Chapter III: Killing the God (7)

Thus, if I am right, the key to the mysteries of Osiris is furnished by the melancholy cry of the Egyptian reapers, which down to Roman times could be heard year after year sounding across the fields, announcing the death of the corn-spirit, the rustic prototype of Osiris. Similar cries, as we have seen, were also heard on all the harvest-fields of Western Asia. By the ancients they are spoken of as songs; but to judge from the analysis of the names Linus and Maneros, they probably consisted only of a few words uttered in a prolonged musical note which could be heard for a great distance. Such sonorous and long-drawn cries, raised by a number of strong voices in concert, must have had a striking effect, and could hardly fail to arrest the attention of any traveller who happened to be within hearing. The sounds, repeated again and again, could probably be distinguished with tolerable ease even at a distance; but to a Greek traveller in Asia or Egypt the foreign words would commonly convey no meaning, and he might take them, not unnaturally, for the name of some one (Maneros, Linos, Lityerses, Bormus), upon whom the reapers were calling. And if his journey led him through more countries than one, as Bithynia and Phrygia, or Phoenicia and Egypt, while the corn was being reaped, he would have an opportunity of comparing the various harvest cries of the different peoples. Thus we can readily account for the fact that these harvest cries were so often noted and compared with each other by the Greeks. Whereas, if they had been regular songs, they could not have been heard at such distances, and therefore could not have attracted the attention of so many travellers; and, moreover, even if the traveller were within hearing of them, he could not so easily have picked out the words. To this day Devonshire reapers utter cries of the same sort, and perform on the field a ceremony exactly analogous to that in which, if I am not mistaken, the rites of Osiris originated. The cry and the ceremony are thus described by an observer who wrote in the first half of this century. “After the wheat is all cut, on most farms in the north of Devon, the harvest people have a custom of ‘crying the neck.’ I believe that this practice is seldom omitted on any large farm in that part of the country. It is done in this way. An old man, or some one else well acquainted with the ceremonies used on the occasion (when the labourers are reaping the last field of wheat), goes round to the shocks and sheaves, and picks out a little bundle of all the best ears he can find; this bundle he ties up very neat and trim, and plats and arranges the straws very tastefully. This is called ‘the neck’ of wheat, or wheaten-ears. After the field is cut out, and the pitcher once more circulated, the reapers, binders, and the women, stand round in a circle. The person with ‘the neck’ stands in the centre, grasping it with both his hands. He first stoops and holds it near the ground, and all the men forming the ring take off their hats, stooping and holding them with both hands towards the ground. They then all begin at once in a very prolonged and harmonious tone to cry ‘the neck!’ at the same time slowly raising themselves upright, and elevating their arms and hats above their heads; the person with ‘the neck’ also raising it on high. This is done three times. They then change their cry to ‘wee yen!’—‘way yen!’—which they sound in the same prolonged and slow manner as before, with singular harmony and effect, three times. This last cry is accompanied by the same movements of the body and arms as in crying ‘the neck.’... After having thus repeated ‘the neck’ three times, and ‘wee yen,’ or ‘way yen,’ as often, they all burst out into a kind of loud and joyous laugh, flinging up their hats and caps into the air, capering about and perhaps kissing the girls. One of them then gets ‘the neck’ and runs as hard as he can down to the farmhouse, where the dairymaid or one of the young female domestics stands at the door prepared with a pail of water. If he who holds ‘the neck’ can manage to get into the house, in any way unseen, or openly, by any other way than the door at which the girl stands with the pail of water, then he may lawfully kiss her; but, if otherwise, he is regularly soused with the contents of the bucket. On a fine still autumn evening, the ‘crying of the neck’ has a wonderful effect at a distance, far finer than that of the Turkish muezzin, which Lord Byron eulogises so much, and which he says is preferable to all the bells in Christendom. I have once or twice heard upwards of twenty men cry it, and sometimes joined by an equal number of female voices. About three years back, on some high grounds, where our people were harvesting, I heard six or seven ‘necks’ cried in one night, although I know that some of them were four miles off. They are heard through the quiet evening air, at a considerable distance sometimes.”(1329) Again, Mrs. Bray tells how, travelling in Devonshire, “she saw a party of reapers standing in a circle on a rising ground, holding their sickles aloft. One in the middle held up some ears of corn tied together with flowers, and the party shouted three times (what she writes as) ‘Arnack, arnack, arnack, we _haven_, we _haven_, we _haven_.’ They went home, accompanied by women and children carrying boughs of flowers, shouting and singing. The man-servant who attended Mrs. Bray, said, ‘it was only the people making their games, as they always did, _to the spirit of harvest_.’ ”(1330) Here, as Miss Burne remarks, “ ‘arnack, we haven!’ is obviously in the Devon dialect, ‘a neck (or nack)! we have un!’ ” “The neck” is generally hung up in the farmhouse, where it sometimes remains for two or three years.(1331) A similar custom is still observed in some parts of Cornwall, as I am informed by my friend Professor J. H. Middleton. “The last sheaf is decked with ribbons. Two strong-voiced men are chosen and placed (one with the sheaf) on opposite sides of a valley. One shouts, ‘I’ve gotten it.’ The other shouts, ‘What hast gotten?’ The first answers, ‘I’se gotten the neck.’ ”

In these Devonshire and Cornish customs a particular bunch of ears, generally the last left standing,(1332) is conceived as the neck of the corn-spirit, who is consequently beheaded when the bunch is cut down. Similarly in Shropshire the name “neck,” or “the gander’s neck,” used to be commonly given to the last handful of ears left standing in the middle of the field, when all the rest of the corn was cut. It was plaited together, and the reapers, standing ten or twenty paces off, threw their sickles at it. Whoever cut it through was said to have cut off the gander’s neck. The “neck” was taken to the farmer’s wife, who was supposed to keep it in the house “for good luck” till the next harvest came round.(1333) Near Trèves, the man who reaps the last standing corn “cuts the goat’s neck off.”(1334) At Faslane, on the Gareloch (Dumbartonshire), the last handful of standing corn was sometimes called the “head.”(1335) At Aurich, in East Friesland, the man who reaps the last corn “cuts the hare’s tail off.”(1336) In mowing down the last corner of a field French reapers sometimes call out, “We have the cat by the tail.”(1337) In Bresse (Bourgogne) the last sheaf represented the fox. Beside it a score of ears were left standing to form the tail, and each reaper, going back some paces, threw his sickle at it. He who succeeded in severing it “cut off the fox’s tail,” and a cry of “_You cou cou!_” was raised in his honour.(1338) These examples leave no room to doubt the meaning of the Devonshire and Cornish expression “the neck,” as applied to the last sheaf. The corn-spirit is conceived in human or animal form, and the last standing corn is part of its body—its neck, its head, or its tail. Sometimes, as we have seen, it is regarded as the navel-string.(1339) Lastly, the Devonshire custom of drenching with water the person who brings in “the neck” is a rain-charm, such as we have had many examples of. Its parallel in the mysteries of Osiris was the custom of pouring water on the image of Osiris or on the person who represented him.

