wisconsin—Ernst G. Trimme.
Arizona—George H. Hand.
Idaho—Thomas F. Singiser.
Montana—L. D. McCutcheon.
New Mexico—Wm. G. Ritch.
Utah—Arthur L. Thomas.
Washington—N. H. Owings.
Wyoming—Elliott S. N. Morgan.

CONGRESSMEN-AT-LARGE.

NEWTON, Iowa.

Explain what is to be understood by “Congressmen-at-large.”

INQUIRER.

_Answer._—The act of Congress of February, 1882, provided for a reapportionment of the membership of the House of Representatives, based on the census of 1880, provided that in the cases of States entitled under this apportionment to additional representation, the additional members in the Forty-eighth Congress might be elected on a general State ticket; also, that in all cases where the number of representatives was reduced, as in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, the whole number for such State should be elected at large, “unless the Legislatures of said States have provided or shall provide before the time fixed by law for the next election of Representatives therein.” Kansas, for example, which is entitled by this act to four additional representatives, did not redistrict before the last Congressional election, and so she elected four Congressmen at large, viz., Edmund W. Morrill, Lewis Hanback, Samuel R. Peters, and Bishop W. Perkins. Maine did not redistrict, so all her representatives were elected at large, instead of by districts.

CONTESTANTS OF SEATS IN CONGRESS.

BLOOMINGTON, Iowa.

To settle a dispute between me and a Greenbacker, who claims that
when a seat is contested in Congress the contestant doesn’t draw
any pay if he fails to get the seat, except his expenses, while
I contend that both draw pay until the contest is decided, state
which is right.

JOHN TAYLOR.

_Answer._—Section 2 of chapter 182 of “Supplement to the Revised Statutes of the United States,” par. 15, says: “That hereafter no contestee or contestant for a seat in the House of Representatives shall be paid exceeding $2,000 for expenses in election contests; and before any sum whatever shall be paid to a contestant or contestee for expenses of election contests he shall file with the clerk of the Committee on Elections a full and detailed account of his expenses, accompanied by the vouchers and receipts of each item, which shall be sworn to by the party presenting the same.” Nevertheless it is customary for Congress to vote compensation to contestants by appropriations in the nature of “relief bills,” where each case is presumed to stand on its own merits.

BALLOONS AND THEIR PERFORMANCES.

AUBURN, D. T.

Please give some facts as to the capacity of balloons; what is
used to fill them, and what are some of the greatest balloon
performances?