In Germany cries of _Waul!_ or _Wol!_ or _Wôld!_ are sometimes raised by the reapers at cutting the last corn. Thus in some places the last patch of standing corn was called the _Waul_-rye; a stick decked with flowers was inserted in it, and the ears were fastened to the stick. Then all the reapers took off their hats and cried thrice, _Waul! Waul! Waul!_ Sometimes they accompany the cry by clashing with their whetstones on their scythes.(1340)

FOOTNOTES

1 For the sake of brevity I have sometimes, in the notes, referred to
Mannhardt’s works respectively as _Roggenwolf_ (the references are
to the pages of the first edition), _Korndämonen_, _B. K._, _A. W.
F._, and _M. F._

2 The site was excavated in 1885 by Sir John Savile Lumley, English
ambassador at Rome. For a general description of the site and
excavations, see the _Athenaeum_, 10th October 1885. For details of
the finds see _Bulletino dell’ Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica_, 1885, pp. 149 _sqq._, 225 _sqq._

3 Ovid, _Fasti_, vi. 756; Cato quoted by Priscian, see Peter’s
_Historic. Roman. Fragmenta_, p. 52 (lat. ed.); Statius, _Sylv._
iii. 1, 56.

4 ξιφήρης οὖν ἐστιν ἀεί, περισκοπῶν τὰς ἐπιθέσεις, ἕτοιμος ἀμύνεσθαι,
is Strabo’s description (v. 3, 12), who may have seen him “pacing
there alone.”

5 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 136 _sqq._; Servius, _ad l._; Strabo, v. 3, 12;
Pausanias, ii. 27; Solinus, ii. 11; Suetonius, _Caligula_, 35. For
the title “King of the Wood,” see Suetonius, _l.c._; and compare
Statius, _Sylv._ iii. 1, 55 _sq._—

“_Jamque dies aderat, profugis cum regibus aptum_
_ Fumat Aricinum Triviae nemus;_”

Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 271, “_Regna tenent fortesque manu, pedibusque
fugaces_;” _id. Ars am._ i. 259 _sq._—

“_Ecce suburbanae templum nemorale Dianae,_
_ Partaque per gladios regna nocente manu._”

_ 6 Bulletino dell’ Instituto_, 1885, p. 153 _sq._; _Athenaeum_, 10th
October 1885; Preller, _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 317. Of these
votive offerings some represent women with children in their arms;
one represents a delivery, etc.

7 Statius, _Sylv._ iii. 1, 52 _sqq._ From Martial, xii. 67, it has
been inferred that the Arician festival fell on the 13th of August.
The inference, however, does not seem conclusive. Statius’s
expression is:—

“_Tempus erat, caeli cum ardentissimus axis_
_ Incumbit terris, ictusque Hyperione multo_
_ Acer anhelantes incendit Sirius agros._”

8 Ovid, _Fasti_, iii. 269; Propertius, iii. 24 (30), 9 _sq._ ed.
Paley.

_ 9 Inscript. Lat._ ed. Orelli, No. 1455.

10 Statius, _l.c._; Gratius Faliscus, v. 483 sqq.

_ 11 Athenaeum_, 10th October 1885. The water was diverted a few years
ago to supply Albano. For Egeria, compare Strabo, v. 3, 12; Ovid,
_Fasti_, iii. 273 _sqq._; _id. Met._ xv. 487 _sqq._

12 Festus, p. 145, ed. Müller; Schol. on Persius, vi. 56 _ap._ Jahn on
Macrobius, i. 7, 35.

13 Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 761 _sqq._; Servius, _ad l._; Ovid, _Fasti_,
iii. 265 _sq._; _id. Met._ xv. 497 _sqq._; Pausanias, ii. 27.

14 Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ vii. 776.

_ 15 Inscript. Lat._ ed. Orelli, Nos. 2212, 4022. The inscription No.
1457 (Orelli) is said to be spurious.

16 See above, p. 4, note 1.

17 Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_, iii.2 321 _sqq._

18 G. Gilbert, _Handbuch der griechischen Staatsalterthümer_, i. 241
_sq._

19 Gilbert, _op. cit._ ii. 323 _sq._

20 Livy, ii. 2, 1; Dionysius Halic. iv. 74, 4.

21 Demosthenes, _contra Neacr._ § 74, p. 1370. Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._
63.

22 Xenophon, _Repub. Lac._ c. 15, cp. _id._ 13; Aristotle, _Pol._ iii.
14, 3.

23 Strabo, xii. 3, 37. 5, 3; cp. xi. 4, 7. xii. 2, 3. 2, 6. 3, 31 _sq._
3, 34. 8, 9. 8, 14. But see _Encyc. Brit._, art. “Priest,” xix. 729.

24 Grimm, _Deutsche Rechtsalterthümer_, p. 243.

25 See the _Lî-Kî_ (Legge’s translation), _passim_.

26 A. Leared, _Morocco and the Moors_, p. 272.

27 J. W. Thomas, “De jacht op het eiland Nias,” in _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvi. 277.

28 E. Aymonier, “Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses
des Cambodgiens,” in _Cochinchine Française, Excursions et
Reconnaissances_, No. 16, p. 157.

29 Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 218, No.
36.

30 Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_, p. 323.

31 J. C. E. Tromp, “De Rambai en Sebroeang Dajaks,” _Tijdschrift voor
Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxv. 118.

32 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 25 _sq._

33 J. Campbell, _Travels in South Africa_ (second journey), ii. 206;
Barnabas Shaw, _Memorials of South Africa_, p. 66.

34 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 271 _sq._

35 Casalis, _The Basutos_, p. 272.

36 W. Mannhardt, _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_, p. 342, _note_.

37 C. F. H. Campen “De Godsdienstbegrippen der Halmaherasche Alfoeren,”
in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxvii.
447.

38 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,
p. 114.

39 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_, p. 143.

40 J. Owen Dorsey, “Omaha Sociology,” in _Third Annual Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington), p. 347. Cp. Charlevoix, _Voyage
dans l’Amérique septentrionale_, ii. 187.

_ 41 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xvi. 35. Cp. Dawson,
_Australian Aborigines_, p. 98.

42 Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_, ii. 180.

43 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 145.

_ 44 Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiv. 362.

_ 45 Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ _l.c._ Cp. Curr, _The Australian Race_, ii.
377.

46 Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 184; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_4 i.
494. Cp. San-Marte, _Die Arthur Sage_, pp. 105 sq., 153 sqq.

_ 47 The American Antiquarian_, viii. 339.

48 Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 185 sq.

_ 49 Ib._ p. 187. So at the fountain of Sainte Anne, near Gevezé, in
Brittany. Sébillot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute
Bretagne_, i. 72.

50 Lamberti, “Relation de la Colchide ou Mingrélie,” _Voyages au Nord_,
vii. 174 (Amsterdam, 1725).

51 Le Brun, _Histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses_
(Amsterdam, 1733), i. 245 sq.

52 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 345 _sq._

53 Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 329 _sqq._; Grimm, D. M.4 i. 493 _sq._;
W. Schmidt, _Das Jahr und seine Tage in Meinung und Brauch der
Romänen Siebenbürgens_, p. 17; E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the
Forest_, ii. 13.

54 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 331.

55 J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift v. Indische
Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. 524.

56 J. Reinegg, _Beschreibung des Kaukasus_, ii. 114.

57 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 553; Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii.
40.

_ 58 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. Nos. 173, 513.

59 Acosta, _History of the Indies_, bk. v. ch. 28.

60 A. L. van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_, p. 320
_sq._

_ 61 South African Folk-lore Journal_, i. 34.

62 J. S. G. Gramberg, “Eene maand in de binnenlanden van Timor,” in
_Verhandelingen van het Bataviansch Genootschap van Kunsten en
Wetenschappen_, xxxvi. 209.

63 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 88.

64 Huc, _L’empire chinois_, i. 241.

65 Bérenger-Féraud, _Les peuplades de la Sénégambie_, p. 291.

_ 66 Colombia, being a geographical etc. account of that country_, i.
642 _sq._; A. Bastian, _Die Culturlander des alten Amerika_, ii.
216.

67 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebräuche und Märchen aus Westfalen_, ii. p. 80;
Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 13.

68 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, i. 520.

69 Brien, “Aperçu sur la province de Battambang,” in _Cochinchine
française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 25, p. 6 _sq._

70 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 95.

71 Gervasius von Tilburg, ed. Liebrecht, p. 41 _sq._

72 Giraldus Cambrensis, _Topography of Ireland_, ch. 7. Cp. Mannhardt,
_A. W. F._ p. 341 _note_.

73 Callaway, _Religious System of the Amazulu_, p. 407 _sq._

74 Reclus, _Nouvelle Géographie Universelle_, xii. 100.

75 Rasmussen, _Additamenta ad historiam Arabum ante Islamismum_, p. 67
_sq._

_ 76 Reste arabischen Heidentumes_, p. 157.

77 Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie occidentale_, ii. 180.

78 S. Gason, “The Dieyerie tribe,” in _Native Tribes of S. Australia_,
p. 276 _sqq._

79 W. Stanbridge, “On the Aborigines of Victoria,” in _Trans. Ethnol.
Soc. of London_, i. 300.

80 Marcus Antoninus, v. 7; Petronius, 44; Tertullian, _Apolog._ 40; cp.
_id._ 22 and 23.

81 Pausanias, viii. 38, 4.

82 Antigonus, _Histor. Mirab._ 15 (_Script. mirab. Graeci_, ed.
Westermann, p. 65).

83 Apollodorus, _Bibl._ i. 9, 7; Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 585 _sqq._; Servius
on Virgil, _l.c._

84 Festus, _svv._ _aquaelicium and manalem lapidem_, pp. 2, 128, ed.
Müller; Nonius Marcellus, _sv._ _trullum_, p. 637, ed. Quicherat;
Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ iii. 175; Fulgentius, _Expos. serm.
antiq._, _sv._ _manales lapides, Mythogr. Lat._ ed. Staveren, p. 769
_sq._

85 Nonius Marcellus, _sv._ _aquilex_, p. 69, ed. Quicherat. In favour
of taking _aquilex_ as rain-maker is the use of _aquaelicium_ in the
sense of rain-making. Cp. K. O. Müller, _Die Etrusker_, ed. W.
Deecke, ii. 318 _sq._

86 Diodorus, v. 55.

87 Peter Jones, _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 84.

88 Gumilla, _Histoire de l’Orénoque_, iii. 243 _sq._

89 Glaumont, “Usages, mœurs et coutumes des Néo-Calédoniens,” in _Revue
d’ Ethnographie_, vi. 116.

90 Arbousset et Daumas, _Voyage d’exploration au Nord-est de la Colonie
du Cap de Bonne-Espérance_, p. 350 _sq._ For the kinship with the
sacred object (tchem) from which the clan takes its name, see _ib._
pp. 350, 422, 424. Other people have claimed kindred with the sun,
as the Natchez of North America (_Voyages au Nord_, v. 24) and the
Incas of Peru.

91 Codrington, in _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ x. 278.

92 Above, p. 18.

93 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 346. See above, p. 16.

94 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iv. 174. The name of the
place is Andahuayllas.

95 Th. Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_, i. 250.

96 Schoolcraft, _The American Indians_, p. 97 _sqq._; Gill, _Myths and
Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 61 _sq._; Turner, _Samoa_, p. 200
_sq._

97 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 418.

98 Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, ii. 334; Curr, _The
Australian Race_, i. 50.

99 Fancourt, _History of Yucatan_, p. 118.

_ 100 South African Folk-lore Journal_, i. 34.

101 E. J. Eyre, _Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central
Australia_, ii. 365.

102 Curr, _The Australian Race_, iii. 145.

103 Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_, ii. 510.

_ 104 Third Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington), p.
241.

105 G. M. Dawson, “On the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands,”
_Geological Survey of Canada, Report of progress for 1878-1879_, p.
124 B.

106 W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_, p. 169.

107 Miss C. F. Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_, p. 166 _sq._; Martin,
“Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in Pinkerton’s
_Voyages and Travels_, iii. 627.

108 Olaus Magnus, _Gentium Septentr. Hist._ iii. 15.

109 Scheffer, _Lapponia_, p. 144; Gordon Cumming, _In the Hebrides_, p.
254 _sq._; Train, _Account of the Isle of Man_, ii. 166.

110 C. Leemius, _De Lapponibus Finmarchiae etc. commentatio_, p. 454.

_ 111 Odyssey_, x. 19 _sqq._

112 E. Veckenstedt, _Die Mythen, Sagen, und Legenden der Zamaiten
(Litauer)_, i. 153.

113 J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_, p. 177.

114 Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_, iii. 220; Sir W. Scott, _Pirate_,
note to ch. vii.; Shaks. _Macbeth_, Act i. Sc. 3, l. 11.

115 Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), p. 389.

116 A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Oesterreichisch Schlesien_, ii. 259.

_ 117 Arctic Papers for the Expedition of 1875_ (R. Geogr. Soc.), p. 274.

118 Azara, _Voyages dans l’Amérique Méridionale_, ii. 137.

119 Charlevoix, _Histoire du Paraguay_, i. 74.

120 W. A. Henry, “Bijdrage tot de Kennis der Bataklanden,” in
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvii. 23 sq.

121 Herodotus, iv. 173; Aulus Gellius, xvi. 11.

122 Harris, _Highlands of Ethiopia_, i. 352.

123 Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, i. 457 _sq._; cp. _id._ ii.
270; _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xiii. p. 194 _note_.

124 Denzil C. J. Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat Tahsil and
Karnal Parganah of the Karnal District_, p. 154.

125 Stephen Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 328.

126 Sébillot, _Coutumes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_, p. 302 sq.

127 Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 85.

128 Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 35.

129 See for examples E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_,2 ii. 131 _sqq._

130 Pausanias, ii. 24, 1. κάτοχος ἐκ τοῦ θεοῦ γίνεται is the expression.

131 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxviii. 147. Pausanias (vii. 25, 13) mentions
the draught of bull’s blood as an ordeal to test the chastity of the
priestess. Doubtless it was thought to serve both purposes.

132 Caldwell, “On demonolatry in Southern India,” _Journal of the
Anthropological Society of Bombay_, i. 101 _sq._

133 J. G. F. Riedel, “De Minahasa in 1825,” _Tijdschrift v. Indische
Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. 517 _sq._ Cp. N. Graafland, _De
Minahassa_, i. 122; Dumont D’Urville, _Voyage autour du Monde et à
la recherche de La Perouse_, v. 443.

134 F. J. Mone, _Geschichte des Heidenthums im nördlichen Europa_, i.
188.

135 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 96. For other instances
of priests or representatives of the deity drinking the warm blood
of the victim, cp. _Tijdschrift v. Nederlandsch Indië_, 1849, p.
395; Oldfield, _Sketches from Nipal_, ii. 296 _sq._; _Asiatic
Researches_, iv. 40, 41, 50, 52 (8vo. ed.); Paul Soleillet,
_L’Afrique Occidentale_, p. 123 _sq._ To snuff up the savour of the
sacrifice was similarly supposed to produce inspiration. Tertullian,
_Apologet._ 23.

136 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 97.

137 Lucian, _Bis accus._, I; Tzetzes, _Schol. ad Lycophr._, 6.

138 Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 158.

139 Plutarch, _De defect. oracul._ 46, 49.

140 D. Chwolsohn, _Die Ssabier und der Ssabismus_, ii. 37; _Lettres
édifiantes et curieuses_, xvi. 230 _sq._; _Panjab Notes and
Queries_, iii. No. 721; _Journal of the Anthropological Society of
Bombay_, i. 103; S. Mateer, _The Land of Charity_, 216; _id._,
_Native Life in Travancore_, p. 94; A. C. Lyall, _Asiatic Studies_,
p. 14; Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 131; Pallas,
_Reisen in verschiedenen Provinzen des russischen Reiches_, i. 91;
Vambery, _Das Türkenvolk_, p. 485; Erman, _Archiv für
wissenschaftliche Kunde von Russland_, i. 377. When the Rao of Kachh
sacrifices a buffalo, water is sprinkled between its horns; if it
shakes its head, it is unsuitable; if it nods its head, it is
sacrificed. _Panjab Notes and Queries_, i. No. 911. This is probably
a modern misinterpretation of the old custom.

141 Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 177 _sq._

142 Pausanias, x. 32, 6.

143 Vincendon-Dumoulin et Desgraz, _Iles Marquises_, pp. 226, 240 _sq._

144 Moerenhout, _Voyages aux Iles du Grand Océan_, i. 479; Ellis,
_Polynesian Researches_, iii. 94.

145 Tyerman and Bennet, _Journal of Voyages and Travels in the South Sea
Islands, China, India, etc._, i. 524; cp. p. 529 _sq._

146 Tyerman and Bennet, _op. cit._ i. 529 _sq._

147 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iii. 108.

148 Turner, _Samoa_, pp. 37, 48, 57, 58, 59, 73.

149 Hazlewood in Erskine’s _Cruise among the Islands of the Western
Pacific_, p. 246 _sq._ Cp. Wilkes’s _Narrative of the U. S.
Exploring Expedition_, iii. 87.

150 Kubary, “Die Religion der Pelauer,” in Bastian’s _Allerlei aus
Volks- und Menschenkunde_, i. 30 _sqq._

151 F. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indiën_, iii. 7 _sq._

152 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, iv. 383.

153 Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, p. 259.

_ 154 The Laws of Manu_, vii. 8, trans. by G. Bühler.

155 Monier Williams, _op. cit._ p. 259 _sq._

156 Marshall, _Travels among the Todas_, pp. 136, 137; cp. pp. 141, 142;
Metz, _Tribes of the Neilgherry Hills_, p. 19 _sqq._

157 Allen and Thomson, _Narrative of the Expedition to the River Niger
in 1841_, i. 288.

158 G. Massaja, _I miei trentacinque anni di missione nell’ alta
Etiopia_ (Rome and Milan, 1888), v. 53 _sq._

159 E. Aymonier, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 141 _sq._

160 Robinson, _Descriptive Account of Assam_, p. 342 _sq._; _Asiatic
Researches_, xv. 146.

161 Huc, _Souvenirs d’un Voyage dans la Tartarie et le Thibet_, i. 279
_sqq._ ed. 12mo.

162 Huc, _op. cit._ ii. 279, 347 _sq._; Meiners, _Geschichte der
Religionen_, i. 335 _sq._; Georgi, _Beschreibung aller Nationen des
Russischen Reichs_, p. 415; A. Erman, _Travels in Siberia_, ii. 303
_sqq._; _Journal of the Roy. Geogr. Soc._, xxxviii. (1868), 168,
169; _Proceedings of the Roy. Geogr. Soc._ N.S. vii. (1885) 67. In
the _Journal Roy. Geogr. Soc._, _l.c._, the Lama in question is
called the Lama Gûrû; but the context shows that he is the great
Lama of Lhasa.

163 Alex. von. Humboldt, _Researches concerning the Institutions and
Monuments of the Ancient Inhabitants of America_, ii. 106 _sqq._;
Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, iv. 352 _sqq._; J. G.
Müller, _Geschichte der Amerikanischen Urreligionen_, p. 430 _sq._;
Martius, _Zur Ethnographie Amerikas_, p. 455; Bastian, _Die
Culturländer des alten Amerika_, ii. 204 _sq._

164 R. W. Felkin, “Notes on the Waganda Tribe of Central Africa,” in
_Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_, xiii. 762; C. T.
Wilson and R. W. Felkin, _Uganda and the Egyptian Soudan_, i. 206.

165 “The Strange Adventures of Andrew Battel,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages
and Travels_, xvi. 330; Proyart, “History of Loango, Kakongo, and
other Kingdoms in Africa,” in Pinkerton, xvi. 577; Dapper,
_Description de l’Afrique_, p. 335.

166 Ogilby, _Africa_, p. 615; Dapper, _op. cit._ p. 400.

167 Dos Santos, “History of Eastern Ethiopia,” in Pinkerton, _Voyages
and Travels_, xvi. 682, 687 _sq._

168 F. S. Arnot, _Garenganze; or, Seven Years’ Pioneer Mission Work in
Central Africa_, London, N.D. (preface dated March 1889), p. 78.

169 MS. notes by E. Beardmore.

170 Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, ii. 439.

171 Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie Occidentale_, ii. 172-176.

172 Schol. on Apollonius Rhod. ii. 1248. καὶ Ἡρόδωρος ξένως περὶ τῶν
δεσμῶν τοῦ Προμηθέως ταῦτα. Εἴναι γὰρ αὐτὸν Σκυθῶν βασιλέα φησί; καὶ
μὴ δυνάμενον παρέχειν τοῖς ὑπηκόοις τὰ ἐπιτήδεια, διὰ τὸν καλούμενον
Ἀετὸν ποταμὸν ἐπικλύζειν τὰ πεδία, δεθῆναι ὑπὸ τῶν Σκυθῶν.

173 H. Hecquard, _Reise an der Küste und in das Innere von West Afrika_,
p. 78.

174 Bastian, _Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 354, ii.
230.

175 J. Leighton Wilson, _West Afrika_, p. 93 (German translation).

176 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxviii. 5, 14.

177 Snorro Starleson, _Chronicle of the Kings of Norway_ (trans, by S.
Laing), saga i. chs. 18, 47. Cp. Liebrecht, _Zur Volkskunde_, p. 7;
Scheffer, _Upsalia_, p. 137.

178 C. Russwurm, “Aberglaube in Russland,” in _Zeitschrift für Deutsche
Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. 162; Liebrecht, _op. cit._, p. 15.

179 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 304 _sq._

180 Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73.

181 Garcilasso de la Vega, _First Part of the Royal Commentaries of the
Yncas_, bk. ii. chs. 8 and 15 (vol. i. pp. 131, 155, Markham’s
Trans.)

182 Bancroft, _Native Races of the Pacific States_, ii. 146.

183 Dennys, _Folk-lore of China_, p. 125.

184 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 6, § 5 and 6.

185 C. P. Tiele, _History of the Egyptian Religion_, p. 103 _sq._ On the
worship of the kings see also E. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_,
i. § 52; A. Erman, _Aegypten und aegyptisches Leben im Altertum_, p.
91 _sqq._; V. von Strauss und Carnen, _Die altägyptischen Götter und
Göttersagen_, p. 467 _sqq._

186 Ammianus Marcellinus, xxviii. 5, 14; Plutarch, _Isis et Osiris_, 73.

187 V. von Strauss und Carnen, _op. cit._ p. 470.

188 Tiele, _History of the Egyptian Religion_, p. 105. The Babylonian
and Assyrian kings seem also to have been regarded as gods; at least
the oldest names of the kings on the monuments are preceded by a
star, the mark for “god.” But there is no trace in Babylon and
Assyria of temples and priests for the worship of the kings. See
Tiele, _Babylonisch-Assyrische Geschichte_, p. 492 _sq._

189 Bastian, _Die Deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, ii. 230.

190 “Excursion de M. Brun-Rollet dans la région supérieure du Nil,”
_Bulletin de la Société de Géographie_, Paris, 1852, pt. ii. p. 421
_sqq._

191 W. Munzinger, _Ostafrikanische Studien_, p. 474 (Schaffhausen,
1864).

192 J. Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_, i. 432-436; Aymonier, “Notes sur
les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgìens,” in
_Cochinchine Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16, p.
172 _sq._; _id._, _Notes sur le Laos_, p. 60.

193 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 25.

194 Elton, _Origins of English History_, pp. 3, 106 _sq._, 224.

195 W. Helbig, _Die Italiker in der Poebene_, p. 25 _sq._

196 H. Nissen, _Italische Landeskunde_, p. 431 _sqq._

197 Neumann und Partsch, _Physikalische Geographie von Griechenland_, p.
357 _sqq._

198 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 53 _sqq._

199 The _locus classicus_ is Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. § 249 _sqq._

200 Grimm, _D. M._ i. 56 _sqq._

201 Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio Insul. Aquil._ p. 27.

202 “Prisca antiquorum Prutenorum religio,” in _Respublica sive Status
Regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae, Livoniae_, etc. (Elzevir,
1627), p. 321 _sq._; Dusburg, _Chronicon Prussiae_, ed. Hartknoch,
p. 79; Hartknoch, _Alt- und Neues Preussen_, p. 116 _sqq._

203 Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in _Novus Orbis
regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_ (Paris, 1532), pp. 455
_sq._ 456 [wrongly numbered 445, 446]; Martin Cromer, _De origine et
rebus gestis Polonorum_ (Basel, 1568), p. 241.

204 See Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_.

205 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xv. § 77; Tacitus, _Ann._ xiii. 58.

206 Plutarch, _Romulus_, 20.

207 J. L. Krapf, _Travels, Researches, and Missionary Labours during an
Eighteen Years’ Residence in Eastern Africa_, p. 198.

208 Loubere, _Historical Relation of the Kingdom of Siam_, p. 126.

209 Hupe “Over de godsdienst, zeden, enz. der Dajakker’s” in
_Tijdschrift voor Neêrland’s Indië_, 1846, dl. iii. 158.

210 Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
xvi. 236.

211 Monier Williams, _Religious Life and Thought in India_, p. 334 _sq._

212 Sir Henry M. Elliot and J. Beames, _Memoirs on the History etc. of
the Races of the North Western Provinces of India_, i. 233.

_ 213 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_ (Chemnitz, 1759), p. 239 _sq._;
U. Jahn, _Die deutsche Opfergebräuche bei Ackerbau und Viehzucht_,
p. 214 _sqq._

214 Van Schmid, “Aanteekeningen, nopens de zeden, gewoonten en
gebruiken, etc., der bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, etc.” in
_Tijdschrift v. Neêrland’s Indië_, 1843, dl. ii. 605; Bastian,
_Indonesien_, i. 156.

215 Van Hoëvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers_, p. 62.

_ 216 The Indian Antiquary_, i. 170.

217 J. Aubrey, _Remaines of Gentilisme_, p. 247.

218 Peter Jones’s _History of the Ojebway Indians_, p. 104.

219 A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus Österreichisch-Schlesien_, ii. 30.

220 Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 154; cp. _id._, _Die Völker des estlichen
Asien_, ii. 457 _sq._, iii. 251 _sq._, iv. 42 _sq._

221 Loubere, _Siam_, p. 126.

222 Turner, _Samoa_, p. 63.

223 Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 35 _sq._

_ 224 Native Tribes of South Australia_, p. 280.

225 Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen Anschauungen der
Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” in _Mittheilungen der Wiener
Geogr. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 165 _sq._

226 Landes, “Contes et légendes annamites,” No. 9, in _Cochinchine
Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 20, p. 310.

227 Kubary in Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Mensch-und Volkenkunde_, i. 52.

228 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 25; Bastian, _Volkerstämme am
Brahmaputra_, p. 37.

_ 229 Journal R. Asiatic Society_, vii. (1843) 29.

230 Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. 17.

231 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, pp. 186, 188; cp. Bastian,
_Volkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p. 9.

232 Dalton, _op. cit._ p. 33; Bastian, _op. cit._ p. 16. Cp. W.
Robertson Smith, _The Religion of the Semites_, i. 125.

233 Van Hasselt, _Volksbeschrijving van Midden-Sumatra_, p. 156.

_ 234 Handbook of Folk-lore_, p. 19 (proof).

235 Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 83.

236 Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in _Novus Orbis
regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 510; Lasiczki
(Lasicius), “De diis Samagitarum caeterorumque Sarmatarum,” in
_Respublica sive Status Regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae,
Livoniae_, etc. (Elzevir, 1627), p. 299 _sq._ There is a good and
cheap reprint of Lasiczki’s work by W. Mannhardt in _Magazin
herausgegeben von der Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. 82
_sqq._ (Mitau, 1868).

237 Simon Grünau, _Preussische Chronik_, ed. Perlbach (Leipzig 1876), p.
89; “Prisca antiquorum Prutenorum religio,” in _Respublica sive
Status Regni Poloniae_ etc., p. 321.

238 B. Hagen, “Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,” in
_Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. 530
_note_.

239 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, i. 134.

240 Matthias Michov, in _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus
incognitarum_, p. 457.

241 Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4, i. 497; cp. ii. 540, 541.

242 Max Buch, _Die Wotjaken_, p. 124.

243 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 116.

244 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 139.

245 Henzen, _Acta fratrum arvalium_ (Berlin, 1874), p. 138.

246 On the representations of Silvanus, the Roman wood-god, see Jordan
in Preller’s _Römische Mythologie_,3 i. 393 _note_; Baumeister,
_Denkmäler des classischen Altertums_, iii. 1665 _sq._ A good
representation of Silvanus bearing a pine branch is given in the
Sale Catalogue of H. Hoffmann, Paris, 1888, pt. ii.

247 Aeneas Sylvius, _Opera_ (Bâle, 1571), p. 418 [wrongly numbered 420];
cp. Erasmus Stella, “De Borussiae antiquitatibus,” in _Novus Orbis
regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 510.

248 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 186.

249 Aymonier in _Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 16, p. 175 _sq._

250 See above, pp. 13, 21.

251 Above, p. 16.

252 Mannhardt, _B. K._ pp. 158, 159, 170, 197, 214, 351, 514.

253 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 188.

254 Labat, _Voyage du Chevalier des Marchais en Guinée, Isles voisines,
et à Cayenne_ (Paris, 1730), i. 338.

255 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 266.

256 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 190 _sqq._

257 Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 212 _sqq._

258 H. Low, _Sarawak_, p. 274.

259 T. H. Lewin, _Wild Races of South-eastern India_, p. 270.

260 J. Mackenzie, _Ten years north of the Orange River_, p. 385.

261 Rev. J. Macdonald, MS. notes.

262 Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo Koosh_, p. 103 _sq._

263 Biddulph, _op. cit._ p. 106 _sq._

264 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 161; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und
Gebräuche aus Schwaben_, p. 397.; A. Peter, _Volksthümliches aus
Österreichisch-Schlesien_, ii. 286; Reinsberg-Düringsfeld,
_Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 210.

265 Quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 227, Bohn’s ed.

266 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 174.

267 Holzmayer, “Osiliana,” _Verhandlungen der Estnischen Gesell. zu
Dorpat_, vii. 10 _sq._; Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 407 _sq._

268 Potocki, _Voyage dans les steps d’Astrakhan et du Caucase_ (Paris,
1829), i. 309.

269 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 163 _sqq._ To his authorities add, for
Sardinia, R. Tennant, _Sardinia and its Resources_ (Rome and London,
1885), p. 185 _sq._

270 Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der nördlichen Türkischen
Stämme_, v. 2.

271 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 51 _sq._

272 Merolla, “Voyage to Congo,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
xvi. 236 _sq._

273 Bötticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_, p. 30 _sq._

274 Quoted by Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 246 (ed. Bohn).

275 Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 254.

276 Borlase, cited by Brand, _op. cit._ i. 222.

277 Brand, _op. cit._ i. 212 _sq._

278 Dyer, _Popular British Customs_, p. 233.

279 Chambers, _Book of Days_, i. 578; Dyer, _op. cit._ p. 237 _sq._

280 Dyer, _op. cit._ p. 243.

281 E. Cortet, _Fêtes religieuses_, p. 167 _sqq._

_ 282 Revue des Traditions populaires_, ii. 200.

283 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 234 _sq._

284 A. Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_, p. 315.

285 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 162.

286 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_, p. 235.

287 L. Lloyd, _op. cit._ p. 257 _sqq._

288 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 308 _sq._

289 Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 547 _sqq._; Chambers, _Book of Days_, i.
571.

290 Quoted by Brand, _op. cit._ i. 237.

_ 291 Id._, _op. cit._ i. 235.

292 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 169 _sq._ _note_.

293 Hone, _Every-day Book_, ii. 597 _sq._

294 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 217;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 566.

295 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 74 _sq._; Mannhardt,
_B. K._ p. 566.

296 Aristophanes, _Plutus_, 1054; Mannhardt, _A. W. F._ p. 222 _sq._

297 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 86 _sqq._;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 156.

298 Chambers, _Book of Days_, i. 573.

299 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 312.

300 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 313.

_ 301 Ib._ p. 314.

_ 302 Bavaria, Landes-und Volkskunde des Königreichs Bayern_, iii. 357;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 312 _sq._

303 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 313 _sq._

304 Dalton, _Ethnology of Bengal_, p. 261.

305 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 315 _sq._

306 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 234.

307 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 318.

308 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 318; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 657.

309 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 320; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebräuche
aus Thüringen_, p. 211.

310 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 322; Hone, _Every-day Book_, i. 583 _sqq._;
Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 230 _sq._

311 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 323.

_ 312 Ib._

313 Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus Schwaben_, ii. 114 _sq._; Mannhardt,
_B. K._ p. 325.

314 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 341 _sq._

315 Kuhn und Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche_, p.
380.

316 Kuhn und Schwartz, _op. cit._ p. 384; Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 342.

317 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 260 _sq._;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 342 _sq._

318 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 347 _sq._; Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und
Gebräuche aus Thüringen_, p. 203.

319 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 253 _sqq._

320 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 262;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 353 _sq._

_ 321 B. K._ p. 355.

322 Above, p. 18.

323 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 93; Mannhardt,
_B. K._ p. 344.

324 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 343 _sq._

325 Dyer, _British Popular Customs_, p. 270 _sq._

326 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 344 _sq._; Cortet, _Fêtes religieuses_, p. 160
_sqq._; Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_, p. 282 _sqq._;
Bérenger-Féraud, _Réminiscences populaires de la Provence_, p. 1
_sqq._

327 Above, p. 60.

328 Reinsberg-Düringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus Böhmen_, p. 265 _sq._;
Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 422.

329 Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_, p. 304; Mannhardt, _B.
K._ p. 423.

330 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 233 _sq._ Bohn’s ed.; Mannhardt,
_B. K._ p. 424.

331 E. Sommer, _Sagen, Märchen und Gebräuche aus Sachsen und Thüringen_,
p. 151 _sq._; Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 431 _sq._

332 This custom was told to Mannhardt by a French prisoner in the war of
1870-71, _B. K._ p. 434.

333 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 434 _sq._

_ 334 Ib._ p. 435.

335 Martin, “Description of the Western Islands of Scotland,” in
Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_, iii. 613; Mannhardt, _B. K._ p.
436.

_ 336 Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_, from the MSS. of
John Ramsay of Ochtertyre. Edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh,
1888), ii. 447.

337 Kuhn, _Märkische Sagen und Märchen_, p. 318 _sqq._; Mannhardt, _B.
K._ p. 437.

338 Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 438.

339 Monnier, _Traditions populaires comparées_, p. 283 _sq._; Cortet,
_Fêtes religieuses_, p. 162 _sq._; Mannhardt, _B. K._ p. 439 _sq._

340 Above, pp. 69 _sqq._, 85.

341 See especially his _Antike Wald- und Feldkulte_.

342 Pausanias, ix. 3; Plutarch, _ap._ Eusebius, _Praepar. Evang._ iii. 1
_sq._

343 Above, p. 76 _sq._

344 Above, p. 79.

_ 345 B. K._ p. 177.

_ 346 B. K._ p. 177 _sq._

347 Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 318, Bohn’s ed.; _B. K._ p. 178.

348 Hone, _Every-day Book_, ii. 595 _sq._; _B. K._ p. 178.

349 Pausanias, viii. 42.

350 Once upon a time the Wotjaks of Russia, being distressed by a series
of bad harvests, ascribed the calamity to the wrath of one of their
gods, _Keremet_, at being unmarried. So they went in procession to
the sacred grove, riding on gaily-decked waggons, as they do when
they are fetching home a bride. At the sacred grove they feasted all
night, and next morning they cut in the grove a square piece of turf
which they took home with them. “What they meant by this marriage
ceremony,” says the writer who reports it, “it is not easy to
imagine. Perhaps, as Bechterew thinks, they meant to marry _Keremet_
to the kindly and fruitful _mukyl’c in_, the earth-wife, in order
that she might influence him for good.”—Max Buch, _Die Wotjäken,
eine ethnologische Studie_ (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 137.

351 At Cnossus in Crete, Diodorus, v. 72; at Samos, Lactantius,
_Instit._ i. 17; at Athens, Photius, _sv._ ἱερὸν γάμον; _Etymolog.
Magn._ _sv._ ἱερομνήμονες, p. 468. 52.

_ 352 Iliad_, xiv. 347 _sqq._

353 Demosthenes, _Neaer._ § 73 _sqq._ p. 1369 _sq._; Hesychius, _svv._
Διονύσου γάμος and γεραραί; _Etymol. Magn._ _sv._ γεραῖραι; Pollux,
viii. 108; Aug. Mommsen, _Heortologie_, p. 357 _sqq._; Hermann,
_Gottesdienstliche Alterthümer_,2 § 32. 15, § 58. 11 _sqq._

354 Above, p. 7.

355 Above, p. 94.

356 Above, p. 95 _sq._

357 Preller, _Griech. Mythol._3 i. 559.

358 Hyginus, _Astronomica_, i. 5.

359 Servius on Virgil, _Georg._ iii. 332, _nam, ut diximus, et omnis
quercus Jovi est consecrata, et omnis lucus Dianae_.

360 Roscher’s _Lexikon d. Griech. u. Röm. Mythologie_, c. 1005.

361 See above, p. 4. For Diana in this character, see Roscher, _op.
cit._ c. 1007.

362 Roscher, c. 1006 _sq._

363 Castren, _Finnische Mythologie_, p. 97.

364 Mathias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in _Novus Orbis
regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_, p. 457.

365 Livy, i. 45; Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 4.

366 Virgil, _Aen._ viii. 600 _sq._, with Servius’s note.

367 Castren, _op. cit._ p. 97 _sq._

368 Above, p. 4 _sq._

369 Above, p. 66 _sq._

370 Above, p. 6.

371 Above, p. 71.

372 Castren, _Finnische Mythologie_, pp. 92, 95.

_ 373 Historic. Roman. Fragm._ ed. Peter, p. 52 (first ed.)

_ 374 Manners and Customs of the Japanese in the Nineteenth Century. From
recent Dutch Visitors to Japan, and the German of Dr. Ph. Fr. von
Siebold_ (London, 1841), p. 141 _sqq._

375 Kaempfer, “History of Japan,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
vii. 716 _sq._

376 Caron, “Account of Japan,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
vii. 613. Compare Varenius, _Descriptio regni Japoniae_, p. 11,
_Nunquam attingebant (quemadmodum et hodie id observat) pedes ipsius
terram: radiis Solis caput nunquam illustrabatur: in apertum aërem
non procedebat_, etc.

377 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 287
_sq._; cp. _id._, p. 353 _sq._

378 Labat, _Relation historique de l’Ethiopie Occidentale_, i. 254
_sqq._

379 Above, pp. 44, 49.

380 Brasseur de Bourbourg, _Hist. des nations civilisées du Mexique et
de l’Amérique-centrale_, iii. 29 _sq._; Bancroft, _Native Races of
the Pacific States_, ii. 142 _sq._

381 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 355.

382 Dapper, _Description de l’Afrique_, p. 336.

383 P. 49 _sq._

_ 384 Bibl. Hist._ i. 70.

385 P. 6.

386 Aulus Gellius, x. 15; Plutarch, _Quaest. Rom._ 109-112; Pliny, _Nat.
Hist._ xxviii. 146; Servius on Virgil, _Aen._ i. _vv._ 179, 448, iv.
518; Macrobius, _Saturn._ i. 16, 8 _sq._; Festus, p. 161 A, ed.
Müller. For more details see Marquardt, _Römische Staatsverwaltung_,
iii.2 326 _sqq._

387 P. 54.

388 P. 48.

389 Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-Küste_, i. 354
_sq._; ii. 9, 11.

_ 390 Manners and Customs of the Japanese_, pp. 199 _sqq._ 355 _sqq._

391 Richard, “History of Tonquin,” in Pinkerton’s _Voyages and Travels_,
ix. 744 _sqq._

392 Ellis, _Polynesian Researches_, iii. 99 _sqq._ ed. 1836.

393 Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 293 _sqq._

394 Pp. 44, 113.

_ 395 Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, vii. 282.

_ 396 Relations des Jesuites_, 1634, p. 17; _id._, 1636, p. 104; _id._,
1639, p. 43 (Canadian reprint).

397 H. Rink, _Tales and Traditions of the Eskimo_, p. 36.

398 Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 171.

399 H. Sundermann, “Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst,” in
_Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, bd. xi. October 1884, p. 453.

400 B. F. Matthes, _Over de Bissoes of heidensche priesters en
priesteressen der Boeginezen_, p. 24.

401 G. M. Dawson, “On the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands,”
in _Geological Survey of Canada, Report of Progress for 1878-1879_,
pp. 123 B, 139 B.

402 Waitz, _Anthropologie der Naturvölker_, vi. 397 _sq._

_ 403 Panjab Notes and Queries_, ii. No. 665.

404 D’Orbigny, _L’Homme Américain_, ii. 241; _Transact. Ethnol. Soc. of
London_, iii. 322 _sq._; Bastian, _Culturländer des alten Amerika_,
i. 476.

405 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p.
54.

406 Zimmermann, _Die Inseln des Indischen und Stillen Meeres_, ii. 386
_sq._

407 Cp. the Greek ποτάομαι, ἀναπτερόω, etc.

408 G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme bij de volken van den Indischen
Archipel,” in _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p. 944.

409 Wilken, _l.c._

410 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_, p.
33; _id._, _Over de Bissoes of heidensche priesters en priesteressen
der Boeginezen_, p. 9 _sq._; _id._, _Makassaarsch-Hollandsch
Woordenboek_, _svv._ _Koêrróe_ and _soemāñgá_, pp. 41, 569. Of these
two words, the former means the sound made in calling fowls, and the
latter means the soul. The expression for the ceremonies described
in the text is _ápakoêrróe soemāñgá_.

411 Shway Yoe, _The Burman, his Life and Notions_, ii. 100.

412 J. L. Wilson, _West Afrika_, p. 162 _sq._ (German translation).

413 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en
Papua_, p. 267. For detention of sleeper’s soul by spirits and
consequent illness, see also Mason, quoted in Bastian’s _Die Völker
des östlichen Asien_, ii. 387 _note_.

_ 414 Indian Antiquary_, 1878, vii. 273; Bastian, _Völkerstämme am
Brahmaputra_, p. 127. Similar story (lizard form of soul not
mentioned) told by Hindus, _Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. No. 679.

415 E. Gerard, _The Land beyond the Forest_, ii. 27 _sq._ A similar
story is told in Holland, J. W. Wolf, _Nederlandsche Sagen_, No.
251, p. 344 _sq._ The stories of Hermotimus and King Gunthram belong
to the same class. In the latter the king’s soul comes out of his
mouth as a small reptile. The soul of Aristeas issued from his mouth
in the form of a raven. Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. § 174; Lucian,
_Muse. Encom._ 7; Paulus, _Hist. Langobardorum_, iii. 34. In an East
Indian story of the same type the sleeper’s soul issues from his
nose in the form of a cricket. Wilken in _De Indische Gids_, June
1884, p. 940. In a Swabian story a girl’s soul creeps out of her
mouth in the form of a white mouse. Birlinger, _Volksthümliches aus
Schwaben_, i. 303.

416 Shway Yoe, _The Burman_, ii. 103; Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen
Asien_, ii. 389; Blumentritt, “Der Ahnencultus und die religiösen
Anschauungen der Malaien des Philippinen-Archipels,” in
_Mittheilungen d. Wiener Geogr. Gesellschaft_, 1882, p. 209; Riedel,
_De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_, p. 440;
id., “Die Landschaft Dawan oder West-Timor,” in _Deutsche
Geographische Blätter_, x. 280.

_ 417 Panjab Notes and Queries_, iii. No. 530.

418 Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, p. 117 _sq._

419 Bastian, _Die Seele und ihre Erscheinungwesen in der Ethnographie_,
p. 36.

_ 420 Pantschatantra_, Benfey, p. 124 _sqq._

_ 421 Katha Sarit Ságara_, trans. Tawney, i. 21 _sq._

422 E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, iv. 311.

423 A. R. M’Mahon, _The Karens of the Golden Chersonese_, p. 318.

424 F. Mason, “Physical Character of the Karens,” in _Journal of the
Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, pt. ii. p. 28 _sq._

425 C. J. S. F. Forbes, _British Burma_, p. 99 _sq._; Shway Yoe, _The
Burman_, ii. 102; Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, ii.
389.

426 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,
p. 414.

427 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 221 _sq._

428 N. Ph. Wilken en J. A. Schwarz, “Het heidendom en de Islam in
Bolaang Mongondou,” in _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche
Zendelinggenootschap_, 1867, xi. 263 _sq._

429 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_, p. 57 _sq._

430 W. W. Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 171 _sq._

431 G. A. Wilken, “Het animisme,” in _De Indische Gids_, June 1884, p.
937.

432 Landes, “Contes et légendes annamites,” No. 76 in _Cochinchine
Française, Excursions et Reconnaissances_, No. 23, p. 80.

433 Perelaer, _Ethnographische Beschrijving der Dajaks_, p. 26 _sq._

434 Fr. Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indien_, iii. 13 _sq._

435 Van Schmidt, “Aanteekeningen, nopens de zeden, gewoonten en
gebruiken, benevens de vooroordeelen en bijgelovigheden der
bevolking van de eilanden Saparoea, Haroekoe, Noessa Laut, en van
een gedeelte van de zuidkust van Ceram,” in _Tijdschrift voor
Neêrland’s Indie_, 1843, dl. ii. 511 _sqq._

436 Bastian, _Die Seele_, p. 36 _sq._; J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch
Sibirien_, ii. 359 _sq._

437 P. N. Wilken, “Bijdragen tot de kennis van de zeden en gewoonten der
Alfoeren in de Minahassa,” in _Mededeelingen van wege het
Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, 1863, vii. 146 _sq._ Why the
priest, after restoring the soul, tells it to go away again, is not
clear.

438 Riedel, “De Minahassa in 1825,” in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-
Land- en Volkenkunde_, xviii. 523.

439 N. Graafland, _De Minahassa_, i. 327 _sq._

440 G. Turner, _Samoa_, p. 142 _sq._

441 J. B. Neumann, “Het Pane en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland
Sumatra,” in _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig
Genootschap_, ii. de Serie, dl. iii., Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide
artikelen, No. 2 (1886), p. 302.

442 Codrington, “Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,” in
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, x. 281.

443 Horatio Hale, _U.S. Exploring Expedition, Ethnography and
Philology_, p. 208 _sq._ Cp. Wilkes, _Narrative of the U.S.
Exploring Expedition_ (London, 1845), iv. 448 _sq._

444 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,
p. 77 _sq._

_ 445 Ib._ p. 356 _sq._

446 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 376.

447 Spenser St. John, _Life in the Forests of the Far East_, i. 189.
Sometimes the souls resemble cotton seeds (_ib._) Cp. _id._ i. 183.

448 Nieuwenhuisen en Rosenberg, “Verslag omtrent het Eiland Nias,” in
_Verhandel. van het Batav. Genootsch. van Kunsten en Wetenschappen_,
xxx. 116; Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_, p. 174.

449 Williams, _Fiji and the Fijians_, i. 250.

450 Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 171; _id._, _Life
in the Southern Isles_, p. 181 _sqq._

451 L. J. B. Bérenger-Féraud, _Les Peuplades de la Sénégambie_ (Paris,
1879), p. 277.

452 W. H. Bentley, _Life on the Congo_ (London, 1887), p. 71.

453 Bastian, _Allerlei aus Volks-und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i.
119.

_ 454 Relations des Jésuites_, 1637, p. 50.

455 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,
p. 78 _sq._

456 E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” in _Journal of the American Oriental
Society_, iv. 307.

457 J. B. McCullagh in _The Church Missionary Gleaner_, xiv. No. 164
(August 1887), p. 91. The same account is copied from the “North
Star” (Sitka, Alaska, December 1888), in _Journal of American
Folk-lore_, ii. 74 _sq._ Mr. McCullagh’s account (which is closely
followed in the text) of the latter part of the custom is not quite
clear. It would seem that failing to find the soul in the
head-doctor’s box it occurs to them that he may have swallowed it,
as the other doctors were at first supposed to have done. With a
view of testing this hypothesis they hold him up by the heels to
empty out the soul; and as the water with which his head is washed
may possibly contain the missing soul, it is poured on the patient’s
head to restore the soul to him. We have already seen that the
recovered soul is often conveyed into the sick person’s head.

458 Riedel, _De Topantunuasu of oorspronkelijke volksstammen van Central
Selebes_ (overgedrukt uit de _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en
Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië_, 5e volgr. i.), p. 17; Neumann,
“Het Pane en Bila-stroomgebied,” in _Tijdschrift van het
Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap_, ii. de Serie, dl. iii.,
Afdeeling: meer uitgebreide artikelen, No. 2 (1886), p. 300 _sq._;
Priklonski, “Die Jakuten,” in Bastian’s _Allerlei aus Volks-und
Menschenkunde_, ii. 218 _sq._; Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen
Asien_, ii. 388, iii. 236; _id._, _Völkerstämme am Brahmaputra_, p.
23; _id._, “Hügelstämme Assam’s,” in _Verhandlungen d. Berlin.
Gesell. f. Anthropol. Ethnol. und Urgeschichte_, 1881, p. 156; Shway
Yoe, _The Burman_, i. 283 _sq._, ii. 101 _sq._; Sproat, _Scenes and
Studies of Savage Life_, p. 214; Doolittle, _Social Life of the
Chinese_, p. 110 _sq._ (ed. Paxton Hood); T. Williams, _Fiji and the
Fijians_, i. 242; E. B. Cross, “On the Karens,” in _Journal of the
American Oriental Society_, iv. 309 _sq._; A. W. Howitt, “On some
Australian Beliefs,” in _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ xiii. 187 _sq._;
_id._, “On Australian Medicine Men,” in _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ xvi.
41; E. P. Houghton, “On the Land Dayaks of Upper Sarawak,” in
_Memoirs of the Anthropological Society of London_, iii. 196 _sq._;
L. Dahle, “Sikidy and Vintana,” in _Antananarivo Annual and
Madagascar Annual_, xi. (1887) p. 320 _sq._; C. Leemius, _De
Lapponibus Finmarchiae eorumque lingua, vita et religione pristina
commentatio_ (Copenhagen, 1767), p. 416 _sq._ Some time ago my
friend Professor W. Robertson Smith suggested to me that the
practice of hunting souls, which is denounced in Ezekiel xiii. 17
_sqq._ must have been akin to those described in the text.

459 Riedel, _De sluik-en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes en Papua_,
p. 440.

460 Bastian, _Die Völker des östlichen Asien_, v. 455.

461 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 340.

462 Codrington, “Religious Beliefs and Practices in Melanesia,” in
_Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ x. 281.

463 Riedel, _op. cit._ p. 61.

464 Gill, _Myths and Songs of the South Pacific_, p. 284 _sqq._